Marriage & Family Midterm 1
Family Ecology Theory
-Explores how a family is influenced by the surrounding environment -The lives of every family are embedded in a nested structure, each nested structure includes events, social policies, social characteristics, and culture-structures that exist outside families and influence them. Each of these various outside influences radiates outward from the family. -The families lives and choices are affected by economic, educational, religious, and cultural institutions as well as historical circumstances ( war, recession, immigration patterns, development of the internet)
Triangular theory of love
-Sternberg's three components necessary to authentic love: 1.Intimacy-close, connected and bonded feelings in a loving relationship 2.Commitment-deciding to love someone but also deciding to maintain that love 3.Passion-drives that lead to romance, physical attraction, sexual consummation
self-identification theory
-aka cognitive development theory -children categorize themselves as male or female, typically by age 3 -they then identify behaviors in their families, in the media, or elsewhere that are appropriate to their sex and adopt these behaviors -children socialize themselves from available cultural materials
4 themes of marriage and family
1. Personal decisions must be made throughout the life course 2. People are influenced by the society around them 3. We live in a society characterized by considerable change, including increased ethnic, economic, and family diversity 4. Personal decision making feeds into society and changes it
four themes that are stated explicitly in the text
1. Personal decisions must be made throughout the life course 2. People are influenced by the society around them 3. We live in a society characterized by considerable change, including increased ethnic, economic, and family diversity 4. Personal decision making feeds into society and changes it
According to the authors, how must all adults exercise sexual responsibility
1. Risk of pregnancy 2. Risk of STIs 3. Communicating with sexual partner 4. Expressing own sexuality
two examples of how individuals influence their society
1.Causing social change by getting involved 2. Living their lives even though they disagree with the values of society
Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA)
1996-2013 defined marriage as only between "one man and one woman" even same-sex couples who were legally married in states that allowed it could not receive federal benefits designated for married couples
family
A family is any sexually expressive, parent-child, or other kin relationship in which people- usually related by ancestry, marriage, or adoption: form an economic or otherwise practical unit and care for any children or other dependents consider their identity to be significantly attached to the group commit to maintaining that group over time
current societal trends that impact the family
According to public opinion polls, 30% of American's reject the trend toward the post modern family while about 30% of Americans do. 2010: poll showed 34% of Americans viewed the expanded family as a good thing (29% saw it as a bad thing) 2012: 59% of Americans see unmarried heterosexual sex as morally acceptable, 38% as morally unacceptable (a change from 2001 when 42% saw it are morally unacceptable) 67% of Americans see divorce as morally acceptable (59% in 2001) 54% of Americans view having a baby outside of marriage as morally acceptable (45% in 2002) Family is viewed as a social institution, which causes individuals to be highly opinionated on changes in the dynamic of the institution.
instrumental character traits
Agentic character traits said to be possessed by men in the expectations of gender differentiation. Includes: strength, confidence, ambition, self-reliance, assertiveness. Traits that enable them to accomplish difficult tasks or goals.
How do individualistic values of American society impact the family
Because American society values individualism so much, it can but pressures on relationships and there is little emphasis on contributing to the family-contributing to the happiness of other family members or postponing personal satisfaction in order to attain family goals.
family values
Communal or collective values. Emphasize the needs, goals, and identity of the group.
internalize cultural attitudes
Cultural images in language and in the media convey gendered expectations, children are born and given gendered names, and are given media such as books, movies, and music videos which convey society's perspective or how a boy or a girl should act. In various ways society encourages people to adhere, often unconsciously to culturally acceptable gender roles.
What is the difference between deciding versus sliding
Deciding is when you make an informed decision, knowing every (or at least most) aspects of the decisions as well as weighing the positives and negatives. Versus sliding is making the decision either due to forced circumstances or outside pressures and the decision is not a conscious, solid decision.
What evidence is there to suggest that homophobia is alive and well in America today
Employers still discriminate against job applicants who appear to be gay.
expressive character traits
Expressive character traits are traits said to be possessed by women in the expectations of gender differentiation. These include warmth, sensitivity, ability to express tender feelings, and placing concern about others' welfare above self-interest.
age expectations
If there is a decline in birth rate, less children may lead to less social policy support for families and may focus more on an increasingly large elderly population that requires care.
patriarchal sexuality
In the 19th century, sexuality was all about reproduction and ensuring that the male genetic line was continued legitimately. Men were seen as having aggressive sexual drive and women were seen as passive.
religion
Many individuals may not be very religious until they get married or have children. Couples who pray together or pray for the well-being of the other have happier marriages and greater commitment to one another.
