Management Quiz

cognitive bias

*mental shortcuts* involving simplified ways of thinking

The right things include the following

-*creating and communicating a vision* of what the organization should be -*communicating with* and *gaining the support* of multiple constituencies -persisting in the *desired direction* even under bad conditions -creating the *appropriate culture and obtaining the desired results*.

Traits that are associated with leadership

-drive -leadership motivation -integrity -self-confidence -cognitive ability -knowledge of the domain Don't listen in school computer knowledge

Specific situations in which the intuition style may prove valuable include the following

-when a high level of ambiguity exists -when few or no precedents exit -when facts are limited -when facts do not clearly indicate which way to go -when time is limited and there is pressure to make the right decision -when several plausible alternative solutions exist with good arguments for each

Steps to effective listening

1. stop talking 2. pay attention 3. listen empathetically 4. hear before evaluating 5. listen to the whole message 6. send feedback

7 Order of communication richness

1.*face-to-face* communication 2. *video conferencing* (Skyping) 3. *Phone* or *radio* communication 4. *Electronic messaging* (email/instant messaging) 5. *Personal* written text(letters, notes, memos) 6. *Formal* written text(reports, documents, bulletins and notices) 7. Formal *numerical text*(statistical reports, graphs and computer printouts)

transformational leaders do the following

1.they increase *followers' awareness of the importance of pursuing a vision or mission and the strategy required* 2.they encourage followers to place the *interests of the unit,organization, or larger collective before their own personal interests* 3.They raise followers' *aspirations* so that they continuously try to develop and improve themselves while striving for highest levels of accomplishment.

Reasons people make satisfying decisions instead of optimal

1.we do not have the capability to collect and process all of the information relevant for a particular decision. Managers lack the time and other resources required to complete these activities for most decisions. 2.We often display a tendency to choose the first satisfactory alternative discovered.

sunk cost bias

A cognitive bias in which *past investments of time, effort, and/or money are heavily weighted in deciding on continued investment.*

confirmation bias

A cognitive bias in which information *confirms early beliefs and ideas is sought while potentially disconfirming information is not sought.*

intuition style

A decision style focused on *developing abstractions and figurative examples* for use in decision making, with an emphasis on imagination and possibilities.

sensing

A decision style focused on *gathering concrete information directly through the senses*, with an emphasis on *practical!!!!1 and realistic!! ideas*.

Poor listening skills

A frequent problem in communication rests not with the sender but with the receiver. The *receiver must listen in order to hear and understand the sender's message, just as the sender must listen to feedback from the receiver.* -Manager's spend more than 50 percent of their time in verbal communication and researchers estimate they spend 85% of this time talking.

transformational leadership

A leadership approach that involves *motivating followers to do more than expected, to continuously develop and grow, to increase self-confidence, and to place the interests of the unit or organization before their own.* Transformational leadership involves charisma, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration.

groupthink

A situation in which group members *maintain or seek consensus* at the expense of identifying and debating honest disagreements.

Communication audit

An analysis of an organization's internal and external communication *designed to assess communication practices and capabilities and to determine needs.*

1.directive leadership

Behavior is characterized by *implementing guidelines, providing information on what is expected, setting definite performance standards, and ensuring that individuals follow the rules*

2.supportive leadership

Behavior is characterized by being friendly and showing *concern for well-being, welfare, and needs*

formal communication

Communication that follows the *formal structure of the organization* (e.g., superior to subordinate) and entails organizationally sanctioned information. A major drawback of this communication is that it can be slow

Warren Bennis

Effective leaders are concerned with *"doing the right things" rather than "doing things right"*

above reference point

If his current position is above the reference point, he is less likely to take Riss.

Basic steps in decision making

First step is to define the problem last step is to implement and follow.

Below reference point

If a particular individual's current position is an ongoing activity is *below his reference point*, he is *more likely to take a risk in an attempt to move above the reference point*.

A communication *breakdown* can occur in any part of the process

Information must be encoded into a message that can be understood as the sender indented. *Some forms of media may not be as effective as others in communicating the meaning of a particular message*. Some communication media are richer than others-they provide more information. :)-indicate intent. If the message had been spoken, the humorous intent could have been indicated by the sender's tone of voice or facial expression

How do these people see themselves

People who prefer this style of gathering information see themselves as practical and realistic. They work steadily in the early stages of the decision process and *enjoy the information-gathering stage.* Such persons observe the actual situation very carefully; specific details, concrete example, real experiences, practicalities and literal statements. They are down to earth people who believe that creativity involves much effort.

communication medium, or communication channel

The encoded message is then sent through a communication medium, or communication channel, to the intended receiver. *Communication media are numerous and include writing in hard copy, texting, face to face verbal exchanges, verbal exchanges without face-to-face and email.*

Communication

The sharing of information between two or more individuals or groups to reach a common understanding about an object or situation.

