MANA 4353 Test 3

Technology Facilitates Collaboration

Digital collaboration refers to the use of technology to enhance employees' abilities to work together regardless of geographic proximity. Digital collaboration can be either synchronous or asynchronous. • Synchronous communication refers to trainers, experts, and learners interacting with each other live and in real time akin to face-to-face classroom instruction. • Asynchronous communication refers to non-real time interactions. Learners can access information resources when they desire them.

Which of the following was cited as an advantage of the use of video in training?

D. None of the above

HANDS-ON METHODS

Hands-on methods are those that require the trainee to be actively involved in the learning process.

No single training method is inherently superior to other methods in all respects.

true

Instruction that is provided in real time is said to be asynchronous.

False

Effective modeling displays present models engaging in both positive and negative use of key behaviors - i.e., it shows the models portraying both correct and incorrect behaviors.

True

Case study is inappropriate for developing higher-order intellectual skills such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

False

Social contextual learning consists of formal training activities that are 'context-free' and designed as part of a training program; they are also delivered through formal training methods (e.g., instructor-led classroom instruction).

False

According to the course materials, online learning is generally better than traditional classroom instruction for longer courses.

True

According to the course materials, virtual worlds include a simulated three-dimensional representation of the real world where learning programs can be used.

True

On-the-job training is considered informal because it does not occur as part of a training program (e.g., it would not occur in a classroom learning situation).

True

The development costs for technology-based training programs are generally higher than their administrative costs.

True

Case Studies

A case study is a description about how employees or an organization dealt with a difficult situation. Trainees are required to analyze and critique the actions taken, indicate the appropriate actions, and suggest what might have been done differently. This approach assumes that individuals learn through a process of discovery. Cases are usually appropriate for developing higher-order intellectual skills such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation, which are needed by managers, physicians and many other professionals. Advantages Cases are useful for developing intellectual skills, as noted above, and they are good for engaging learners. Disadvantages Learners must be highly motivated and have a degree of expertise. Thus, cases may be not appropriate for all learners. Existing cases have the advantage of being already prepared, but may not actually relate to the specific company or work situation. Trainees' recommendations are merely hypothetical; it is unknown how they would actually transfer skills.

Simulations

A simulation is a training method that represents a real-life situation with trainees' decisions resulting in outcomes that mirror what would happen if they were on the job. A common example is a flight simulation for pilots. A key aspect of simulation is the degree to which they are similar to the equipment and situations a trainee will require on the job. Good simulations incorporate a high degree of identical elements. Advantages Simulations allow for highly realistic hands-on practice, and they allow trainees to make mistakes and learn from them without fear of negative repercussions. Disadvantages Simulations can be expensive to develop. Further, it may be difficult to fully incorporate identical elements.

Which of the following is a hands on training method?

A. OJT

Action Learning

Action learning gives teams an actual problem, has them work on solving it, commit to an action plan, and holds them accountable. Companies use action learning to solve important problems, develop leaders, build high performance work teams, and transform organizational culture. Several types of problems are typically addressed, including how to change the business, better use technology, enhance customer service, and develop global leaders. Action learning typically involves teams of six to thirty employees. Six Sigma and Kaizen training programs involve principles of action learning. Six Sigma is a data-driven approach and methodology for eliminating defects in any process, from manufacturing to transactional and from product to service. Kaizen, the Japanese word for improvement, is one of the underlying principles of lean manufacturing and total quality management. Kaizen refers to practices participated in by employees from all levels of the company that focus on continuous improvement. Learners attend training over a period of many weeks, complete application assignments, and apply what they've learned on the job. Trainees focus on specific work-related projects. Once trained, employees can train other employees and give advice and recommendations to management. Advantages Action learning is highly interactive and potentially very engaging. It is also highly effective in developing the target skills and promoting transfer. Disadvantages Action learning requires trainees with a high level of skill and ability. This is not necessarily a bad thing, but requires carefully attention being paid to those who are involved.