more women working outside the home
Marriage rates declined and divorce rates increased as women become more financially independent, giving them agency and an individualistic perspective.
naturalistic observation v. case studies
Naturalistic observation allows one to view family behavior as it actually happens in its own natural setting, as opposed to an artificial setting. In a clinician case study, all the information gathered by the clinician is through counseling sessions, and people may present themselves differently. However, in both cases what is actually reported depends upon what the observer views as important.
family-change perspective
Need to view family from a historical standpoint, and need to be seen as historically expected adjustments to changing conditions points out that family changes can be for the better: -longer life expectancy can mean more positive years with parents, grandparents, and great-grandparents -easier access to divorce allows family members alternatives to living with domestic violence
longevity
Positives: more years invested in education, longer marriages, longer parent-child interactions, longer retirements. However, divorce and remarriage may change family relationships in ways that affect the child's willingness to care for their parents.
sexting
Sending or posting sexually suggestive text messages and images
assortive mating
Social psychological filtering process in which individuals gradually narrow down their pool of eligible individuals for long-term committed relationships, removing those who would not make the best spouse or partner
women's movement
The goals of the women's movement began as challenging traditional gender roles and an effort to demand equal opportunity, began supporting reproductive rights and women's sexuality.
According to Masters and Johnson, what contributes to the creation of a pleasure bond between intimate partners?
The more equal gender expectations led to better sex between couples.
purpose of sexual intercourse in early colonial America
The purpose of sex was solely reproductive, descent succession and inheritance passed through the male genetic line was the goal.
racial discrimination
Through race/ethnicity the family's place in culture can affect decisions of whether individuals marry and when, where the family will live, who will work (husband? wife? both?), and how will they handle their aging parents.
When are personal decisions made by default
When the surrounding environment does not offer many opportunities so a personal decision may be made by default because there is not another (or not many) options to decide between.
polygyny
a form of polygamy whereby a man can have multiple wives
race
a social construction reflecting how people view different social groups
How is male dominance described at the social level and the interpersonal level
a. social Giving greater influence and power to men. (more men in politics and science) For male immigrants, male heads of house-hold typically experience a loss in male authority that they had at home. Hispanic men are stereotyped as filling the machismo cultural ideal of extreme masculinity and male dominance. b.interpersonal Man uses his "greater power" over his woman in a heterosexual relationship.
familistic values
aka communal or collective values -emphasize the needs, goals, and identity of the group
functional alternatives
alternate structures that might perform a function traditionally designed for a nuclear family
selection hypothesis
assumes that individuals who choose serial cohabitation are different from those who do not, these differences translate into higher divorce rates
self-concept
basic feelings people have about themselves, their abilities, characteristics, and worth
marriage premise
by getting married, partners accept the responsibility to keep each other primary in their lives and to work hard to ensure that their relationship continues
patriarchal sexuality
characterized by the beliefs, values, attitudes, and behaviors developed to protect the male line of descent -men are to control women's sexuality -exclusive sexual possession of a woman by a man in a monogamous marriage ensures that her children will be legitimately his
family-decline perspective
claim that a cultural change toward excessive individualism and self-indulgence has hurt relationships, led to high divorce rates, and undermines responsible parenting
habituation
decreased interest in sex that results from the increased accessibility of a sexual partner and the predictability in sexual behavior with that partner over time
recession
during a recession, marriage may be put off until the couple can make enough money to support it, and also may put off having children until their jobs and financial situations are more stable.
insecure/anxious attachment style
entails concern that the beloved will disappear "fear of abandonment"
family identity
ideas and feelings about the uniqueness and value of one's family unit
interracial marriages
include unions between partners of the white, black, Asian, or Native American races with a spouse outside their own race.
secure attachment style
involves trust that the relationship will provide ongoing emotional and social support
polyamory
marriages in which one or both spouses retain the option to sexually love others in addition to their spouse
sociological imagination
placing an individual's or family's private troubles within a society-wide context
social class
position in the social hierarchy, such as upper class, middle class, working class, or lower class. Can be viewed in terms of indicators such as education, occupation, and income -experiences shaped by the class in which we reside
experience hypothesis
posits that cohabiting experiences themselves affect individuals so that, once married, they are more likely to divorce
men's movement
pro-feminists: support feminism in its opposition to the patriarchy antifeminists: work to counter or at least complement feminist efforts masculinists: work to develop a positive image of masculinity
socialization
process by which society influences members to internalize attitudes and expectations
social structure
refers to the ways that families are patterned or organized, the form that a family may take
sexual orientation
refers to whether one is attracted to one's own gender or a different gender
expressive sexuality
sexuality is seen as basic to the humanness of both women and men; there is no one-sided sense of ownership -sex is not primarily for reproduction but also an important means of enhancing human intimacy
commune
situation or place characterized by group living
postmodern theory
special focus within interaction-constructionist perspective that analyzes social discourse or narrative (public or private written or verbal statements or stories). The analytic purpose is to demonstrate that a phenomenon is socially constructed.