Communication process

The starting point in the communication process is the *sender*-the person who wishes to communicate a message. To convey information, the sender must first encode it. Encoding involves *translating information into a message or a signal.*

Leaders can do many things to provide direction and to influence people

These activities include *providing information, resolving conflicts, motivating followers, anticipating problems, developing mutual respect among group members, and coordinating group activities and efforts.*

Difficulties

Upward communication seems to be particularly in larger organizations probably because relationships in *large organizations are more complex and formalized.*

ease of recall bias

a cognitive bias in which information that is easy to recall from memory is relied on too much in making a decision

anchoring bias

a cognitive bias in which the first *piece of information that is encountered about a situation is emphasized too much in making a decision*

thinking

a decision style focused on objective evaluation and systematic analysis. People who use this style are concerned with *principles, laws, and objective criteria.* -They find it easy to critique the work and behavior of others but are often uncomfortable dealing with people's feelings.Thinkers prefer objective analysis and fair decisions based on standards and policies. They are able to discipline and reprimand people, even fire then, if necessary. -They are firm and may seem detached and impersonal to subordinates. Their apparently detached nature is likely due to the organized and structured approach they prefer. Seldom leap to a conclusion without fully evaluating a substantial number of alternatives. They are often conservative in their decisions.

Feeling style

a decision style focused on subjective *evaluation and the emotional reactions of others* People concerned with feelings emphasize the maintenance of harmony in the workplace. -Their judgements are influenced by their own or others' personal likes and dislikes. Persons are subjective, sympathetic, and appreciative in their decisions. -They also dislike decision problems that would require them to say unpleasant things to people. -Managers who use a feeling approach frequently *give more weight to maintaining a friendly climate in the work group rather than to effective task achievement*.

What is a reference point

a possible *level of performance* used to *evaluate one's current standing*. A reference point can be a goal, a minimum acceptable level of performance, or perhaps the average performance level of others and it is used to judge one's current standing.

risky shift

a process by which *group members collectively make a more risky choice* than most or all of the individuals would have made working alone

brainstorming

a process in which a *large number of ideas are generated* while evaluation of the ideas is suspended

path goal leadership theory

a theory of leadership based on expectancy concepts from the study of motivation, which suggests that *leader effectiveness depends on the degree to which a leader enhances the performance expectancies and valences of her subordinates* -leadership can affect employees expectancies and valences in several ways 1. facilitating employees' efforts to *achieve task goals* 2.trying *extrinsic rewards* 3.linking individuals to take for which goal attainment is personally valuable (valence)

Personal space

all of us have a personal space surrounding our bodies. When someone enters that space, we feel uncomfortable. -*The size of the personal space differs somewhat among individuals; it also differs by gender and across cultures*

3 achievement-oriented leadership

behavior is characterized by *setting challenging goals* and *seeking to improve performance*

4.participative leadership

behavior is characterized by *sharing information, consulting with those who are led, and emphasizing group decision making*

Status differences

can result from *dissimilarities in titles, offices, support resources, and even informal power.* Status differences can lead to problems of *source credibility* and can create problems that *block upward communication*. -Subordinates are *reluctant to express an opinion* that is different from their managers' because of either time pressures or arrogance. Managers may *not be open to feedback* or other forms of upward communication.

4 Biases

cognitive biases, confirmation bias, anchoring bias , sunk cost bias

Information distortion

common for *information to be distorted either intentionally or unintentionally*

cross cultural barriiers

communication problems cause many *expatriate managers to fail in their international assignments*, leading to the *removal of the manager* the failure of the international venture.

What are the communication system effects

communication systems in organizations affect numerous outcomes that are central to an organization's functioning and competitive advantage. These *include productivity, quality services and products, reduced costs, safety, creativity, job satisfaction, absenteeism and turnover.*

informal communication

communication that involves spontaneous interaction between *two or more people outside the formal organization structure* For example, communication between peers on their coffee break

nonverbal communication

communication that takes place *without using spoken or written language*, such as communication through facial expressions and body language -is as important or even more important

charisma

defined by the *effect it has on followers*. These leaders inspire their followers to *change their needs and values*, follow *visionary quests*, and *sacrifice their own personal interest for the good of the cause.*

Individuals to individual barriers

differing perceptions, semantic differences, status differences, consideration of self interest, poor listening skills

the main types of leader behavior are as follows

directive leadership, supportive leadership, achievement oriented leadership, participative leaders

