MCAT 2023
bile salts
-amphipathic organic molecules derived from cholesterol, with hydrophobic fused rings region and hydrophilic carboxylic acid tail -facilitate fat absorption -non polar regions associate with lipids and polar regions associate with water, forming micelles
GLU2
-bidirectional transport for glycolysis/glycogenesis and gluconeogenesis -"glucose sensor" -Location: liver, kidney, pancreatic B cells
Nonconservative Missense Mutations
-chemical properties of mutant amino acid are different from original amino acid -Ex: Thr replaced with Proline - ring structure is way different than thr and can prevent protein from functioning
effect of volume change on equilibrium
-decreasing volume causes the reaction to shift in the direction of *fewer* gas molecules -increasing volume causes the reaction to shift in the direction of *more* gas molecules
nuclear receptors
-found in cytoplasm or nucleus, bind to steroid or thyroid hormones, migrates to nucleus after ligand binds (if not already there). -function like transcription factors, turning up or down
GLU4
-glucose storage as glycogen or triglycerides -upregulated by higher glucose and higher insulin -insulin sensitive -Location: skeletal and cardiac muscle, adipose tissue
GTP
-guanosine triphosphate, made in citric acid cycle. -powers biological reactions involved in signaling cascades and protein synthesis.
Somatostatin
-halts pro-digestion hormones: Gastrin, CCK, Secretin -Stalls stomach emptying -Halts release of pancreatic hormones: Insulin and Glucagon -AKA growth hormone-inhibiting hormone: Inhibits release of growth hormone
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs)
-have 7 transmembrane domains -extracellular ligand binding site -g-protein is on inside cell (heterotrimeric protein that binds to the guanine nucleotide: GTP and GDP) -has alpha, beta, and gamma proteins When GDP is bound to alpha subunit - it is inactive, when GTP is bound, it is active
thermoregulation of respiratory system
-heat is regulated through the body surfaces by vasodilation and vasoconstriction •vasodilation dissipates heat •vasoconstriction conserves heat -can also transfer heat to the environment through evaporation of water in mucous secretions (ex: panting)
epigenetics
-heritable changes that affect gene expression without directly changing the genetic sequence itself -some epigenetic changes can be transmitted through multiple generations
GLU3
-high glucose affinity -location: neurons, placenta
GPCR system activation
-ligand binds, conformation change, GDP replaced with GTP -2 requirements: activated by ligand, sufficient GTP present in cell. -alpha and GTP dissociate, effector proteins interact -2 pathways: IP3, cyclic AMP -signaling pathway triggered, target proteins are altered -GTP goes to GDP to deactivate
large intestine
-main role is water reabsorption, not macronutrient digestion -cecum, colon, rectum -The large intestine is home to over 1,000 different species of bacteria. Although some of these species can be pathogenic, most of them are beneficial. Vitamins K and B7 are both synthesized by microorganisms in the large intestine. -One of the main functions of the large intestine is to absorb water from chyme to convert it into solid material that can be easily excreted.
false memories
-memories for events that never happened, but were suggested by someone or something -often not acts of deliberate deception
lac operon
-negative inducible ("off" is default, expression induced by removal of repressor), prokaryotes only -contain genes that metabolize lactose. Turned on when no glucose is present, and only lactose. -RNA polymerase binds and transcribes at promoter. -Allolactose binds repressor and removes it from operator so RNA polymerase can transcribe. -cAMP (in high concentration when glucose is low) can bind CAP which can increase transcription (positive control)
Plasmids (bacteria)
-non-essential, double-stranded circles of DNA, can be duplicated and passed on to related nearby -some contain virulence factors -can confer antibiotic resistance
ethanol fermentation
-occurs in yeast -CO2, ethanol, and NAD+ are produced from sugar -Enzymes: pyruvate decarboxylase, alcohol dehydrogenase
beta decay
-radioactive decay in which an electron is emitted (a neutron is converted to a proton and an electron is emitted) -*Mass Number stays the same and atomic number increases by 1* -faster than alpha particles and penetrate further, can pass through paper, but not an aluminum sheet. Negatively charged
second order reaction
-rate is proportional to either the concentrations of 2 reactants or to the square of the concentrations of a single reactant *Rate = k[A]1[B]1 or rate = k [A]2 or rate = k [B]2 1/([A]) vs time line slope = k 1/M*s
steps of the heart pumping
-right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from systemic circulation from interior and superior vena cava -right ventricle pumps blood through pulmonary artery into lungs where blood is oxygenated -oxygenated blood comes through pulmonary veins into left atria -blood funneled from left ventricle into aorta to systemic circulation
pancrease
-secretes alkaline enzymes (amylase - sugars, lipase- triglycerides, proteases - proteins) which work best at alkaline pH -has both exocrine (secretes enzymes through pancreatic duct) and endocrine (releases hormones into bloodstream e.g. insulin) functions
liver
-secretes bile -detoxifies compounds -metabolizes drugs and medicines -stores glycogen and triglycerides -glycogen metabolism -mobilizes glucose and fatty acids
globular proteins
-spherical -serve functional roles -EX: myoglobin -water soluble -exhibits protein folding
Factors that favor SN1
-substrate can form a relatively stable carbocation (tertiary are most stable) -number of alkyl groups on carbocation -relatively weak nucleophile -polar, protic solvent (which are polar solvents that can form hydrogen bonds)
boiling point
-temperature at which the vapor pressure of a solution equals the atmospheric pressue -The temperature at which a liquid changes to a gas
Enteric Nervous System (ENS)
-the autonomic nerves in the walls of the GI tract-Not under conscious control, can act autonomously
Glycolysis
-the breakdown of 1 glucose by enzymes, releasing energy (2 ADP + 2Pi -> 2 ATP) and 2 Pyruvates -All cells on earth use this -Anaerobic -Occurs in Cytosol of cell -Redox reaction takes place: 2 NAD+ +2H+ -> 2 NADH
H. pylori
-thrive in the acidic environment of stomach, and can cause painful peptic ulcers-H. pylori can burrow under the protective mucous layer that coats the stomach lining to reach endothelial cells. Once there, these bacteria can irritate stomach tissue, giving rise to a variety of gastric disorders
feces
-water, indigestible material such as cellulose, humans lack enzymes to digest cellulose, which is why celery is low calorie (cellulose rich)-Feces are largely composed of water, metabolic waste products, and indigestible material, which is mostly cellulose or dietary fiber. Excess nutrients are rarely excreted in the feces. The body absorbs all the nutrients it can get from a meal.
What reactions are part of energy investment phase of glycolysis?
1. Hexokinase phosphorylates glucose to make Glucose-6-Phosphate (requires 1 ATP) 2. Glucose-6-Phosphate Isomerase converts G6P into Fructose-6-Phosphate 3. Phosphofructokinase adds phosphate to F6P and turns into Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate *rate limiting, commiting to glycolysis, irreversible, requires 1 ATP* 4. Aldolase converts F1,6BP to G3P and DHAP 5. DHAP is converted to G3P by triosephosphate isomerase
Gram stain procedure
1. Primary stain (Crystal violet- a basic stain) 2. Mordant (Gram's iodine- I2 + KI) (something that helps fix dye on or in a cell but does not itself contribute color) 3. decolorizing agent (Ethanol or acetone) 4. Counterstain (Safranin- a basic stain)
Why is ATP hydrolysis energetically favorable?
1. The high concentration of negative charges in the three phosphates repel the gamma phosphate. 2. Charge repulsion thermodynamically favors ADP + inorganic phosphate over ATP
4 phases of bacteria growth
1. lag phase (bacteria adapt to a new environment, growth lags) 2. log phase (exponential growth of population) 3. stationary phase (maximum population size is reached, growth limited by nutrients and space) 4. death phase (bacteria begin to die off)
Gluconeogenesis steps
1. pyruvate converted to oxaloacetate (by pyruvate carboxylase, in mitochondria). Oxaloacetate is breifly turned into malate so it can be shuttled out of the mitochondria into cytosol, where its turned back. 2. Phosphoenol pyruvate carboxykinase converts oxaloacetate back to phosphoenol pyruvate. 3. Phosphoenol pyruvate is converted back to Glyceraldehyde 3 Phosphate 4. Glyceraldehyde 3 Phosphate is converted back to Fructose 1,6 Bisphosphate 5. Fructose 1,6 Bisphosphate is converted back to Fructose 6 Phosphate by *Fructose 6 Bisphosohatase*. 6. Fructose 6 Phosphate is converted back to glucose Glucose 6 Phosphate 7. Glucose 6 Phosphate is converted back to glucose by *Glucose 6 Phosphatase*.
Limiting Reactants Problem Steps
1. start with balanced equation. Convert grams to moles by dividing by molecular mass 2. Whichever amount is less, convert to either grams
2 ways to form ATP
1. substrate level phosphorylation 2. oxidative phosphorylation
The association constant, Ka, of Epithelial Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) binding to Epithelial Growth Factor (EGF) is 5.61 x 10^6. What is Keq for the reaction EGFR-EGF → EGFR + EGF?
1.78 x 10-7 We are looking for the equilibrium constant for dissassociation reaction, which is 1/Ka. 1/5.61 x 10^6 = 1.78 x 10-7
[H+] =
10^-pH
Which of the following is closest to the bond angle between the carbon atoms in a molecule of acetone?
120 degrees (trigonal planar)
Osmoles of NaCl
2 (1 for Na, 1 of Cl) Osmolarity = 2 mol/Liter
How many alleles does each gene have?
2 one from mom one from dad
parallel plate capacitor
2 plates of conductive material separated by small distance 1 plate positive 1 plate same negative charge -separation of charge creates electric field : E=(1/k)(Q/Ae0)
schachter-singer Mnemonic
2 s's = 2 factors (both physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal must happen before emotional response)
E1 reaction
2 steps, rate depends on concentration of only 1 substrate. Weak base is fine.
RNA polymerase *synthesizes* new RNA in a _____ direction
5' to 3'
0.0005 kilomorgans to centimorgans
50 centimorgans
unlinked genes
50 centimorgans, or 50% chance of recombination
Hexose
6 carbon sugar
pyranose
6 membered ring sugar
Eckman
6 primary facial expressions. anger, fear, disgust, happiness, surprise, sadness
energy payoff phase of glycolysis
6. G3P dehydrogenase converts 2 G3P molecules into 2 1,3-bisphosphoglycerates (produces NADH, highly exergonic, releases lots of energy, uses energy to add phosphate = substrate level phosphorylation) 7. Phosphoglycerate Kinase turns 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate into 3-phosphoglycerate (releases ATP) 8. Phosphoglycerate mutate turns 3PG into 2PG 9. Enolase turns 2PG into PEP 10. pyruvate Kinase turns PEP into Pyruvate
a 1 M solution of glucose contains
6.02 × 1023 molecules of glucose in each liter of solution.
Ketose
A carbohydrate whose carbonyl group is a ketone and is in *middle* of chain
Aldose
A carbohydrate whose carbonyl group is an aldehyde
hemiketal
A carbon attached to an R group, OR group, OH group and R' group -produced from *ketones*
Blastocyst
A fluid-filled sphere formed about 5 days after fertilization of an ovum that is made up of an outer ring of cells and inner cell mass. THis is the structure that implants in the endometrium of the uterus.
fixed ratio reinforcement
A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after a specified # of responses
what turns on glycolysis?
AMP, ADP
what turns off glycolysis?
ATP, Citrate, NADH
energy molecules of the cell
ATP, GTP, Acetyl-CoA, NADH, FADH2
wobble hypothesis
Ability of the tRNAs to recognize more than one codon; the codons differ in their third nucleotide.