postmodern family
term used to describe the situation in which 1. families today exhibit multiple forms 2. new or altered family forms continue to emerge or develop
status exchange hypothesis
the argument that an individual might trade his or her socially defined superior racial/ethnic status for the economically or educationally superior status of a partner in a less-privileged racial/ethnic group
sex ratio
the number of men to women in a given society or subgroup
life chances
the opportunities one has for education and work, whether one can afford to marry, the schools that children attend, and a family's health care
role sequencing
the order in which life course transitions take place, important to the Family Development Theory
principal of least interest
the partner with less commitment to the relationship is the one who has more power
borderwork
the process or work of monitoring and maintaining the conceptualized border between appropriately masculine boys and or men and acceptably feminine girls or women
interethnic marriages
unions between Hispanics and others, as well as between different Asian/ Pacific Islander, Hispanic, or black ethnic groups
interfaith marriages
unions outside of their religion
Attachment Theory
- A child's primary caretakers evoke a style of attachment, the three basic styles are secure, insecure/anxious, and avoidant. - Prompts us to look at how personality impacts relationship choices, from initiating to maintaining them. Encourages us to ask what kind of parenting best encourages a secure attachment style.
Interactionist Theory
- Focuses on interactions, the face-to-face encounters and relationships of individuals who act in awareness of one another. Often explores the daily conversation, gestures, and other behaviors that go on in families. - Family identity, traditions, and commitment emerge through interaction, with the development of relationships and the generations of rituals. Explores family role making, in which partners adapt culturally understood roles and examines how family members interact with the outside world in order to manage family identity. Explores ways that people, by interacting with one another, construct meaning, symbols, and definitions of events or situations. As people externalize meanings, the meanings are reified or made to seem real, once this happens people internalize the meaning and take it for granted, rather than viewing it as a human creation. (EX: a honeymoon should follow a wedding)
Family Development Theory
- Focuses on the family itself as the unit of analysis. -The importance of the family life course, based on the idea that the family changes in fairly predictable ways over time. Typical Stages: The addition or subtraction of family members (birth, death, leaving home) The various stages that the children of through Changes in the family's connections with other social institutions (retirement from work, child's entry into school, etc) Each stage has developmental tasks that must be mastered before family members transition successfully to the next stage
Structure-Functional Theory
- Investigates how a given social structure functions to fill basic societal needs. Families are principally accountable for raising children responsibly, to provide economic support, and to give family members emotional security. -That families come in a variety of forms, that there is no typical American family structure. Encourages family researchers to ask how well a particular family structure performs a basic family function. Families are an important social institution performing essential social functions
Exchange Theory
-Applies an economic perspective to social relationships - When individuals are engaged in social exchanges, they prefer to limit their costs and maximize their rewards. We choose among options after calculating potential rewards against costs and weighing our alternatives. The relative resources of participants shapes power and influence in families and impacts household communication patterns, decision making, and division of labor. Relationships based on exchanges that are equal or equitable thrive, whereas those in which the balance exchange feel consistently one-sided are more likely to dissolve or be unhappy.
List some of the positive outcomes for adults and children correlated with marriage.
-Married parents spend more time with their children -less problems with teen parents -better financial resources
three ways parents rear their male and female children differently
-Parents may buy their girls dolls and things that require care and develop expressive skills while buying their boys play tools, sports equipment. -Parents may encourage their girls to be emotional and empathetic and kind while encouraging their sons to be competitive and ambitious. -Parents may accept their girls being "tomboys" but will not accept when they son exhibits feminine characteristics.
average age of marriage for women
26.5
average age of marriage for men
28.7
What does it mean that marriage has become deinstitutionalized
A situation in which time-honored family definitions and social norms count for far less than in the past-Coontz
Arguments for legal marriage for same-sex couples
All family forms need to be valued under the law. If marriage is thought to be beneficial for spouses and children emotionally, financially, and health wise, then to deny these benefits to a significant number of individuals is unethical and socially costly. The non legalization of same-sex couples is a violation of the US Constitution because it discriminates against a group of citizens.
Describe the demographic characteristics of people who live alone in the United States
Asians and Hispanics of all ages are more likely to live alone than blacks or non-Hispanic whites
What does it mean for intimate partners to assume sexual responsibility
Being sexually responsible requires an individual to first recognize and respect their own values regarding sex, rather than being influenced by others in a sexual situation. Couples must plan ahead regarding the risk of pregnancy and spread of STIs.