Overcoming Communication Barriers

encourage proactive individual actions, know your audience, select an appropriate communication medium, regulate information *flow and timing, encourage feedback related to understanding, listen actively*

rumors

entail *unsubstantiated information of universal interest*. People often create and communicate test to deal with uncertainty. They prevalent during times of organizational upheaval, particularly during merges and acquisitions. -to avoid rumors in the workplace, managers are advised to provide honest, open, and clear information in times of uncertainty

upward communication

flows from associates to junior manager and *from junior managers to senior managers*, is necessary to provide feedback on downward communication and to provide ideas and information. It can be difficult to achieve in an effective way. Less frequently used forms of communication in organizations. Common channels for upward communication include departmental meetings, *"open-door" policies, suggestion boxes, attitude surveys, participation in decisions, grievance procedures , and exit interviews.*

group decisions making pitfalls examples

groupthink, common information bias, diversity-based infighting and the risky shift.

Organizational behaviors

information overload, information distortion, specialty area jargon,time pressures, cross cultural barriers and breakdowns in the communication network.

gossip

information that is presumed to be factual and is communicated in private or intimate settings

Consideration of self interest

it not uncommon for *firms to request information from managers* about their unit's performance. Data such as *forecasts of future activity,performance standards and recommendations on capital budgets are often used in determining the manager'c compensation.*

information overload

managers and associates are frequently *burdened with more information than they can process.*

1.differing perceptions

one of the common communication problems occurs when the *sender has one perception of a message and the receiver has another.* Differing perceptions are caused by differing frames of reference. Our expectations or frames of reference can influence how we recall and interpret information

specialty area jargon

one problem in large, complex organizations concerns the *proliferation of specialists*. Specialists are highly knowledgeable within their own fields but often have limited understanding of other fields

Sensing

practical and realistic!!!

downward communication

refers to communication from *senior managers to junior managers and from junior managers to associates*. Necessary to provide job instructions, information on organization policies, and performance feedback. It can also be used to inform *those at lower levels about the organization's goals and about changes faced by the organization.* Communication that flows from superior to subordinate.

Interpersonal communication can be based on many different media, and different media vary in degree of richness.

richness-*the amount of information a medium can convey*. Richness depends on 1.the potential for immediate *feedback* 2. the use of multiple *cues* 3. the use of *natural language* (as opposed to numbers) 4. the text to which the communication has a personal focus. doesn't have to be all of them could be any one of them.

satisfying decisioins

satisfactory rather than optimal decisions. -complete knowledge would allow us to choose the best possible alternative, but it is unlikely that we actually would have complete knowledge for any real world decisions.

Semantic differences

semantic refers to the *meaning people attach to symbols such as words and gesturers*. Same words may have different meaning to different people, semantic differences can create communication problems. -The word profit has a positive connotation to most professionals in business, but for others it has a negative connotation as they interpret it to mean "rip off" or "exploitation"

path goal theory implies

that *leaders might need to treat individuals differently within the same unit or organization*. If individuals in a unit are different, then leaders can benefit from approaching them in different ways

grapevine

the *informal system frequently emerges* as an important source of communication for organization members. *Managers must recognize it and be sensitive to communication* that travels through informal channels. Managers may find that the informal system *enables them to reach more members than the formal one*. Another benefit of informal communication is that it can help build solidarity and friendship among associates. Managers need to understand informal communication.

leadership

the process of *providing general direction* and *influencing individuals or groups to achieve goals.* -A leader can be formally designated by the organization (formal leader) or can provide leadership without such formal designation(informal leaders)

Decoding

the process whereby a *receiver perceives a send message and interprets its meaning*.

feedback

the process whereby a receiver *encodes* the message received and *sends it or a response to it back to the original sender*.

How do these people with intuition style see themselves

these people become *impatient with routine details and often perceive information in large chunks*-as holistic, integrated abstractions, A decision made using this style is often based on imagination. Intuitive people believe that creativity comes from inspiration rather than concentrated effort.

time pressure

when people are under time pressure they sometimes *do not carefully develop a message before sending it*. The pressure of a deadline often does not allow time to receive feedback, so the sender might not know whether the receiver accurately perceived the message.

Horizontal communication

which takes place *between and among people at the same level*, is also important but is frequently overlooked in the design of of organizations. Coordination among organizational units is facilitated by horizontal communication. The *manufacturing* and *marketing departments* must coordinate and integrate their activities so that goods will be available for sales orders.

Risk taking propensity

willingness to take chances -Two persons with different propensities to take risks may make vastly different decisions when confronted with *identical decision situations and information*