ATCH
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates cortisol production. If cortisol secretion were to diminish, ACTH levels would rise in an attempt to restore normal cortisol concentrations. On the other hand, in this negative feedback system, high cortisol levels would typically inhibit ACTH production.
cortical granules and reaction
After a sperm has entered egg, the egg releases these to cause surface glycoproteins to form cross links that prevent fertilization by multiple sperm
How do fatty acids get absorbed?
After they are absorbed by enterocytes, they are packaged into chylomicrons and shunted into lacteals. Lacteals are small lymphatic vessels that drain into larger lymphatic vessels, which eventually empty into the bloodstream.
controlled processing
"explicit" thinking that is deliberate, reflective, and conscious
GLU1
#1 - Baseline cellular glucose uptake -Location: nearly all tissues, especially fetal tissue, erythrocytes, and cancer cells
bicarbonate buffer system
CO2 (g)+ H2O(l)↔H2 CO3 (aq)↔H+ (aq)+HCO3- (aq) -Blowing off CO2 (hyperventilation) decreases levels of CO2 which causes reaction to shift left consuming H+ and reducing H+ in the blood making pH less acidic -mechanism that deals w/ acidemia (excess H+ in blood)
homologous chromosomes
Chromosomes that have the same sequence of genes, that have the same structure, and that pair during meiosis.
Scurvy
Vitamin C deficiency
Fat soluble vitamins
Vitamins A, D, E, K -stored in adipose, and you can get too much of these
Prions
misfolded proteins that cause other proteins to misfold and aggregate together harming cellular function responsible for creutzfeldt jakob disease, fatal familial insomnia, kuru
Sperm contain abundant
mitochondria
endosymbiotic theory
mitochondria originated when a cyanobacterium was engulfed by an early eukaryotic cell
Where does Citric acid cycle occur in Eukaryotes?
mitochondrial matrix
What is function of cholesterol in the plasma membrane
modulates fluidity
Scramblase
moves lipids in either direction, toward equilibrium
Magnetism comes from
moving electric charge. produced by spin of electrons.
pylorus of stomach
narrowed bottom part of stomach
Is ΔH for a exothermic reaction positive or negative
negative
charge inside cell
negative
distress
negative stress
Io is a moon of Jupiter and has no atmosphere. Gravitational acceleration is the ratio of gravitational force to mass of an object (F/m = a) and is constant with respect to the mass of the object. A piece of paper and a solid iron anvil are both dropped at the same instant, from the same height, towards the surface of Io. Which item lands first?
neither - they both land at same time in absence of atmosphere, both are experiencing same gravitational force
characteristics of alzheimer's disease
neurofibrillary tangles involving tau proteins and plaques composed of beta-amyloid proteins
efferent neurons
neurons that take information from the brain (CNS) to the rest of the body
Genetic Recombination
new combination of genes produced by crossing over and independent assortment
retroactive interference
new memories interfere with retrieval of old memories (e.g. learning how to play new video game disrupts memory of how to play old one)
heteronuclear RNA (hnRNA)
newly transcribed mRNA (RNA after transcription but before modification)
coercive organizations
ones that people do not choose to be part of but must join anyway, such as prison.
normative organizations
ones that people join because of some shared ideal or ethical goal, such as a volunteer organization.
parietal pleura
outer layer of pleura lying closer to the ribs and chest wall
Mechanical advantage general formula
output force/input force
confounding variable
outside factor not being studied but impacts both variables under consideration
bacteria differ in their...
oxygen requirements
chemoreceptors in peripheral nervous system detect
oxygen, co2, pH
hematocrit
proportion of your blood that is composed by red blood cells
Examples of transmembrane proteins
proton pumps, ion channels, G protein-coupled receptors
cell wall of bacteria
provides structural support and extra layer of defense, made of peptidoglycan, can take up gram stain
sanctions
punishment or negative consequences for violating a social norm. Rewards for following social norm.
opiod use response eye
pupillary constriction
obligate aerobic bacteria
require oxygen
Negative sense RNA viruses
require synthesis of an RNA strand complementary to the negative sense RNA strand -used as template for protein synthesis -must carry an RNA replicase in virions to make complementary strand
active transport
requires ATP to move a solute against a concentration/electrochemical gradient
compliance (requests)
responses to requests from someone with no power to enforce that request.
What to RNA viruses have to first do when infecting a cell?
reverse-transcribe their genetic material into DNA
Inversion (chromosome)
reverses the direction of parts of a chromosome
rRNA
ribosomal RNA, ribozymal component of ribosomes.
bacillus shape
rod
Ghrelin hormone
secreted by specialized cells in the pancreas and upper stomach when the stomach is empty and stimulates appetite
Symbolic interactionism
the view that an individual's experiences influence his or her perceptions
Avogadro's Law
the volume of a gas is directly related to the number of moles (n) of gas v1/n1 = v2/n2 (n is moles) v1/n1 = k
differential association theory
theory that individuals learn deviance in proportion to number of deviant acts they are exposed to, and deviance is learned socially, draws from symbolic interactionism
A higher vapor pressure indicates
that a larger number of solvent particles were able to escape the liquid and enter the gas phase
James-Lange Theory Mnemonic
the a in james comes before e, arousal comes before emotion
eidetic (photographic) memory
the ability to remember a stimulus in great detail after a relatively short exposure
positive punishment
the addition of something unpleasant following an unwanted behavior, with the intention of decreasing that behavior
tidal lung volume
the amount of air that one can inhale and exhale during passive breathing (20%)
Coulomb
the amount of charge carried by a current of 1 ampere in 1 second 1 A * 1 s
Water is an unusual substance in that the solid is less dense than the liquid at the freezing point, resulting in a solid form that floats on top of the liquid. Which of the following best explains this phenomenon?
the bent structure of the water molecule and ratio of covalently bonded hydrogens to lone pairs of e-'s on the oxygen atom maximizes the hydrogen bonding interactions that occur in the solid phase, producing a hexagonal structure with large empty spaces
General Adaptation Syndrome
the body responds to stress with alarm, resistance and exhaustion.
Terminal velocity definition
the constant velocity of a falling object when the force of air resistance is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force of gravity
change blindness
the failure to notice changes that take place.
If mechanical advantage is calculated as 2.6 for moving a box up a ramp rather than vertically, that means
the force needed to move the box up vertically is 2.6 times the force needed to move the box up the incline
Glucose
the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.
Fischer esterification
the formation of an ester from a carboxylic acid and an alcohol in acidic conditions
Molar Solubility
the number of moles of solute in 1 L of a saturated solution (mol/L)
At the end of a distillation, the compound remaining in the original flask will be
the one with higher boiling point
antibiotics like penicillin that target peptidoglycan have difficulty penetrating
the outer membrane of gram negative bacteria, making infections more difficult to treat
how to do log problems in your head, e.g. what is log(100)?
what would 10 need to be raised in power of, to get what is in parenthesis? 10^x = 100 x= 2 2 is answer!
cognitive dissonance
when a person's attitudes, perceptions, or behaviors are inconsistent with one another. Can be resolved in various ways in order to minimize perceptions of inconsistency.
Deindividuation
when an individual seems to lose himself or herself in the group's identity
pathogenic fungi
yeast infections, ringworm, other fungal diseases
A child is sliding a toy block (with mass = m) down a ramp. The *coefficient of static friction between the block and the ramp is 0.25*. When the block is halfway down the ramp, the child pushes down on the block perpendicular to the plane, halting it. What is the minimum force the child must apply to keep the block from starting to slide down the ramp?
{[mgsin(θ)] / 0.25} - mgcos(θ) Gravitational force pulling block down the ramp is mgsin(θ) To stop the block sliding down the ramp, we must have an equal and opposite frictional force Ff = μFN (FN = normal force) Since these forces are equal and opposite, they must be set equal to eachother The block itself has a mass, m, and generates a normal force of FN = mgcos(θ) Thus Ff = 0.25 * mgcos(θ) The force exerted by the child (Fa) will add to the force created by the mass of the block. Our total FN = mgcos(θ) + Fa. Setting this force equal to Ff = mgsin(θ), we get: Ff = 0.25 * (mgcos(θ) +Fa) = mgsin(θ) mgcos(θ) +Fa = mgsin(θ) / 0.25 Solve for Fa: Fa = (mgsin(θ) / 0.25) - mgcos(θ)
wild type
the phenotype for a character most commonly observed in natural populations
dipole in electric field
the positive end of the dipole will align with the direction that the arrow heads are pointing. Electric field lines will originate from the positive charge and go towards the negative charge.
Belief bias
the tendency that people have to judge things based not upon sound logic, but upon already held beliefs
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
True or False: Y-linked mutations cannot skip generations.
Y-linked mutations are rare. As only males carry Y chromosomes and every male inherits a non-recombined Y chromosome from his father, any non-fatal Y-linked mutations would propagate from generation to generation.
Unless otherwise told by the MCAT, can we assume that experiments take place at or near standard conditions?
Yes
Eosinophils play a major role in the promotion of the inflammatory response, which is marked by increased vasodilation, blood vessel permeability, and pain. The inflammatory response is classified as:
a function of the innate immune system.
Frame shift
a genetic mutation caused by a deletion or insertion in a DNA sequence that shifts the way the sequence is read -insertion/deletion is different from 3 causes frame shift
Phase Diagram
a graph showing the conditions at which a substance exists as a solid, liquid, or vapor a line separates the regions that correspond to the solid and liquid phases. For most substances, since the solid phase is denser than the liquid, this line has a positive slope. This indicates that it is possible to convert the liquid substance into solid by increasing pressure. Since the opposite is true for water, however, the line between these regions has a negative - or downward-tilting - slope. This hallmark is one easy way to distinguish the phase diagram of water from that of most other compounds.
Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)
a group of extremely reactive peroxides and oxygen-containing radicals (ex: superoxide, hydroxl radical) that may contribute to cellular damage. -contain unpaired electrons
Pertussis (whooping cough)
a highly contagious respiratory disease causing uncontrollable, violent coughing; also known as whooping cough
solution
a homogenous mixture of two or more substances uniformly dispersed throughout a single phase. Can be gaseous, liquid, or solid.
Trachea
a large membranous tube reinforced by rings of cartilage, extending from the larynx to the bronchial tubes and conveying air to and from the lungs; the windpipe. -ciliated epithelial and mucous producing goblet cells line it
inflammation
a localized physical condition in which part of the body becomes reddened, swollen, hot, and often painful, especially as a reaction to injury or infection. Part of innate immune system.
representativeness heuristic
a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case
A private school sets up a system by which students may advance to the next grade solely on the basis of their individual performance on an exam. Given the wide variety of talents each student has, some students are able to advance to the next grade months or even years before other students. This system is:
a meritocracy
A mole
a number of items equal to Avogadro's number (6.02 × 1023)
L-DOPA
a precursor to the neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine.
endothermic process
a process that absorbs heat from the surroundings (going from lower energy to higher energy, e.g. solid to liquid, solid to gas, liquid to gas)
exothermic process
a process that releases heat to its surroundings (high energy to lower energy e.g. liquid to solid, gas to solid)
Polar body
a small cell containing little cytoplasm that is produced along with the oocyte and later discarded
saturated solution
a solution that contains the maximum amount of dissolved solute at a given temperature
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned response begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning. *shifts an unconditioned response to a condition response*
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a *reinforcer (reward)* or diminished if followed by a *punisher*
Ampere
a unit of electric current equal to a flow of one coulomb per second. 1A = 1C/1s
mediating variable
a variable that helps explain the relationship between two other variables
lytic cycle
a viral reproductive cycle in which copies of a virus are made within a host cell, which then bursts open, releasing new viruses
Eosinophils
a white blood cell (granulocytes) containing granules in cytoplasm
On a graph of pressure and volume, work is the
area under the curve
tertiary structure
arises from interactions between amino acid side chains. These interactions can include hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interactions, and ionic bonding.
quaternary structure
arises when multiple polypeptide chains interact to form protein subunits. These connections can arise from non-covalent interactions or S-S bonds.
blood vessels in order from greatest to lowest pressure:
arteries > arterioles > capillaries > venules > veins
3 types of blood vessels
arteries, veins, capillaries
Which of the following is a possible molecular formula of a molecule with a molar mass of 120 g/mol and an empirical formula of CH2O?
c4h8o4 This answer satisfies both the empirical formula and the molar mass. This compound's molar mass is calculated as follows: (4 x 12 g/mol) + (8 x 1 g/mol) + (4 x 16 g/mol) = 120 g/mol. Therefore, we know the molecular formula must contain 4 moles of carbon and oxygen and 8 moles of hydrogen.