How may mate selection risk be minimized
By letting go of the misconceptions one may have about love an choosing a partner.
social learning theory explain how cultural ideas about gender get incorporated into personality and behavior
Children imitate models for behavior and are rewarded by parents and others for whatever is perceived as sex-appropriate behavior. As children grow older, the child's opinion of toys, careers, marriages, and parenthood are responded to by parents, which communicates the parents view of appropriate behavior for boys and girls. Rewards and punishments that parents and others assign to gender expectations are assumed to be key to behavior patterns.
cohabitation and marriage
Cohabiting has become an increasingly important filter factor in the decision to get married, about half of those who get married decide to live together first. Importance of testing out the relationship before making the final step toward marriage
expressive sexuality
Come the 20th century, the idea of sexuality is more common, sex is no longer just for reproduction but for intimacy in a relationship. And women and men are seen as having a sexual drive
How do relationships develop during the courtship process in a free-choice society
Dating replaced the idea of courtship as the process of finding a mate, the key difference between courtship and dating today is that finding a marriage partner may or may not be the end goal. Initiation, the date, an outcome
For what reasons are increasing numbers of young adults living with their parent
Economic recession and increased housing prices, taking the time to prepare for career and family responsibilities, sometimes after getting divorced young men and women will return to their parents home.
inherit wealth. experience hypothesis
Holds that something about the experience of being married itself causes these benefits
Why is the United States a free-choice culture
In the United States, people who choose their own maters, although they often seek parents' and other family members' support for their decision
several characteristics of persons more likely to cohabit
Less educated, earn less income, are less likely to own their own homes, less likely to be nonHispanic white, likely to have experience more transition in living arrangements as children, likely to have relatively permissive attitudes towards sex.
relationship between heterogamy and marital stability
Marriages that are homogamous are more likely to be stable because partners are more likely to share the same values and attitudes when they come from similar backgrounds. Heterogamous marriages may create conflict between partners and other groups, such as parents, relatives, and friends. Discriminatory pressure from society may also create psychological stress.
Does the fact that marriage is arranged mean that love is ignored by parents
No. -Marital love is highly valued and it is expected that a couple will develop a loving relationship after the marriage.
What causes boredom in sexual relationships? What results from it? What can be done about it
One factor could be habituation, the decreased interest in sex that results from the increased accessibility of a sexual partner and the predictability in sexual behavior with that partner over time. It is important for couples to spend time alone, plan a night or nights dedicated to just them. And it is also important for the individuals in the couple not to lose touch with their sexuality.
Why do young spouses engage in coitus more frequently than older and longer-married partners
One factor may be a self-fulfilling prophecy of "society thinks I should be so I will." There are also factors of responsibilities such as children, housework, financial concerns, etc.
social class
Our experience within our social class as a child impacts our future decisions and how we experience the world as adults.
selection hypothesis
Posits that many of the benefits associated with marriage therefore actually results from the personal characteristics of those who choose to marry. Married women are more likely than those who are cohabiting or in single-family household to inherit wealth.
What might a couple do to prepare for marriage
Premarital counseling, which focuses on evaluating if the relationship should lead to marriage and recognizing potential issues and developing positive problem-solving skills.
Summarize the text's discussion of singlehood and life satisfaction
Singles who live alone tend to report feeling lonely more often than married individuals. Though singles tend to feel more in control of their lives and experience less irritation than marrieds.
sexual exclusivity
Spouses promise to have sexual relations with only each other, have broadened to include expectations of emotional centrality or putting ones partner first.Define and give an example of the following terms:
surveys v. experiments
Surveys differ because they rely on what the participants tell the experimenters rather than what the experimenters observe. However, the results on a survey would come out of more natural situations rather than the artificially created situations of an experiment.
How do Americans define family today?
The US Census Bureau defines family as a group of two or more persons related by blood, marriage, or adoption and residing together in a household. Many Americans still use the nuclear family model of Father( breadwinner) , Mother (homemaker), child
What is a reason given for the declining perceived advantage of marriage
The diminished permanence of marriage, the fear of possible divorce Society's acceptance of sex outside of marriage The option of cohabitation without being married
Give an example of how gender expectations vary according to racial or ethnic group.
The expressive women and instrumental men traits are based primarily on white, middle-class, heterosexuals. The gender expectations for a black woman immigrant from Haiti who is a single mother and domestic worker are very different or a single white male who didn't finish high school and doesn't have a job. However, the importance of a male provider role is a powerful theme in all race/ ethnic groups.