Lecture A lecture is the method of training delivery involving a trainer verbally communicating material. Communication is primarily one-way. Instructor-led classroom instruction remains a popular training method despite new technologies. There are different variations of the lecture: •Standard lecture: trainer talks while trainees listen •Team teaching: two or more trainers present different topics or alternative views of information •Guest speakers: speakers visit a session for a predetermined time •Panel: two or more speakers present information and ask questions •Student presentations: groups of trainees present topics to the class

Advantages Lecture is relatively inexpensive, and it is an efficient way to cover a large amount of information to a large group. Lecture is also useful when the instructor is the main knowledge holder. A lecture can also demonstrate a subject matter expert's enthusiasm for a topic. Disadvantages Disadvantages of lectures include the lack of trainee involvement, lack of feedback, and the potentially weak connection to the work environment. It is also difficult to judge learners' levels of understanding. Thus, lecture is often supplemented with more participative methods.

Adventure Learning

Adventure learning is a training delivery method aimed at developing teamwork, leadership skills, self-awareness, problem solving, and conflict management skills. The activities range from highly strenuous and challenging ones, such as dog sledding or mountain climbing, to less physically challenging ones, such as rope courses, trust falls, and simulated high-level activities. To be successful, adventure learning exercises must be related to a specific learning objective. After exercises, the facilitator should lead a discussion about what was learned, how events in the exercise relate to the job situation, and how to apply what was learned on the job. Advantages Adventure learning provides an opportunity for trainees to interact and build relationships with coworkers in a more informal situation. The exercises can serve as "metaphors" for organizational events and individual behavior. The exercises can be self-enlightening, invigorating, and self-esteem enhancing. Disadvantages Because adventure learning may be physically demanding and risky, the company may open itself up to negligence claims due to personal injury or emotional distress. These activities are often costly, and not all trainees may be motivated to participate. Adventure learning may not result in high levels of transfer.

Apprenticeship

An apprenticeship is work-study type training involving both on-the-job and classroom training. Apprenticeships are typically sponsored either by a company or by a trade union. The typical length of an apprenticeship is four years, but they can range from two to six years. Apprenticeships are most common for positions in the skilled trades, such as for an electrician, carpenter, and plumber. To qualify as a registered apprenticeship under state or federal guidelines, the apprenticeship must involve at least 144 hours of classroom instruction and a certain number of hours, which depend on the state. Once training is complete, apprentices are called journey workers, and they earn certification from the U.S. Department of Labor or a state apprenticeship agency. Advantages There are benefits for the learner and the company. Learners earn pay while they learn, and their wages increase as their skills improve. Learners often receive a competitive job offer from the company upon completion of the apprenticeship. From the company's perspective, apprenticeships meet specific business training needs and help attract talented employees. The trainees tend to be highly skilled and exhibit high levels of motivation and loyalty. Disadvantages The disadvantages of apprenticeships include the development costs and the time commitment that management and learners have to make. There is a somewhat narrow skill focus in current apprenticeships (i.e., one craft or trade), which may be somewhat limiting. From a diversity perspective, these programs have historically restricted access to women and minorities.

Table 7.2 lists principles to structure and enhance OJT. Some of these principles include: •Effectively prepare for instruction by breaking tasks down into important steps •Prepare the necessary resources and support prior to training •Show trainees how to perform the task and explain key points •Have the trainee practice small parts and then the entire task •Provide praise and constructive feedback •Have the trainee practice until accurate reproduction is achieved •Provide support materials to facilitate transfer •Evaluate the OJT

An effective OJT program includes: •A policy statement describing the purpose of OJT, emphasizing the company's support •A clear specification of who is accountable for conducting OJT. If managers conduct OJT, this is mentioned in their job descriptions and is part of their performance evaluations. •A thorough review of OJT at similar companies. •Training of managers and peers in the principles of structured OJT. •Availability of lesson plans, checklists, manuals, learning contracts, and progress report forms •Evaluation of employees' levels of basic skills (reading, computation, writing) before OJT.