Q (reaction quotient) vs Keq
calculated the same as Keq but uses concentrations when not at equilibrium -can be compared to Keq -If less than Keq, mixture has less product -if more than Keq, mixture has less reactant -Q = Keq, then reaction is at equilibrium
multipotent stem cells
can differentiate into a limited subset of cell types within a germ layer
totipotent stem cells
can differentiate into any type of cell. Only applies to early embryos, up to the morula or 16-cell stage.
psychological arousal effects on memory
can enhance or restrict our memory
nucleotide excision repair
can remove multiple bases, ex: pyridamine dimers -used after replication
Carcinogen
cancer causing mutagen
What is the molecular formula of a sample weighing 56 g that is composed of 48 g carbon and 8 g hydrogen?
cannot be determined We were not given the molar mass of the compound, and therefore we cannot determine the molecular formula.
biomolecules for which digestion begins in the mouth?
carbohydrates via salivary amylase, fats via lingual lipase
isoelectric point of neutral amino acid occurs when
carboxylic acid is deprotonated (carries negative charge) and the amine group is protonated (positive charge)
umbilical vein
carries oxygenated blood from placenta to fetus
veins
carry blood back to the heart, less muscular walls than arteries, low blood pressure, have one-way valves that prevent backflow. Skeletal muscles squeeze these to return blood to heart against gravity.
Mitosis
cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes
platelets
cell fragments that play an important part in forming blood clots
Where is the ETC located in prokaryotes?
cell membrane
endosomes
cell organelles that are membrane-bound vesicles that transport cell materials. They, at points, are bound to the intracellular cell membrane.
Atherosclerosis
condition in which fatty deposits called plaque build up on the inner walls of the arteries. makes it harder for oxygen to reach tissues. when occurs in heart, can cause heart attack.
Broca's aphasia
condition resulting from damage to Broca's area, causing the affected person to be *unable to speak fluently*, to mispronounce words, and to speak haltingly
Wernicke's aphasia
condition resulting from damage to Wernicke's area, causing the affected person to be unable to understand or produce meaningful language
method of loci (memory palace)
consists of associating items you want to remember with physical locations
supersaturated solutions
contains more dissolved solute than a saturated solution at the same temperature
parasympathetic activation causes pupils to:
contract
aortic and pulmonary valves
control blood flow out of the ventricles
Those species that are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction will typically prefer sexual reproduction because it:
creates more variation in the next generation.
Increases in Entropy are ____, decreases in entropy are _____
favorable, unfavorable
default sex in humans
female
Lactate is a product of
fermentation
polyspermy
fertilization by more than one sperm
non-conservative forces
forces that do work in such a manner that thermal energy is involved and mechanical energy is not conserved. examples are friction and fluid resistance along with horizontal pushing or pulling forces
alzheimer's begins with... and progresses to...
forgetfulness and short-term memory loss; severe anterograde and retrograde amnesia, cognitive deficits, difficulties thinking, speaking, and emotional disturbances
Gastrulation
formation of 3 primary germ layers
Angiogenesis
formation of new blood vessels
Volts measure:
how much energy is needed to move a certain amount of charge to a certain point in an electric field
what is most acidic part of carboxylic acid?
hydroxyl hydrogen, pka = 4-5
R
ideal gas constant 0.08 L atm/ mol K 8.31 J/mol K (will be given on MCAT)
fixed-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
Autosomal Dominant
inheritance pattern of a dominant allele on an autosome
ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work
What does a 95% confidence interval mean?
-95% confident that the true population mean falls within the range of CI -If we drew 100 same sized random samples; 95 out of our 100 calculated intervals would include the population mean
Acetyl CoA
-Acetyl coenzyme A; the entry compound for the citric acid cycle in cellular respiration, formed from a fragment of pyruvate attached to a coenzyme. -Contains a high energy thioester bond -also derived from oxidation of fatty acids and breakdown of certain amino acids
pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
-Embedded in inner mitochondrial membrane -turns Pyruvate into Acetyl-CoA (oxidation) -also reduces NAD+ to NADH -Contains 3 enzymes: pyruvate dehydrogenase (e1), dihydrolipoyl transacetylase (E2), dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase (E3) -Coenzymes: CoA, Lipoamide, TPP, FAD, NAD+
a cell in a hypotonic solution
-Gains water, water travels from environment into cell -Ruptures or lyse (hemolysis of red blood cells)
methylation
-addition of methyl groups to cytosine or adenine -deactivates or silences gene sequences -epigenetics -occurs in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes
trp operon
-negative repressible ("on" is default, expression repressed by binding of repressor) -prokaryotes only -abundant supply of tryptophan represses transcription
spontaneous mutations
-occur without exposure to mutagenic agents -occur during DNA replication
substrate-level phosphorylation
-occurs during glycolysis (makes ATP) and citric acid cycle (GTP) -coupled with favorable reaction -can occur in presence or absence of oxygen
mismatch repair
-occurs immediately after replication and continues in the G2 phase of cell cycle. mismatch detected and the erroneous base is excised and replaced with correct base. -the mistaken base must be part of the newly created strand, which can be distinguished from older one because the older DNA stand is methylated over time
histone deacetyltransferases
-remove acetyl groups from histones -promote histone-DNA transactions -reduce DNA transcription
Enhancers
-sequences that promote enhanced expression of genes in response to appropriate stimuli -bind activators, help twist DNA into a hairpin loop to bring enhancer region closer to the gene sequence to initiate transcription
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
-series of electron carrier proteins (1-4) that shuttle high-energy electrons during ATP-generating reactions -NADH and FADH are oxidized to NAD and FAD, hydrogen atoms are pumped to intermembrane space
viroids
-small, simple RNA particles that infect plants -single stranded RNA sequences that lack a capsid or envelope -Binds to complimentary RNA sequences in plants to silence gene expression
fibrous proteins
-typically elongated (sheet-like) -hydrophobic -serve structural roles -EX: collagen
Protein Denatruation
-unfolding, loss of *non primary* protein structure -linear chain of amino acids
cos 30
0.86
sin60°
0.87
cos 0°
1
sin 90°
1
1 pascal is equal to
1 N/m^2
How many products of glycolysis are products per G3P?
1 NADH, 2 ATP, 1 Pyruvate
1 joule equals
1 Nm (newton * meter)
1 volt =
1 joule/coulomb
1 Newton equals
1 kg m/s^2
molar volume at STP
1 mol = *22.4 L* at 273 K and 1atm
How many grams of CO2 can be produced from the combustion of 88 g of propane in the presence of excess oxygen?
1. Derive a balanced chemical equation: C3H8 + 5O2 -> 3CO2 + 4H2O 2. Use grams given to convert to moles of propane: 88 grams * 1 mol propane/44 grams propane = 2 mole propane 3. find moles of CO2, then convert to grams of Co2 6 moles CO2/2 mols propane * 44 grams CO2 = 264 grams CO2
How to determine pattern of inheritance from a pedigree chart
1. Does the phenotype skip generations? If No - Autosomal Dominant If Yes - recessive 2. Are males disproportionally affected? If No - Autosomal Recessive If Yes - X-linked Recessive
What are the 3 regulatory steps of glycolysis?
1. Hexokinase 2. Phosphofructokinase (PFK1) (downregulated by: ATP and citrate, upregulated by: ADP, allosterically activated by Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate) 3. Pyruvate Kinase (inhibited by Acetyl-CoA, ATP, fatty acids)
3 mutation mechanisms
1. Substitution of Bases 2. Insertion 3. Deletion
binary fission steps
1. circular chromosome is replicated 2. cell growth occurs 4. New cell wall grows and segregates 5. Two chromosomes are pulled toward either half of the cell
Keq for reverse reaction
1/Keq
bacteria are about ___ times smaller than human cells
10
Which of the following patterns can be used to identify X-linked dominant patterns of inheritance?
100% of the daughters of an affected father and a non-affected mother will display the phenotype X-linked dominant patterns can be distinguished from X-linked recessive patterns because, in X-linked dominant patterns, 100% of the daughters of an affected father will be affected. This occurs because females inherit their father's only X chromosome.
How many grams are in a kilogram?
1000
how many mm are in 1 meter?
1000
how many pascals are in a kilopascal
1000 pascals
All amino acids have a pka1 (carboxylic acid)
2.4
each NADH produces
2.5 ATP
How quickly can bacteria reproduce via binary fission?
20 minutes
size of virus
20-400 nm
At STP, one mole of an ideal gas occupies volume of
22.4 L
Human genome has...
23 pairs of chromosomes
structure of cholesterol
4 ring structure
Eukaryotic ribosomes
80S (40S and 60S)
hemiacetal
A carbon attached to an R group, OR group, OH group and H group -Produced from *aldehydes*
Resistor
A device that impedes the flow of charge in a circuit; not conducting
Maltase
A digestive enzyme that breaks maltose into 2 glucoses
Gravity
A force of attraction between objects that is due to their masses.
Leptin
A hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells that helps suppress appetite
Conductivity
A material's ability to allow heat or electric charges to flow.
Resistivity
A material's opposition to the flow of electric current.
lysogenic cycle
A phage replication cycle in which the viral genome becomes incorporated into the bacterial host chromosome as a prophage and does not kill the host.
ligand-gated ion channel
A protein pore in the plasma membrane that opens or closes in response to a chemical signal, allowing or blocking the flow of specific ions.
Estrogen
A sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity.
Fructose 1,6 Bisphosphatase (in gluconeogenesis) is inhibited by
AMP
Transition Metals (Groups 3-12)
All the d block groups on the periodic table. Most of these metals have high densities, are reasonably hard, and have considerable toughness. All but mercury are solids at room temperature. Known for their radioactivity.
Amide hydrolysis
Amide + Water --> Carboxylic Acid + Amine using cat. H2SO4 and heat (or proteases/peptidases enzymes)
secondary oocyte
An oocyte in which the first meiotic division is completed. It is stalled in Metaphase of Meiosis II unless fertilization occurs.
Homozygous
An organism that has two identical alleles for a trait
utilitarian organization
An organization where people are paid/rewarded for their efforts, e.g. a company
Myoglobin
An oxygen-storing, pigmented protein in muscle cells.
Allport's module resource theory
Attention isn't regulated by a single center, but divided among modules in the brain according to task - multitasking using different modules works well but using similar ones does not
obligate anaerobes
Cannot survive in the presence of oxygen
mature ovum
Consists of all things needed to help the zygote. Contributes 50% of DNA, all the cytoplasm and organelles, RNA for early cellular processes, and physical space.
Systole
Contraction of the heart, BP goes up. Initiated by contraction of ventricles.