What factors have increased the incidence of singlehood
The sex ratio of men to women Economic factors such as increased education and career opportunities Technological factors such as birth control
homogamy
The tendency of people to form committed, and especially marital, relationships with other with whom they share certain social characteristics -Individuals tend to make relationship choices in socially patterned ways, viewing only certain others as potentially suitable. Geographic availability, physical attraction, personality, engagement
How can men be discriminated against when they choose nontraditional gender roles for themselves
There are few career opportunities for men to work in child-care or family-focused professions and they are often trivialized by the media with humor. They often face discrimination in these areas of work
How can middle age be an uneasy time for couples sharing a sexual relationship
There is a decline in sexual frequency as people age and part of it is gendered, women may experience a decline in desire or arousal whilst men do not. And sexual satisfaction and frequency are intertwined with marriage satisfaction.
How can traditional gender expectations be damaging males
There is an argument that due to the levels of boys' physical activity, a certain level of rowdiness from them in a classroom should be considered "normal" however, there is concern that boys must "act tough" to defend themselves and that there needs to be a redefinition of the male role that includes expressing emotion that is not just anger.
Arguments against legal marriage for same-sex couples
Those who are against are more likely to value traditional gender roles, argue that only heterosexual married parents can provide the optimum environment for child rearing, and that homosexual marriage would weaken the institution that already is threatened by single parenting, cohabitation, and divorce
today's singles include
Those who are widowed, divorced, putting off marriage, and those who don't intent to get married
attachment theory
Those with a secure attachment stye have stronger interpersonal skills and are better prospects for a committed relationship. Those with insecure/anxious attachment entails fear of abandonment with consequent possible negative behaviors such as unwarranted jealousy or controlling behavior Those with avoidant attachment leads one to pass up or shun closeness and intimacy either by evading relationships, demonstrating ambivalence, seeming preoccupied
characteristics of dating violenc
Usually begins with and is accompanied by verbal and psychological abuse. -Handles ordinary disagreements or disappointments with inappropriate anger or rage -has to struggle to retain self-control when something small triggers anger -goes into tirades -is quick to criticize or be verbally mean -appears unduly jealous, restricting, and controlling -has been violent in previous relationships
Systems Theory
Views the family as a whole, or system comprised of interrelated parts (the family members) and demarcated by boundaries. Originated in natural science, but was eventually applied to the family by psychotherapists and family scholars. - A system is a combination of elements or components that are interrelated and organized into a whole, the parts of a family compose a working system that behaves fairly predictably. Systems seek equilibrium or stable balance and symmetry, change in one of the parts sets in motion a process to restore equilibrium. For a change to occur in a family, the family system as a whole must change.
example of how what is happening in one's home environment can influence hormone secretion levels that ultimately combine to influence behavior.
When a woman is pregnant Hormonal levels of males in a romantic relationships and those of new fathers undergo changes parallel to maternal behavior (lower testosterone and cortisol and detectable levels of estradiol, an estrogen-like hormone)
polyandry
a form of polygamy whereby a woman can have multiple husbands
swinging
a marriage arrangement in which couples exchange partners to engage in purely recreational sex
free-choice culture
a term used by cross-cultural researchers for people who choose their own maters, although they often seek parents' and other family members' support for their decision
social learning theory
a theory within interaction-constructionist perspective, in which children and adults learn aspects of gender roles as they are taught by parents, teachers, peers, friends, partners, and the media
covenant marriage
a type of legal marriage in which the bride and groom agree to be bound by a marriage contract that will not let them get divorced as easily as it is allowed under no-fault divorce laws
least two social factors that are currently encouraging young people to postpone marriage
a. economic b. technological
date rape
an unwanted sexual encounter with a date or other acquaintance
heterogamy
choosing someone dissimilar in race, age, education, religion, or social class -Interracial marriages, interethnic marriages, interfaith marriages
avoidant attachment style
dodges emotional closeness either by avoiding relationships altogether or demonstrating ambivalence, seeming preoccupied, or otherwise est. distance in intimate situations
ethnicity
has no biological connotations, it refers to cultural distinctions often based in language, religion, foodways, and history
polygamy
having more than one spouse
family policy
involves all the procedures, regulations, attitudes, and goals of programs and agencies, workplace, educational institutions, and government that affect families
exogamy
marrying outside one's social group
endogamy
marrying within one's own social group (Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, Muslim, Hindu religions)
social institution
patterned and largely predictable ways of thinking and behaving-beliefs, values, attitudes, and norms that are organized around vital aspects of group life and serve essential social functions