Audiovisual Techniques

Audiovisual instruction includes overheads, slides, and video. Video is one of the most popular training methods, but is rarely used alone. Video can be highly effective for illustrating communication skills, interviewing skills, customer-service skills, and step-by-step procedures. Video is also useful for giving real-life examples of material covered via lecture or other methods. Advantages Video can demonstrate content that cannot be easily demonstrated live, provides consistency in training from session to session, and serves as a useful complement to other training methods. Disadvantages Most problems with video result from the creative approach used. Disadvantages include too much content for trainees to absorb, poor dialogue or poor acting, and overuse of music and humor. Videos may also become obsolete, limiting their credibility. Given that video is passive, it should be used in conjunction with more active learning methods.

Behavior Modeling

Behavior modeling is a hands-on method that involves presenting to trainees a model, highlighting the key behaviors and aspects of the model, allowing trainees to practice, and then providing feedback. Behavior modeling is based on social learning theory. Social learning theory emphasizes that individuals learn by observing models of behavior, emulating such behavior, and then receiving reinforcement and rewards. Learning new skills results from directly experiencing the consequences of using a skill, as well as observing others and seeing the consequences of their behavior. Behavior modeling is appropriate for learning skills and behaviors and is very effective for teaching interpersonal skills. Developing behavior modeling training involves determining what tasks need to be addressed and what key behaviors are necessary to complete the task. A key behavior is one of a set of behaviors that is needed to perform a task. Key behaviors for interpersonal skills are not exact behaviors, but rather general behaviors that are useful across situations. Effective modeling displays include: • clear presentation of the key behaviors • a model that is credible to trainees • an overview of the key behaviors • repetition of each key behavior • a review of the key behaviors • models using the key behaviors both correctly and incorrectly The most effective practice sessions allow trainees to practice key behaviors multiple times risk-free with other trainees who understand the company and the job. The trainer and peers should provide feedback. Practice sessions may also be videotaped to allow trainees to observe themselves. Advantages Behavior modeling involves hands-on practice and is highly effective in promoting transfer. Disadvantages Behavioral modeling is potentially time-consuming to implement.

Needs Assessment

Beyond determining the focal skills to be trained, the needs assessment process should determine if the organization has the technological infrastructure to deliver training, provide learning resources, and offer technical support. This process should also determine if trainees possess the skills for online learning. A technical analysis, performed in partnership with the IT department, should focus on identifying minimum computing requirements (bandwidth, memory, hard drive space, software, processing speed).

Business Games

Business games require trainees to actively gather information, analyze, and make decisions, typically for the purpose of developing managerial skills. Games are primarily used for management skill development. Games stimulate learning because participants are actively involved and because games mimic the competitive nature of business. Games are also used for developing job-specific skills, such as patient triage and aircraft repair. Typical games share several characteristics: • The game involves a contest either among trainees, among teams of trainees, or against an established criterion such as time or quantity. • The game is designed to demonstrate an understanding and application of a knowledge, skill, or behavior. • Several alternative courses of action are available to trainees, and trainees can estimate the consequences of each alternative, but only with some uncertainty. • Trainees do not know for certain what the consequences of their actions will be because the consequences are partially based on the decisions of other participants. • Rules limit participant behavior. To ensure learning and transfer of training, games used in training should be simple enough that trainees can play them in a short period of time. The best games generate excitement among the participants and interest in the game. Meaningfulness of the game is enhanced if it is realistic and if content is relevant to the job. Advantages Games are similar to simulations they can be used for training that would otherwise involve risk of accident or would be too costly. Games actively involve learners. Disadvantages Games can be difficult to develop, and they may not always to be realistic. Trainees must be highly motivated.

Which of the following was not cited as a variation of the lecture method for training?

C. Lecture Cycles

Computer-based training is also referred to as:

D. all of the above

Which of the following was shown as the most frequently used training method?

D. instructor-led classroom training

Apprenticeships provide guarantee that jobs will be available to the trainee when the program is completed.