Anti-mitotic drugs
Disrupt Microtubule Function (inhibit growth OR shrinking) - Cause cell arrest in the *M* phase *Works in the M Phase* - Rapidly dividing cells are more susceptible Symptoms: Gastrointestinal issues, hair loss
strength of electric field formula
E = kQ/r^2
Is yeast prokaryotic or eukaryotic?
Eukaryotic
PV Work
External pressure * Change in volume of an object (W = P*ΔV)
Which of the following phase changes are exothermic processes? I. Liquid to gas II. Liquid to solid III. Gas to solid
II and III only
inositol triphosphate (IP3)
IP3 is activated, Ca2+ is released, kinase C is activated
centimorgan
In genetic mapping, a recombinant frequency of 0.01; a map unit. e.g. 5 centimorgans = 5% recombination
Glucokinase
Isoenzyme of hexokinase, in liver and kidneys, lower glucose binding affinity (km), not inhibited by G6P
Which of the following molecules will have the highest Rf value when separated using thin-layer chromatography with a silica gel stationary phase?
Least polar! CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 Silica is a highly polar molecule; thus, a polar substance will migrate up the stationary phase more slowly due to electrostatic interactions between the substance and the silica gel. Since an Rf value is the distance traveled by the substance/distance traveled by the solvent front, the Rf value of a polar substance will be smaller than that of a nonpolar substance. Of the options given, the compound in answer choice A is the least polar and will migrate the furthest.
Does NaCl readily diffuse through the phospholipid bilayer? What does and why?
No, but water does, through osmosis which establishes isotonic solution on both side of the membrane
Resistance is measured in
Ohms (Ω) which equals volts/amperes
A mass of 10 kg is dropped from a height of 20 m. Ignoring air resistance, what is the maximum speed it achieves? What formulas would you use to solve this?
PE = mgh KE = 1/2(m)v^2
SDS
Sodium dodecyl sulfate. Amphipathic detergent, disrupts hydrophobic interactions, which results in disrupted protein folding.
Given the data discussed in the passage, if a hospital requires at least 250g of 145Nd to complete a standard cardiac image, how long will it be before it must replace a 2000g sample?
The decay of a substance can be calculated by knowing its half-life, the time it takes for half of the original amount to decay. The final paragraph states that about *93% of the decay occurs in the first 100 minutes*, so 7% remains. We'll use a 100-g sample in our calculations to represent a percent. The number of half lives that have been expended corresponds to 100-g → 50-g → 25-g → 12-g → 6-g, or 4 half lives in 100 min, so there are 100 min/4 half lives = *25 min/half life.* We need *250 g/2000 g* = ⅛ remaining. Using the equation (½)^n = ⅛, where n is the number of half lives, here we have n = 3. Therefore, we have three half lives remaining before replacement is necessary, which is (3 half lives) (25 min/half life) = 75 min.
Conduction
The direct transfer of heat from one substance to another substance that it is touching -Occurs across all phases of mattter
What effect will the addition of a fluorine substituent have on carbocation stability?
The flourine group will be destabilizing because it is highly electronegative
Gluconeogenesis
The formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources, such as amino acids.
Incidence
The number or rate of new cases of a particular condition during a specific time.
A circuit is composed of a 12-volt battery with three light bulbs with the same resistance. If two of the light bulbs are wired in parallel and are in series with the third light bulb, what happens when one of the bulbs in parallel burns out?
Two of the light bulbs remain lit.
Recrystallization
Used to purify chemicals. By dissolving both impurities and a compound in an appropriate solvent, either the desired compound or impurities can be coaxed out of solution, leaving the other behind.
avoidance-avoidance conflict
a choice must be made between two unattractive goals
ionic compound
a compound composed of positive and negative ions but has no net charge overall
Ideal Gas
a hypothetical gas that perfectly fits all the assumptions of the kinetic-molecular theory. *Gas particles have no volume and gas particles experience no attractive or repulsive forces.*
lower esophageal sphincter
a muscular ring that controls the flow between the esophagus and stomach.
gain of function mutation
a mutation that confers new or enhanced activity on a protein
Acrosome Reaction
a necessary and irreversible step in fertilization, the release of hydrolytic enzymes, which is triggered by sperm receptor, in which the sperm's and ovum's membranes fuse and the sperm penetrates the zona pellucida.
atrioventricular (AV) node
a node of specialized heart muscle located in the septal wall of the right atrium; receives impulses from the sinoatrial node and transmits them to the atrioventricular bundle
Adenosine
a nucleoside; a combination of ribose and adenine; serves as a neuromodulator in the brain
Substrate level phosphorylation
a phosphate group is moved onto a biochemical substrate and then transferred to ADP to form ATP. The high energy bond between the substrate and the phosphate group provides the energy needed to create ATP.
center of mass
a point representing the mean position of the matter in a body or system.
cecum
a pouch connected to the junction of the small and large intestines by ileocecal sphincter
cancer
abnormal gene expression
phospholipids are ____
amphipathic molecules, containing hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
cholera
an infectious and often fatal bacterial disease of the small intestine, typically contracted from infected water supplies and causing severe vomiting and diarrhea.
avoidance learning
an organism's learning that it can altogether avoid a negative stimulus by making a particular response (i.e. clean room before they get in trouble)
How are bacterial infections treated?
antibiotics
Arteries carry blood ____ from the heart
away
Ignoring the effects of friction, what is the mechanical advantage of using the ramp as opposed to lifting the gurney straight up (5m)? Ramp is angled at 30 degrees
because of conservation of energy, the work to push the gurney up the ramp = work to vertically lift the gurney up to the ramp's height so =force(applied)*distance/force(gravity)(vertical distance) sin 30 = 5m/d and d = 5/sin30 =force(applied)*distance/force(gravity)(vertical distance) =force(applied)*distance/force(gravity)(vertical distance) Fapplied · (5 m / sin (30)) = Fgravity · 5 m Cancelling and rearranging gives: 1/sin 30 = Fgravity / Fapplied 2 = mechanical advantage of ramp
normative social influence
behavior that is motivated by the desire to gain social acceptance and approval
emotions in memory retrieval
being in a certain mood might favor recollection of similar emotional overtone
BRCA 1/2
breast cancer genes
hematopoietic stem cells
cell in the bone marrow that gives rise to all types of blood cells
spontaneous recovery
conditioned response re-emerges without another conditioning process
An eosinophil differs from an erythrocyte in that the eosinophil:
contains a membrane bound nucleus. Unlike almost all cells in the human body, erythrocytes (red blood cells) do not contain DNA or a membrane-bound nucleus. This allows these cells to have more space for oxygen-carrying hemoglobin molecules.
imitation
copying the behavior of another person
A hormone-secreting tumor in one's adrenal gland might promote the uncontrolled secretion of which of the following?
cortisol and epinephrine
What is primary structure held together by?
covalent peptide bonds
lipid-anchored proteins
covalently bound to single or multiple lipid molecules
Pulmonary (visceral) pleura
covers the lung surface
Backcrossing
crossing of a hybrid with one of its parents or an individual genetically similar to its parent, in order to achieve offspring with a genetic identity which is closer to that of the parent
which amino acids form disulfide linkages?
cysteines
Donald Broadbent
developed the encoding Filter Theory that states that basic sensory information is processed (color, shape, etc.) and enters a sensory buffer. From the sensory buffer, the mind selects something to focus on and process. The other information decays.
Alleles
different versions of a gene
Lactase
digests lactose into glucose and galactose
sucrase
digests sucrose to glucose and fructose
reducing agents
disrupt disulfide bonds, reforms SH groups on cysteines
Third Law of Thermodynamics
entropy of a perfectly organized crystal at absolute zero is zero
Carboxypeptidase
enzyme that breaks down protein from C-terminus
lingual lipase
enzyme that is activated by stomach acid and digests fat after the food is swallowed
Phosphatase
enzyme that removes phosphate from substrate
P site of ribosome
forms a peptide bond between a new incoming amino acid and the growing polypeptide chain
membrane receptors
found on cell membrane, bind to polar molecules
Peripheral proteins
found within cytoplasm of cell, includes some enzymes and hormones, can be Glycosylated by adding oligosaccharides
Where are cytoplasmic proteins translated?
free ribosomes
virion
fully assembled infectious virus
Positive control
genes expressed when activator is present
While glycoglycerolipids and sphingolipids both contain two fatty acid tails, only ___ have a glycerol backbone. Sphingolipids have a ___ backbone.
glycoglycerolipids; sphingosine
third main component of phospholipid bilayer
glycolipids
The only force acting on a projectile is ____
gravity
what forces are relevant for pulley systems?
gravity and tension forces of string attached (no friction or normal force)
A mechanical advantage needs to be
greater than 1
when delta G is less than 0, Keq is
greater than 1
Neustress
happens when you are exposed to something stressful, but it doesn't actively or directly affect you. For example, news about a natural disaster on the other side of the world may be very stressful, but your body doesn't perceive that stress as good or bad for you so you aren't affected.
universal emotions
happiness, sadness, contempt, surprise, fear, disgust, anger
When a patient is on the operating table for heart surgery, surgeons need to clamp major nearby blood vessels before cutting them because, according to Bernoulli's equation, a volume of pressurized blood opened to the atmosphere:
has a pressure that converts to kinetic energy, rapidly exiting the body and causing shock. When the surgeons cut into the artery, blood is no longer in a closed system and the pressure is converted to kinetic energy, causing the blood to rapidly exit the body.
Due to hydrogen bonding, alcohols and carboxylic acids have ___ melting/boiling points than aldehydes and ketones and can function as organic weak ___.
higher; acids
Socialization
how we learn informal and formal norms by interacting with other people and insitutions
what hormones does the placenta secrete?
human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), progesterone, estrogen
If a person drank a large quantity of hypersaline ocean water, the person could die because absorption of salt into the blood will cause it to become:
hypertonic compared with the cytosol of the body's cells, causing osmosis of water out of the cells.
Indicators of an acid base titration
identify endpoints
Ideal System
ignore friction and air resistance, generally the case on MCAT
centripetal force is mass _____
independent
bystander effect factors
individuals do not intervene to help victims when others are present -less likely to notice danger in crowds -take cues from others -degree of responsibility is decreased -cohesiveness of group
bronchitis
inflammation of the bronchi
peer pressure
influence from members of one's peer group.
informational social influence
influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality
mores
informal norms, which incur severe disapproval when violated. ex: cheating on romantic partner
mass hysteria
irrational fear of a perceived threat, verging on the point of a collective delusion
K+ channels
leaky, voltage-sensitive, slow to open in response. Structure is very selective for K+ over Na+.
observational learning
learning by observing others
lower temperatures are associated with ____ fluidity
less
Genes that are close together in the same chromosome:
less likely to undergo recombination as it is less likely that a chiasmata will be formed between them
Micelles
lipid molecules orient with polar (hydrophilic) head toward water and nonpolar (hydrophobic) tails away from water -surfactants, because they reduce surface tension of the solution
Gluconeogenesis occurs primarily in the ____ and to a lesser extent, in the ____
liver, kidneys
gallbladder
located below liver, responsible for storing bile, which is produced by liver
High levels of AMP signal that the cell is _____ on energy
low
Trace minerals
minerals essential in nutrition, needed in small quantities daily. iron and zinc are examples (Zinc has role in protein and DNA synthesis)
Osmolarity
molarity of ALL solute particles
Ectoderm gives rise to
nervous system, skin, eyes, ears, nose, hair, teeth enamel.
limbic system
neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions, memory, and drives.