False

GROUP BUILDING METHODS

Group building methods are those designed to improve work team or group effectiveness. These methods involve trainees sharing ideas and experiences, building group identity, generating an understanding of interpersonal dynamics, and getting to know the strengths and weaknesses of themselves and their teammates. Group building methods often involve experiential learning. Experiential learning training programs have four stages: • graining conceptual knowledge and theory • taking part in a behavioral simulation • analyzing the activity • connecting theory and the activity with on-the-job or real-life situations

On-the-job Training

On-the-job training (OJT) involves new or inexperienced employees learning by observing their peers or managers at work and trying to emulate their behaviors. OJT is considered informal because it does not necessarily occur as part of a training program and because managers, peers, or mentors serve as trainers. OJT can be useful for training newly hired or promoted employees, upgrading experienced employees' skills when new technology is introduced, and cross-training employees. Advantages OJT requires less time and cost. It can be customized to the specific needs of an employee, and training is immediately applicable because OJT occurs on the job using actual tools and equipment. OJT can be offered at any time, and trainers are readily available because they are peers or managers. Because OJT focuses on actual job content, transfer is maximized. Disadvantages OJT is typically unstructured and may be inconsistent. Bad habits may be passed on. Therefore, OJT should be structured to be most effective.

Learner Control

One of the great benefits of online learning is greater learner control. Learner control refers to giving trainees the option to learn though self-pacing, exercises, exploring links to other material, and conversations with other trainees and experts. Research provides several recommendations for maximizing the benefits of learner control: • Programs should not allow trainees to control the amount of feedback they receive. Trainees may rely too much on feedback, which may reduce long-term retention. • Programs should offer practice on each topic repeatedly throughout the program to ensure retention. • Programs should provide practice using different high fidelity examples to help transfer. • Trainees should be allowed to control the sequence in which they receive instruction but not be able to skip practice. • Programs should prompt self-regulation, prompting trainees to recall key points, reflect, and set goals.

Role Plays

Role plays are a training method that requires the trainees take on a role such as a manager, client, or disgruntled employee, and explore what is involved in the role. Role plays are usually included in training programs focused on the development of interpersonal skills. Advantages Role plays allow trainees to practice skills and be engaged. Disadvantages Trainees may not always take role playing seriously. Role playing scenarios may not always be realistic. Role plays need to be structured to be most effective. • Provide background on the context and purpose of the role play. • Provide a script with sufficient detail for the trainees to follow. • Arrange the room so other trainees can see the role players. • Provide observation sheets and checklists that highlight the key issues of the role play. • Provide sufficient time to debrief and provide feedback. Application planning is the process for preparing trainees to transfer the key behaviors back to the job. It involves the trainee preparing a written document specifying situations in which they should use the key behaviors.

CHOOSING A TRAINING METHOD

Selecting the most appropriate training methods is not necessarily straightforward. A variety of considerations should be taken into account. Such considerations include: • The learning outcome, which the most important consideration • The learning environment • Transfer of training considerations • Cost • Overall effectiveness The following trends can be noted from the matrix for choosing training methods: • There is considerable overlap between learning outcomes across the various training methods. • Most of the hands-on methods provide a better environment for learning and transfer than the presentation methods, which are more passive. • The presentation methods are less expensive than hands-on methods. If possible, trainers should use several different methods within a single training program to capitalize on the different strengths of each method for facilitating learning and transfer.