Recombination occurs when there is an _____ number of crossover points between 2 genes
odd
equivalence point of a titration
on a graph, it is the point with vertical line
What is the approximate pH of a saturated aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid whose concentration is 10.2 M?
pH = -log(10) = -1
Boyle's Law
pressure and volume are inversely related p1v1 = p2v2
primacy effect and recency effect
primacy effect- refers to the better memory people have for items presented at the beginning of the list recency effect- refers to the better memory people have for most recent items, the ones at the end of the list
Keq < 1
reactants are favored
Erythrocytes
red blood cells, responsible for carrying oxygen to the different tissues of the body, and also aid in carrying carbon dioxide to the lungs, where it can be exhaled. Erythrocytes can do this because they are packed full of hemoglobin, a polymer of 4 proteins and iron that binds oxygen.
Decreased number of alveoli in the lungs leads to respiratory distress because:
reduced surface area in the lungs reduces the rate at which O2 and CO2 can diffuse through the lung epithelium.
cholesterol ____ membrane fluidity at high temperatures
reduces
vital capacity
refers to all of the air that can possibly be inhaled and exhaled. The residual volume is the volume of air that is never expelled from the lungs. It is important to retain a small amount of air to keep the alveoli from completely deflating and collapsing. Since there is a small amount of air that remains in the lungs and cannot be exhaled (the residual volume), the vital capacity can be thought of as the total lung capacity minus the residual volume.
quaternary structure of proteins
refers to proteins that consist of more than 1 polypeptide chain. EX: hemoglobin
partial reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
continous reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs extremely effective especially in early stages of acquisition
benign tumors
remain at the original site Can still be dangerous and fatal
Ebbinghaus forgetting curve
repeated rounds of learning slows down the forgetting process and consolidates more information into long-term memory
habituation
repeated stimuli elicit a diminished response over time
social norms
rules, spoken or unspoken, that regulate behavior, beliefs, attitudes, and values of members of society
difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
sat f.a contain no carbon to carbon double bonds, regular structure. More stackable, interact with eachother easier, high melting points; make less fluid; butter unsat contain 1 or more double bonds, if in cis - becomes less linear; less stackable; lower melting points, make membrane more fluid; olive oil
S cells (duodenum) secrete
secretin
-crine
signaling
intracrine signaling
signals act within the cell that synthesizes them
autocrine signaling
signals are released, then bind to receptors on the cell that synthesizes them
juxtacrine signaling
signals travel between cells in close contact
paracrine signaling
signals travel between nearby cells example: neurotransmitter
DNA transcription and translation can occur ___ in prokaryotes
simultaneously
what molecules can simply diffuse across the cell membrane?
small or nonpolar, examples including gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide. Water is small enough to some extent such as when water can diffuse through the membrane but other solutes cannot
Venules
small veins
arterioles
smallest arteries
splicosome complex
snRNPs, ribozymes, recognize marker sequences at splice sties at ends of exons, lariat loops form, exons are joined together.
Which of the following correctly describes the orbital hybridization of XeF4 and NH3, respectively?
sp3d2, sp3 remember to consider lone pairs!
intercalated discs
specialized connections between myocardial cells containing gap junctions
Beliefs
specific ideas that people hold to be true
Semantic (explicit/declarative)
specific pieces of information
coccus shaped
spherical
Order of events in James Lange Theory (4)
stimulus perceived, physiological response begins, emotion perceived, behavioral response occurs
potential energy
stored energy that results from the position or shape of an object
Cortisol
stress hormone released by the adrenal cortex
Why are prokaryotic ribosomes a target for certain antibiotics?
structural differences from eukaryotic ribosomes, can disrupt protein synthesis only in bacterial cells
secondary deviance (labeling theory)
subsequent acts of rule breaking that occur after primary deviance and as a result of your new, deviant label, the stigma attached to it and people's expectations of you
blood pressure (BP)
systole (<120)/diastole(80)
self-serving bias
tendency people have to credit their successes to themselves and their failures either to the actions of others or to situations
availability heuristic
tendency to make decisions about how likely an action or event is based upon how readily available similar information is in our memories
working memory
the cognitive and attentional process used in short-term memory
capillary action
the combined force of attraction among water molecules and with the molecules of surrounding materials, moves liquid against gravity
Molality
the concentration of a solution expressed in moles of solute per kilogram of solvent
test validity
the degree to which a test actually measures what it is supposed to measure
membrane fluidity
the degree to which phospholipids can move around laterally
Volage referes to
the difference in electric potentials a comparative quantity deltaV = v2-v1 deltaV = deltaU/q or W/q
extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information (e.g. can't learn technology as older person)
Mendel's Law of Dominance
the dominant allele is expressed in the phenotype
Priming
the effect of context on our ability to perceive stimuli
Elastic Potential Energy
the energy of stretched or compressed objects
group polarization
the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group. doesn't have to be irrational.
stress appraisal
the events of our lives flow through a psychological filter. How we appraise an event influences how much stress we experience and how effectively we respond.
predictive validity
the extent to which a score on a scale or test predicts scores on some criterion measure
accuracy of experiment
the extent to which measurements agree with standard values
criterion validity
the extent to which the test correlates with well-respected criterion or outcome measure
construct validity
the extent to which variables measure what they are supposed to measure
first messengers
the extracellular signaling molecule (*ligand*) that binds to the membrane receptor
learned helplessness
the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. Temporarily stored, decays quickly
primary socialization
the process of learning that begins at birth and occurs in the home and family, ex: toilet training
secondary socialization
the process of learning that takes place outside the home - in settings such as schools, religious organizations, and the workplace - and helps individuals learn how to act in appropriate ways in various situations
Encoding
the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.
first order reaction
the reaction rate is directly proportional to the concentration of only one reactant 1/s
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
bystander effect
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
fundamental attribution error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
The preferred ion configuration of many elements on the periodic table is determined by:
the tendency of elements to gain or lose electrons until they have the same electron configuration as the nearest noble gas
social desirability bias
the tendency that people have to give socially approved responses to questions in the context of research.
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
the volume of air that is not exhaled during normal breathing, but could be exhaled via active exhalation during strenuous exercise.
Individuals traveling at sea for long periods are advised not to drink ocean water because:
the water has a very high solute concentration relative to the body's cells.
gram positive bacteria
thick peptidoglycan cell wall retain crystal violet stain
Bronchi
two short branches located at the lower end of the trachea that carry air into the lungs.
explicit memory
type of long-term memory that refers to specific pieces of information, including recalling factual knowledge or specific events
chemical extractions
used to separate compounds based on different solubilities
Silencers
when bound by repressor, silence specific genes.
Hypertonic
when comparing two solutions, the solution with the greater concentration of solutes
deviance
when someone doesn't follow a norm
Conformity
when someone's behavior, beliefs, or thinking changes to line up with the perspective of others
compliance
when the person conforms but internally dissents
homotropic regulation
when the substrate of an enzyme also regulates its activity (Ex: O2 is a homotropic allosteric modulator of Hb)
E site (exit site)
where discharged tRNAs leave the ribosome
center of mass equation
x= (m₁x₁+m₂x₂+m₃x₃...)/(m₁+m₂+m₃...)
Do bacteria still have ribosomes?
yes, but it has 50s and 30s subunits (70s overall)
What is the standard enthalpy change (ΔH) for the formation of any pure element in it's standard state, such as C (graphite), N2 (gas), and O2 (gas)?
zero
Hess's law
ΔH(rxn) = ΔH products - ΔHreactants
equation for torque
τ = F∙d∙sin(θ) -F is the force applied -d is the distance that the force is applied from the fulcrum -θ is the angle between the lever arm and the force that is applied if you need to solve for a dipole rotation (physics): F=qE
cos 90
0
cos 60
0.5
How many Pascals are in 1 atm?
100,000
Morula
16 cell stage
STP
273 K and 1 atm
formula for number of sterioisomers
2^n
How many main regulatory steps does glycolysis have?
3
pyruvate
3 carbon sugar produced when glucose is split during glycolysis
Trisomy
3 copies of a chromosome
DNA polymerase moves in the _____ along the template strand
3' to 5'
heart structure
4 chambers: 2 atria (right and left) and 2 ventricles (right and left)
furanose
5 membered ring
What is the work done on the endotracheal tube balloon cuff during an intubation procedure if the balloon is inflated 4 x 10-3 m3 to a pressure of 1.5 atm?
6 * 10^-1 kJ work is calculated as pressure multiplied by the change in volume of a balloon cuff. Work is measured in joules, pressure should be in units of pascals, and volume should be in meters cubed. Note that 1 atm = 1 x 105 Pa. W = (1.5 x 105 Pa)(4 x 10-3 m3) = 6 x 102 J = 6 x 10-1 kJ Be careful with the change in units between joules and kilojoules.
E2 reaction
A bimolecular 1,2 elimination in which a single step, a base removes a proton and a leaving group departs from the substrate, resulting in the formation of a pi bond. Require strong base.
Imine
A double bond between a carbon and a nitrogen
electron transport chain
A sequence of electron carrier molecules (membrane proteins) that shuttle electrons during the redox reactions that release energy used to make ATP.
Phagocytosis
A type of endocytosis in which a cell engulfs large particles or whole cells
Purine bases
Adenine and Guanine
A pregnant mother who is Rh - but has fetus that is Rh + will be treated with:
Anti Rh antibodies that will prevent her immune system from making them, enables her to deliver baby safely
electric field
Any single point charge can exert a force on any other single point charge
Example of schacter-singer theory
As Julia pets her cat, her blood pressure decreases and her brain releases oxytocin. At the same time, she thinks of how much she loves her cat. Julia experiences happiness as a result.
Velocity of object in freefall
As an object falls, PE is converted to KE, so 1/2*m*vfinal^2 = mgh where g = 10 m/s^2
acetone structure and formula
C3h6O
Macrominerlals
Ca2+, Na+, K+, required in significant amounts (Calcium is needed for muscle contraction)
what is the chemical formula for gypsym?
CaSO4 (Ca has 2+ charge, and SO4 has a 2- charge, so ratio has to be 1:1 to be neutral)
Monosomy
Chromosomal abnormality consisting of the absence of one chromosome from the normal diploid number
Vitamins
Compounds found in food that help regulate many body processes -coenzymes of processes
conservatice force
Conserves total energy. Examples: gravity, electrostatic force
Virus structure
Contains genetic material either DNA or RNA, and a protein coat.
Work (energy transfer equation)
Force * Distance * cos(theta) theta is the angle between the direction of force and the direction of movement
Which forces are conservative?
Gravitational, Electromagnetic, Spring
What unit is torque measured in?
Nm (Newtons * meters)
Does adding an inert gas affect equilibrium?
No
language determinism
Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think
DNA in bacteria
double stranded dna
vasodilation
increase in diameter of a blood vessel
Joule in terms of kg, m, s
kg * m^2 / s^2
What is molarity?
mol/L
acetylation of histones
opens chromatin, allowing transcription
A man is accidentally exposed to a toxin which binds irreversibly and noncompetitively to pyruvate dehydrogenase. A likely consequence of this ingestion is:
a decrease in the level of Krebs cycle activity within the exposed cells.
variable-ratio schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses, most resistant to extinction
Duplication (chromosome)
a segment of a chromosome is repeated, leads to more mRNA and protein corresponding to that segment
Crystillization
a separation technique that results in the formation of pure solid particles of a substance from a solution containing the dissolved substance
When dissolved in an aqueous solution, which of the following metal salts will most likely yield a colorless solution? a. Fe(NO3)3 b. Zn(NO3)2 c. Cr(NO3)3 d. Ni(NO3)2
b. Zn(NO3)2 Iron 3 is orange, chromium 3 is purple, Ni(NO3)2 is turquoise
Pathogens
bacteria that are harmful to the body
horizontal gene transfer
bacteria's means of achieving genetic variability despite asexual reproduction -NOT same as reproduction as no new organisms are created
sodium hydroxide is strong ____
base
bicuspid (mitral) valve
between left atrium and left ventricle
optimal level of arousal
can vary depending on the particular task or behavior. Highly cognitive actions, like playing chess, have lower optimal levels of arousal, while less cognitive and more physical actions, like playing basketball, typically require higher levels of arousal.
RNA polymerase
catalyzes transcription, the polymerization of RNA. It locates specific sequences for genes it's interested in
loss of function mutation
causes a complete or partial loss of function
UV radiation
causes pyrimidine dimers, can lead to lasting DNA damage
Gain of function mutations tend to be
dominant
kinase
enzyme that adds phosphate to substrate
While glycoglycerolipids and sphingolipids are both amphipathic, only ___ are found in lipids rafts with cholesterol in the form of sphingomyelin.
sphingolipids
spirillum shape
spiral shaped
What kind of horizontal force acts between the powered tires of a car accelerating slowly on dry pavement without an incline, and the road?
static friction The horizontal force acting between the tires of a car and the ground under normal operation is that of static friction. The contact patch of the tire is *not moving* with respect to the road, rather rotation of the tire moves the contact patch. In a rather literal sense, the tire is pushing the road backwards and the road is pushing the tire forwards.
social control
the way norms are taught, enforced, and perpetuated
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
theory in which the physiological reaction and the emotion are assumed to occur at the *same time*
James-Lange theory of emotion
theory proposing that emotions result from our interpretations of our bodily reactions to stimuli
You should use Work = PV when...
a gas doing work against a piston, work being done on a container of gas to compress it. If there is a change in *Volume*
TP53 gene
a gene that codes for a protein (P53) that regulates transcription to prevent cancers. Mutations in P53 are associated with many cancers.
sickle cell anemia
a genetic disorder that causes abnormal hemoglobin, resulting in some red blood cells assuming an abnormal sickle shape -mutation of glu to val in hemoglobin protein
What is the wavelength of the photons emitted by the 145Pm-m isotope? ( 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J, Planck's constant = 6.62 x 10-34 J•s) Energy of the photon = 300 keV
Convert 300 keV to J 300 keV * 1.6 x 10-19 J/eV E = hc/λ λ = hc/E λ = 6.62* 10^-34 J/s * 3*10^8 m/s) / 300 keV * 1.6 x 10-19 J/eV = λ ≅ (6.5 x 3) / (300 x 1.5) x 10-10 λ ≅ (6.5 / 1.5) x 10-12 = [2(6.5) / 3] x 10-12 ≅ (12 / 3) x 10-12 = 4 x 10-12 m
Retroviruses
contain the enzyme reverse transcriptase
Sphingolipids
long fatty acid chain polar head group backbone=amino alcohol (not glycerol)
Halophiles
"salt-loving" archaea that live in environments that have very high salt concentrations
If the equivalence point of a titration with catopril is when 7.5 mL of 2*10^-2 M of NaOH is a added, How many moles of captopril were present in the original analyte solution tested?
# moles = M * V = 2*10^-2 mol/liter * 7.5mL /1000mL = 1.5*10^-4 mol NaOH since this is equivalence point, the mols NaOH will equal mols Catopril, so answer is 1.5*10^-4 mol * 1000 mmol/1mol = 0.15 mmol
cooperative binding of hemoglobin
- hemoglobin consists of four prosthetic heme groups that can bind one O2 each, as each individual O2 molecule binds, it increases the affinity of the next heme group for the additional O2 molecule - also works in reverse for O2 offloading - results in a sigmoidal dissociation curve
metallic solids
-high melting point and boiling point -metal atoms packed tightly -delocalized electrons so can carry current
Myoglobin binding curve
-hyperbolic: has same affinity for O2 regardless of bound O2 -P50 is lower than hemoglobin
effect of temperature change on equilibrium
-increasing temperature shifts *endothermic* reactions *right* -increasing temperature shifts *exothermic* reactions *left*
misinformation effect
-information we subsequently obtain can affect how we remember the original event -can cause witnesses to be biased
RNA interference (RNAi)
-introduction of RNA (siRNA - double stranded or microRNA - single stranded) into a cell to inhibit gene expression -incorporated into RNA induced silencing complex -this pairs with mRNA transcript -induces cleavage of transcript
Glycoproteins
-main histocompatibility complex -antigens of ABO blood type system -involved in cell recognition and communication processes
How much work is done by moving a charge along an equipotential line
0
When 0.2 moles of hydrofluoric acid are added to 100 mL of water, the resulting solution has a pH equal to 4. What is the percent dissociation of HF?
0.005% Hydrofluoric acid is a weak acid, does not dissociate completely. First, find [H+] from pH. [H+] = 10^-pH [H+] = 10^-4 = 0.001 M Next, use formula [H+]/[HF] * 100% to get percent dissociation Convert mol/mL into M: 100mL * 1L/1000mL = 0.1 L [HF] = 0.2 mol/0.1 L = 2 M Next, use formula [H+]/[HF] * 100% to get percent dissociation 0.001/2 *100% = 0.005 %
sin 30°
0.5
Elastic Potential Energy equation
0.5 x spring constant x extension^2
KEparticle (Ideal Gas)
0.5(mass)(vrms) or 3/2k(T) vrms = sqrt(3RT/Molar Mass)
cos 45
0.7
True or false: In-groups and out-groups may be defined on the basis broad demographic categories such as race, gender, sexual orientation, and religion.
True
Electrolytic cell
a device that uses an electrical potential to drive a non-spontaneous redox reaction.
Capacitor
a device used to store an electric charge, consisting of one or more pairs of conductors separated by an insulator.
free body diagram
a diagram showing all the forces acting on an object
Zygote
a diploid cell resulting from the fusion of two haploid gametes; a fertilized ovum.
Parkinson's disease
a progressive disease that destroys brain cells and is identified by muscular tremors, slowing of movement, and partial facial paralysis
transmembrane domain
a protein domain which passes through the cell membrane; mostly made of hydrophobic amino acids
magnetic fields
a region around a magnetic material or a moving electric charge within which the force of magnetism acts. Field lines run north to south Measured in Teslas Magnetic fields only exert forces on moving charges
ascribed status
a status into which one is born; involuntary status
What is the mitotic spindle?
a structure made of microtubules that controls chromosome movement during mitosis
fructose-2,6-bisphosphate
activates PFK-1 which increases glycolysis and inhibits fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase (decreasing gluconeogenesis). Insulin causes an increase in PFK-2 which causes an increase in Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate. Glucagon activates Fructose 2,6-bisphosphotase which decreases Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate.
Fructose-2,6-BP
activates glycolysis and inhibits gluconeogenesis
Inhalation is an _____ process.
active
recall
active retrieval of memory
Autosomal
all the other genes in the body that are not sex-linked.
Forumula for possible genetic phenotype combinations
allele number ^(gene number) = possible conbinations
secondary structure of proteins
alpha helix and beta sheet
primary structure of proteins
amino acid sequence
Oxidoreductases
catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions that involve the transfer of electrons
avoidance-approach conflict
conflict involving a good and bad situation
approach-avoidance conflict
conflict occurring when a person must choose or not choose a goal that has both positive and negative aspects
What is a limitation in many observational (non-experimental) studies?
confound variables could explain the relationship between the variables of interest
Mesoderm gives rise to
connective tissue, dermis, cartilage, bone, blood, and muscle, circulatory system, kidneys, adrenal glands, gonads
double approach-avoidance conflict
consist of two options with both appealing and negative characteristics
reliability of experiment
consistently of experiment -if we do the same experiment again, do we get same results?
Positive Sense RNA Viruses
contain mRNA that can immediately be translated into a protein by the cell
UV light damages DNA by
creating thymine dimers
Where does Citric Acid Cycle occur in prokaryotes?
cytoplasm
Where does glycolysis occur?
cytoplasm
Translation occurs in the _____.
cytoplasm Ribosomes, the sites of translation, are found in the cytoplasm.
Pyramidine bases
cytosine, thymine, uracil
Which of the following stimuli would NOT cause an ion channel to open? a. protein ligand b. Pressure c. influx of sodium ions d. None of the above
d. none Protein ligands, pressure, and an influx of sodium ions are all stimuli that open ion channels.
3 primary germ layers
ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
e
elementary unit of charge, 1.602*10^-19 C
most well known negative impact of chronic stress on the body
elevated blood glucose levels, with higher risk of cardiovascular disease and impaired immune system, decreased fertility, depression
integral proteins
embedded in the membrane, most are transmembrane proteins
Schacter-Singer theory
emotion processing has three distinct steps: exposure to the stimulus, physiological arousal, *cognitive appraisal* of the situation
Higher temperatures corresponds to higher solubility for
endothermic dissolution reactions, but does the opposite for exothermic
kinetic energy
energy due to motion
delta H fusion
energy required to cause the solid-to-liquid phase change for 1 mol of substance, units are kJ/mol
Fatty acid synthesis
energy storage
steroid hormones
enter the target cells and have a direct effect on the DNA of the nucleus; derived from cholesterol; hydrophobic; directly regulate gene expression; longer lasting and take longer to take effect when compared with peptide hormones
positive control
Group expected to have a positive result, allowing the researcher to show that the experimental set up was capable of producing results. E.g. ampicillin is the positive control for antibiotic experiments because we know it kills bacteria.
mechanical advantage formula, ramp
MA = length of incline/height of incline
Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky Halogenation Reaction, followed by hydrolysis
Reactants: Carboxylic acid, 1) Br2, PBr3, 2) H2O ---> carboxylic acid with halogen at alpha carbon
6 types of chromosomal abnormalities
Structural changes that occur on single chromosome: 1. Deletion 2. Duplication 3. Inversion Effects 2 chromosomes: 4. Insertion 5. Translocation 6. Aneuploidy
fluid mosaic model
Structural model of the plasma membrane where molecules are free to move sideways within a lipid bilayer.
topoisomerase enzyme
Tension created by unwinding the DNA helix during transcription is relieved by this enzyme
Under extreme pressures real gases have a ____ when compared to ideal gases at extreme pressures
higher pressure
Cannon-Bard Mnemonic
hit like a cannon, everything all at once (physiological arousal at same time as emotion)
endocrine signals
hormones carried between cells by blood or other body fluids
Larynx
houses vocal cords
iconic memory
how a highly-detailed visual image can remain in our perception after the stimulus itself is removed
Transmembrane proteins have
hydrophilic (interacts with inside and outside of cell) and hydrophobic domain (which is in contact with nonpolar interior of cell membrane)
ectopic pregnancy
implantation of the fertilized egg in any site other than the normal uterine wall location (e.g. fallopian tubes, cervix) Generally non-viable, can be dangerous for mom
variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. fixed ratio schedules are less effective than variable schedules.
glucagon ____ glycolysis
inhibits
primary appraisal
initial decision regarding whether an event is harmful
the lipopolysaccaride layer in outer membrane of gram negative bacteria...
it antigenic and capable of inducing an innate immune response in humans, also used as component of vaccines
The error rate of DNA replication is ____ than Transcription?
lower
Under low temperature real gases have a ____ when compared to ideal gases at lower temperature
lower pressure
Do prokaryotes have histones?
no
passive transport
no ATP required
esterification of fatty acids
packs the fatty acids into molecules for storage rather than using them immediately.
recognition
passive retrieval of memory, requires a shallower knowledge and less active mastery
Exhalation is active or passive?
passive, but can be active
in-group bias
people are biased towards those viewed as being part of their in-group.