Self-Directed Learning

Self-directed learning places complete responsibility for learning on the learner, including when the learning will take place and with whom. Training content is pre-determined, but trainees can learn the content at their own pace and in their own way. A trainer should be available to answer questions and facilitate the learning process as needed. Advantages The advantages of self-directed learning include the flexibility for trainees to learn at their own pace. Self-directed learning requires fewer trainers, facilities, and travel resources. It provides for consistent training content that captures the knowledge of experts and constant access to training materials. It makes multiple-site training more realistic. Disadvantages The most significant potential disadvantage of self-directed training is that it may place too much responsibility on learners themselves. Individuals must be willing, able, and motivated to learn on their own. This level of responsibility may not be comfortable for many employees. It also tends to have higher development costs in terms of time and money. Several steps are necessary to develop effective self-directed learning: • Conduct a job analysis to identify the tasks that need to be covered. • Write trainee-centered learning objectives related to the tasks that indicate what information is important, what actions the trainee should take, and what the trainee should master. • Develop the content for a learning packet based on the learning objectives. • Break content into smaller pieces or chunks; each chunk beginning with the objectives that will be covered, involving an opportunity to practice, and a means for trainees to evaluate learning. • Develop an evaluation package, including means of evaluating oneself and the learning package. Questions should be developed that address whether trainees have met the objectives and whether the material was user friendly, up-to-date, and appropriate for the objectives. Self-directed learning is likely to become more common as companies seek to train staff flexibly, take advantage of technology, and wish for employees to be more proactive in their learning.

Team Training

Team training refers to training that is designed to improve team effectiveness. There are three key aspects of team performance—behavior, knowledge, and attitudes—that are the focus of team training. • Behavior—teams must perform actions that allow them to communicate, coordinate, adapt, and complete complex tasks • Knowledge—teams must have "mental models" or memory structures that allow them to function effectively • Attitudes—effective teams require that members have favorable attitudes toward each other There are five primary strategies for team training: • Cross-training—developing understanding among team members of each other's tasks and skills so that each member could perform the work of others • Coordination training—involves training the team how to share information and make decisions • Team leader training—training for the team manager or facilitator, which may involve how to resolve conflict and how to help the team coordinate activities and resources • Scenario-based training—training that places team members in a realistic context while learning • Guided team self-correction—training that emphasizes continuous learning and knowledge sharing Advantages When properly designed, team training generally results in more effective teams. Disadvantages Effective team training is potentially costly and time-consuming.

DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE ONLINE LEARNING

The ADDIE model should be used in designing online learning. However, the emphasis at each stage may be different. In particular, greater emphasis should be paid to needs assessment, creating a positive online learning experience, learner control, and providing time and space for learning.

Create a Positive Online Learning Experience

The characteristics of a positive learning experience (e.g., practice, feedback, and interaction), discussed in Chapter Five, should be included to create a meaningful learning experience. However, translating these elements to an online experience may be challenging. Rapid prototyping could be used for designing an online program. Rapid prototyping refers to an iterative process in which initial design ideas are proposed and provided in rough form in an online working prototype. This prototype is then reviewed and refined by design team members. Trainers should avoid repurposing. Repurposing refers to directly translating an instructor-led face-to-face program to an online format. Repurposing will likely result in ineffective training. The best online learning experiences combine the advantages of the internet with the principles of a good learning environment. Principles for creating a positive learning experience include: • Including visuals and words with instruction • Aligning text with visuals • Explaining complex visuals with audio or text, rather than by both • Omitting extraneous visuals, words, and sounds • Socially engaging learners through conversational language agents • Explaining key concepts prior to full instruction • Providing prompts that encourage self-regulation • Providing content in short sequences over which learners have control • Connecting modules in a way that engages learners • Providing activities and exercises that parallel the work environment • Distributing exercises within and among modules • Providing explanations to responses on quizzes and exercises

Figure 7.1 shows a learning system with four quadrants. The framework crosses two dimensions. The first dimension is competency vs. context based learning. Competency based learning occurs when the company has defined a set of broad competencies for positions or for the whole company. Context based learning is unique to employees specific needs. The second dimension relates to whether learning is guided (created and guided by the company) vs. social (created and guided by user).

•Guided competency learning—well defined competencies trained via lecture and online methods •Social competency learning—well defined competencies learned via mentoring, job experiences, and coaching •Guided contextual learning: context dependent knowledge and skills trained via simulation, on-the-job training, behavior modeling, and experiential learning •Social contextual learning: context dependent knowledge and skills learned via social media and informal interactions through others