Yerkes-Dodson Law
performance of a behavior tends to be negatively impacted at high and low levels of arousal
mesenchymal cells
produce fat bone and liver cells
Operon
prokaryotic coordinated unit of DNA that contains genes that are regulated and transcribed together. The gene cluster is under the regulative control of the promoter and operator.
TATA box
promoter's TATA box binds TATA-binding protein, which then associates with RNA polymerase to initiate transcription in eukaryotes.
cholesterol ____ membrane fluidity at low temperatures
promotes
insulin ___ glycolysis
promotes
colligative properties
properties of a solution that change solely with the concentration of solute in solution
colligative properties
properties that depend on the concentration of solute particles but not on their identity
What is digested in the stomach?
proteins
Bronsted base
proton (H+) acceptor
right ventricle
pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs
Hans Eysenck
first empirical study he published on genetics of personality in 1951, which investigated the trait of neuroticism in identical (i.e. monozygotic) and fraternal (i.e. Dizygotic) twins
Deposition
gas to solid
The blastocyst becomes a ___ after it is implanted in the uterine wall
gastrula
Negatively controlled gene
genes expressed unless repressor present
arguments supported by evidence will often be followed by that evidence in the ____ paragraph
same
Types of viral DNA
single stranded DNA, dsDNA, ssRNA, or dsRNA
conducting system of the heart
sinoatrial node, atrioventricular node, atrioventricular bundle, Bundle of His (atrioventricular bundle), right and left bundle branches, Purkinje fibers.
Codominance
situation in which both alleles of a gene contribute to the phenotype of the organism (e.g. A, B, AB, and O blood - with AB, one allele doesn't mask the other, both are codominant)
Under normal conditions such as STP, real gases have ____ pressure when compared to ideal gases
slightly smaller but nearly equivalent
social facilitation
stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others
Glucose and fructose are _______
structural isomers
instinctive drift
tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement
genetic linkage
tendency for genes located close together on the same chromosome to be inherited together
role strain
tension among the roles connected to a single status
sugar cyclization
the hydroxyl group on 4th or 5th carbon attacks the anomeric carbon, forms hemiacetal or hemiketal
Sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment
the inheritance of one character has no effect on the inheritance of another
Primary Deviance (Labeling Theory)
the initial act or attitude that causes one to be labeled deviant
colon
the longest portion of the large intestine-ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid colon
theoretical yield
the maximum amount of product that can be produced from a given amount of reactant in perfect conditions
Groupthink
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. leads to irrational decisions by a group.
What to the numbers on the bottom of the Element on MCAT Periodic table mean?
the molar mass of the element in *grams/mol*
enthalpy change
the name given to the amount of heat evolved or absorbed in a reaction carried out at constant pressure. It is given the symbol ΔH.
Atherosclerosis, a particular type of arteriosclerosis, usually involves either complete blockage or severe restriction of blood flow due to high cholesterol and plaque buildup in the arteries. In extreme cases, constricted arteries may collapse from pressure applied outside of the arteries. This can best be explained by:
the necessary increase in fluid velocity through the constricted arterial sections causing a corresponding drop in fluid pressure. According to the continuity equation, velocity increases as cross-sectional area decreases. Increasing velocity decreases pressure. If the pressure inside the artery drops far enough, it may fall below the pressure outside the artery, causing it to collapse from the applied external pressure.
At equivalence points during the titration
the number of acid or base groups added to the solution is equivalent to the number of base/acid groups in the original unknown solution
hemizygous
the presence of only one allele for a characteristic (i.e. X)
vapor pressure
the pressure exerted by a vapor over a liquid
Weber's Law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)
metastasize
the process by which cancer spreads from one place to another
sexual differentiation
the process by which males and females develop distinct reproductive sexual organs
role exit
the process of disengagement from a role that is central to one's self-identity in order to establish a new role and identity
Retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
Deletion (chromosomal)
the removal of a segment of genes on a chromosome, making it shorter, decreases mRNA and protein
ileocecal sphincter
the ring-like muscle that controls the flow from the ileum of the small intestine into the cecum of the large intestine
Thermodynamics
the study of heat and other forms of energy
triple point
the temperature and pressure conditions at which the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases of a substance coexist at equilibrium
first law of thermodynamics
the total energy of an isolated system is constant; energy can be transformed from one form to another, but cannot be created or destroyed.
heat
the transfer of energy between objects that are at different temperatures
After it becomes a zygote, the egg travels from fallopian tube to the
uterus
3 major types of organizations
utilitarian, coercive, normative
tricuspid valve
valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle
4 colligative properties of solutions
vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, osmotic pressure
Graham's Law
when gas is effusing (escaping from a small opening), smaller, lighter particles will escape faster. Big particles move slower. r2/r1 = sqrt( m2/m1) r = rate of effusion m = molar mass
afferent neurons
neurons that take information from the senses to the brain (CNS)
PI formula for acidic amino acids
pI = [pKa (R group) + pKa (COOH group)]/2
3 categories of passive transport
simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis
Lyase
splits a chemical bond in the absence of water
Ribosome docking is fulfilled by the
5' cap
Conservation of Energy equation (closed system with no energy transfer)
PEi + KEi = PEf + KEf
PI formula for neutral amino acids
PI = (pKa of NH group + pKa of COOH group) / 2
PI formula for basic amino acids
PI = (pKa of NH group + pKa of R group) / 2
Single Stranded Binding proteins
Proteins that act as scaffolding, holding two DNA strands apart during replication
three ways to increase the torque applied to an object
(1) increasing the force, (2) increasing the distance at which the force is applied from the fulcrum, and (3) adjusting the angle at which the force is applied to make it as close as possible to perpendicular to the lever arm.
Fgrav =
(G*m1*m2)/r^2
van der Waals equation for real gases
(P+a/V^2)(V-b)=RT a = attractive intermolecular forces b = size of particles b stands for big A very polar molecule will have a larger a term, and will behave less ideally than a nonpolar molecule
dimerization
(of receptor proteins) interaction of two receptor proteins to form a functional complex called a dimer
Exons
*EX*pressed sequence of DNA; codes for a protein, joined together.
Intron
*INTervening* sequences of RNA that is not involved in coding for a protein, spliced out during RNA splicing
Hydrofluoric Acid (HF)
*weak* acid
Van't Hoff's Law
*Π = iMRT* (osmotic pressure, for when only water can permeate, i = number of particles per molecule of dissolved substrate, M = total concentration of solute particles, R = ideal gas constant, T = temp in Kelvin)
The pKa of an indicator of acid-base titration should be _____ unit from the target pH
+/- 1
At pH 7.4, what charge will typical protein have on it's protonated amino terminal?
+1
flagella in eukaryotic cells
-composed of a specific arrangment of micotubule filaments - not flagellin, whip back and forth
lactones
- cyclic esters - named by the number of carbons in the ring and the Greek letter of the carbon forming the bond with the oxygen
At pH 7.4, what charge will typical protein have on it's deprotonated carboxylic acid terminal?
-1
Virtually any acidic residue should have a ____charge at pH of 7.4?
-1
SN2 reaction
-1 step -rate depends on concentration of nucleophile and substrate -nucleophile attacks intact substrate from behind leaving group and knocks leaving group free and bonding -inverse of configuration usually occurs (R to S or S to R) -nucleophile acts as base by abstrating a proton -bulky nucleophiles hinder
SN1 reaction
-2 steps 1. LG leaves, formation of carbocation (slow, rate limiting step) 2. Nucleophile attacks -rate depends on only 1 reactant -not stereoselective, racemic mixture of R and S
Citric Acid Cycle
-Completes the breakdown of glucose by oxidizing Acetyl-Coa -Main goal: reduction of e- carriers NADH, FADH2, which later go to ETC to generate energy -Final product for 1 turn of cycle (double to find products for 1 molecule glucose): -1 NADH from Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex -1 GTP -3 NADH -1 FADH2 -2 CO2 -irreversible steps: 1, 3, 4
Convection
-Conduction with movement, involves the direct transfer of KE from one substance to another -focuses on circulation of fluids (liquids and gases) -based on the density of fluids at different temperatures
small intestine
-Digestive organ where most chemical digestion and absorption of food takes place -peristalsis also occurs here -1 in in diameter, 22 ft long, 27,000 sq ft surface area -has villi and microvilli (brush border) -Once carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins are digested into smallest units, intestinal epithelial cells absorb small units and allow to enter circulatory system, other material passes to large intestine
Archaea
-Domain of unicellular prokaryotes that have cell walls that do not contain peptidoglycan -many are extremophiles, thrive in extreme temp, pH or salt conditions -use whatever energy source they can access
Radiation
-Energy that is radiated or transmitted in the form of electromagnetic rays or waves or particles. -does not require direct contact between substances
Trypsin
-Inactive precursor is trypsinogen -cleaved by enteropeptidase -Cleaves peptide bonds adjacent to lysine or arg -enzymatic regulation is critical to avoid premature activation of proteases, damaged in pancreatitis
Minerals
-Inorganic substances required but not synthesized in the body, must be obtained in diet -includes metal ions
Peristalsis
-Involuntary waves of muscle contraction that keep food moving along in one direction through the digestive system. -esophagus composed of both skeletal muscle and smooth muscle
liposomes
-Membrane-bound droplets that form when lipids are added to water. -used by researchers to deliver material to target cells and used to test cell membrane permeability
types of hormones
-Peptide Hormones -Steroid Hormones -Amino Acid Derivative Hormones
Fermentation
-Replenishes NAD+ (needed in step 6 of Glycolysis) -Anaerobic process -Lactate dehydrogenase reduces pyruvate to form lactic acid. NADH is oxidized to NAD+
Korsakoff's syndrome
-causes anterograde and retrograde amnesia -confabulation: creating elaborate fictional stories -Caused by B1 deficiency, preventable by proper nutrition
Vitamin A
-Retinol, Retinal -Essential for vision -Interacts with opsin to form rhodopsin
Factors that favor SN2
-Strong and small nucleophile -Non bulky substrate -polar, aprotic solvent (DMSO, acetone)
Vitamin K
-Synthesized by bacteria in the large intestine, essential for blood coagulation
ATP hydrolysis
-The addition of a water molecule removes inorganic phosphate from ATP, results in ADP. -Breaks phosphoanhydride bond, highly favorable and spontaneous.
electric potential energy
-U = kQq/r The energy a charged object possesses by virtue of its location in an electric field.
state-dependent effect
-a certain mood might promote the recall of memories that were encoded when you were in a similar mood -also applies to states of conciousness -being in the same physical setting where a memory was encoded and stored can promote its recall
Placenta
-a highly vascularized, flattened circular organ in the uterus of pregnant mom, allows exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and wastes -brings the maternal and fetal circulation into close but not direct contact
Alzheimer's disease
-a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning
histone acetyltransferases
-add acetyl groups to histones -reduce histone-DNA transactions -promotes DNA transcription
internal validity
-extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences from a study -minimize confounding variables
stomach
-parietal cells secrete gastric acid (composed of HCL and various salts) -pH of 1.5-3.5 -chief cells secrete pepsinogen, which is activated by acid to pepsin which digests proteins -Produces intrinsic factor to digest vitamin B12-mucous cells produce bicarbonate mucous providing protection from acid -acid helps kill bacteria -DOES NOT directly absorb any macronutrients -can absorb water, certain drugs, caffeine, small amts of alcohol
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
-prevents Scurvy -collagen synthesis
Initiation of Translation
-the small ribosomal subunit binds to the mRNA -the charged initiator tRNA (fMet in pro or Met in Euk) binds to the AUG start codon -the large subunit then binds to the small subunit, forming the completed initiation complex -assisted by initiation factors (IF)
Carboxylic acids can be reduced to alcohols with
1) LiAlH4 2) H3O+ *NaBH4 is not strong enough to reduce carboxylic acids*
ETC steps
1) electrons from NADH to FMN (complex I) 2) electrons to carrier Q (ubiquinone to ubiquinol), 4 protons go to intermembrane space 3) electrons to complex III, sends 4 protons to intermembrane space (cytochrome c) 4) electrons to complex IV (cytochrome a3) 5) electrons to oxygen and 2 H+ to water 6) ATP synthase is fueled by proton gradient, produces ATP For FADH2, this enters complex 2 and bypasses complex 1
Types of membrane receptors
1) ion channel-linked 2) enzyme-linked (catalytic) 3) G protein-coupled (GPCR)
What steps differ from glycolysis and gluconeogenesis?
1, 3, 10
Neuralation happens in the first _____ weeks after fertilization
1-3
Three processes that turn hnRNA into mRNA
1. 3' poly(A) tail added (facilitates nuclear export and protects mRNA against degradation) 2. 5' Cap (Also protects mRNA against degradation, Also facilitates nuclear export) 3.?
How was selective attention studied experimentally?
1. Dichotic Listening task (asked to focus audio in one ear, not other, they only remember what they were told to pay attention to) 2. Shadowing: repeating words instantly (no memory component)
Steps of Translation
1. Initiation 2. Elongation 3. Termination
IR spectra for carbonyls
1700
What are the subtypes of ADHD?
1. inattentive 2. hyperactive-impulsive 3. combined
Standard thermodynamic conditions
25C and 1atm
DNA's proofreading is also called
3' to 5' exonuclease actvity
RNA polymerase reads in a _____ direction
3-5
c (speed of light)
3.00 x 10^8 m/s
How much net ATP is created through glycolysis, PDC, CAC, ETC?
30
boiling points of aldehyde
300 C
IR spectra for OH
3000
A circuit is constructed with a 12-V battery and four identical resistors, each with a resistance of 16 Ω, and connected in parallel. What is the total power dissipated by the circuit?
36 W 1. Find total resistance: 1/Rtot = 1/16 + 1/16 + 1/16 + 1/16 1/Rtot = 4/16 = 1/4 Rtot = 4 ohms 2. Solve for power: P = V^2/R = 12^2/4 = 144/4 = 36 W
red blood cells (erythrocytes)
45% of blood, carry oxygen and co2 in the blood. Contain hemoglobin. Produced in bone marrow. Very energy efficient but only 120 day lifespan.
What is eukaryotic ribosome structure?
60s and 40s (80s overall)
If a 90-kg man undergoes a turning acceleration of 5 m/s2 during a running turn, what is the magnitude of force experienced by the foot due to the ground?
990 N To turn while running, the foot must push off the ground, which applies a shearing force while simultaneously supporting the weight of the body. We must account for the normal force exerted by the ground on the foot. This is a verticle force which occurs as a result of the runner's weight. We must also consider the acceleration force since direction is changing. This force is horizontal. These two force vectors are perpendicular and will form a right triangle. Fnormal = mg = 90 kg(10) = 900 N Fturning = 90(5) = 450 a^2 + b^2 = c^2 c = sqrt(900^2 + 450^2) c = 90(10^2 + 5^2)^1/2 c = 90(125)^1/2 c = 90*11 = 990 N
buffy coat
<1% of whole blood; leukocytes (white blood cells) and platelets
achieved status
A social position that a person attains largely through his or her own efforts
Conjugation
A special plasmid called fertility factor is transferred between two cells, sex pilus forms bridge between 2 cells Major cause of antibiotic resistance
Mutagen
A chemical (such as Reactive Oxygen Species) or physical agent (ionizing radiation, ultraviolet light) that interacts and *changes* with DNA and causes a mutation.
coordination complex
A compound in which a central metal atom or ion is bonded by coordinate covalent bonds to other atoms or groups. This can increase the solubility of other ions due to the common ion effect.
dihybrid cross, ratio, depends on...?
A cross between two individuals, concentrating on two definable traits, 9:3:3:1, independent assortment
epiglottis
A flap of tissue that seals off the windpipe and prevents food from entering.
triacylglycerol
A lipid consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule; also called a fat or triglyceride.
Viscosity
A liquid's resistance to flowing. On the molecular level, viscosity is caused by friction between layers of the fluid that are in motion relative to each other. Thus, fluids that have higher viscosity are more resistant to flow than those with lower viscosity. Since olive oil is more viscous than whole milk, beaker A will be emptied first.
conductor
A material that allows heat and electricity to pass through it.
Insulator
A material that does not allow heat or electrons to move through it easily.
Eustress
A positive stress that energizes a person and helps a person reach a goal, usually enjoyable
common ion effect and solubility
Adding a common ion decreases solubility, as the reaction shifts toward the left to relieve the stress of the excess product. Adding a common ion to a dissociation reaction causes the equilibrium to shift left, toward the reactants, causing precipitation.
Researchers have developed a novel enzyme that is able to catalyze the reduction of any partially oxidized nitrogen in the six-atom ring found in the structure of the adenine base pair. Which of the following changes might you expect to see in the base pairs of DNA as a consequence of the action of this enzyme?
Adenine will preferentially form a base pair with Cytosine. Normally, A goes with T, G goes with C. A-T has 2 H bonds, while G-C has 3 H bonds. With reduction of Nitrogen, adenine would now have ability to form *3 or 4* H bondes with a complimentary pyramidine. Cytosine is a pyramidine that can for 3 H bonds, so that is answer.
Nucleotides in DNA
Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine
recessive allele
An allele that is hidden whenever the dominant allele is present (i.e. bb)
Thermal Expansion
As substance heats up, molecular motion and separation increases, and substance generally expands and density decreases (exception: ice, less dense than liquid water)
An astronaut throws a baseball in space. Select all that will occur as a result of the throw.
As the ball is pushed forward (throughout the entire throwing motion) the astronaut is pushed backwards. It is not necessary to consider the exact motion of the arm for this, as it is sufficient to realize that if the baseball is experiencing a net forward force than the astronaut is experiencing a net backwards one. The magnitude of these forces is exactly the same, however the acceleration produced by the two is not: abaseball = F/mbaseball, while aastronaut = F/mastronaut. As a result, we can expect the baseball to accelerate more (until the instant it leaves the hand) than the astronaut. Once the two objects are no longer in contact, neither is accelerating.
What best describes the relationship between attribution theory and fundamental attribution error?
Attribution theory relates to an attempt by an individual to interpret actions by assigning causes to them, while fundamental attribution error is when an individual interprets another's actions incorrectly by overemphasizing internal characteristics instead of external events.
According to the passage, which of the following relationships must be true? A. 100 kPa is equivalent to 100 kJ/L. B. 100 kPa is equivalent to 100 J/L. C. 100 Pa is equivalent to 100 J. D. 100 kPa is equivalent to 100 J. Show Explanation
B. 100 kPa is equivalent to 100 J/L. This is a unit conversion problem: 100 kPa = 100,000 Pa = 100,000 N/m2 = 105 N/m2 (100 J/L) (1000 L/m3) = 105 J/m3 = 105 Nm/m3 = 105 N/m2
Transformation
Bacteria take DNA right from environment
Galvanic cell
Battery; a device that uses a spontaneous redox reaction to produce an electrical potential.
B.F. Skinner
Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats
How is information we DONT focus on modeled differently in the Broadbent model vs. Treisman attenuation?
Broadbent says it is discarded, Treisman says it is dialed down (cocktail party effect)
selective attention
Can be thought of as a spotlight. You have full attention on focus, no attention on fringe area, and partial attention on the margin.
What metabolic processes can pyruvate be shunted into?
Citric acid cycle, lactate fermentation,gluconeogenesis, fatty acid synthesis
approach-approach conflict
Conflict that results from having to choose between two attractive alternatives
Mitochondrial DNA
DNA found in the mitochondria that is inherited only through mothers; genetic diseases that are passed from mother to child are often due to mitochondria
which proofreading ability is better: RNA or DNA polymerase?
DNA polymerase
DNA polymerase proofreading ability
DNA polymerase can enzymatically cleave bases from the ends of a growing DNA molecule
Transposons (jumping genes)
DNA segments that can move to new location on same/different chromosome, comprise 40% of human genome. Generally not problematic, unless they go in middle of coding sequence.
Defensins
Defensins have broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against bacteria, fungi, and viruses. They are part of the non-specific, innate immune system in the respiratory tract. produced in respiratory tract
Multitasking
Degrades one's ability to perform complex tasks, we have a certain capacity for attention that we allocate among tasks. (proposed by Daniel Kahneman)
isotonic
Describes a solution whose solute concentration is equal to the solute concentration inside a cell (patients are given isotonic solution, not pure water)
Gastrin
Digestive hormone that stimulates sustained secretion of gastric juice from the stomach
Invisible Gorilla Experiment
Direct attention causes people to miss things happening in the background. Exemplifies inattention blindness, which is what magicians rely on.
discrimination vs. stereotyping
Discrimination: *actions (behavior!)* against people due to their race (different treatment of people based on race or color) Stereotyping: a cognitive *belief* of associating preconceived notions or beliefs with people based on group membership.
Complete dominance
Dominant allele masks the recessive allele in heterozygotes
What type of conflict are the jurors in the study likely experiencing if they are unsure of the defendant's guilt?
Double approach-avoidance conflict
conservation of energy
a principle stating that energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can be altered from one form to another.
Gram negative bacteria have a good chance of being ____ in routine clinical contexts
E. coli
Mullerian ducts
Earlier embryonic ducts that can develop into female internal genitalia (uterus, cervix, vagina) in the absence of testosterone
Put the following terms in the correct order to accurately describe a solute molecule's journey from the extracellular to the intracellular environment: lysosome, early endosome, and late endosome.
Early endosome, late endosome, lysosome Endosomes are membrane-bound vesicles that transport material to lysosomes for degradation. An endosome matures through various stages: early endosomes, then late endosomes (which prepare for ultimate fusion to the lysosome), and finally, lysosomes. The lysosome is the destination for ingested particles that will be degraded.
Saponification
Ester + NaOH -> alcohol + carboxylate salt
inductive effect
Electronegative atoms pull electron density and stabilize the conjugate base of an acid, making a stronger acid. -effect diminishes if the electronegative atom is far away hydrogen that is lost -alyl groups have a reverse inductive effect, donating electron density, reducing a compound's acidity by destabilizing the conjugate base
Which of the following statements is LEAST applicable to endosomes? a. endosomes are bound to the plasma membrane on the intracellular side. b.Endosomes are responsible for sorting material that was ingested via endocytosis and degrading material the cell does not want to use. c. Endosomes identify receptors that should be sent back to the plasma membrane. d. endosomes are organelles
Endosomes are responsible for sorting material that was ingested via endocytosis and degrading material the cell does not want to use. While endosomes are responsible for sorting ingested material, they do not degrade material. Late endosomes deliver material to lysosomes, the cell's metaphorical recycling facility. These highly-acidic organelles contain specialized enzymes that break molecules of biological waste down into small components that can be recycled and reused.
Which of the following answer choices correctly characterizes the relationship between villi, microvilli, and enterocytes?
Enterocytes are the epithelial cells that make up the small intestine. Because villi are tiny folds of the small intestine's epithelial surface, each villus is composed of hundreds of enterocytes. Microvilli are microscopic hair-like extensions of each enterocyte's cell membrane.
salivary amylase
Enzyme in saliva that breaks down starch
Formula for calculating the force of gravity on an object on an incline plane?
F = mgsin(theta)
Force on moving charge
F = qvBsin θ = angle of velocity of particle to the magnetic field
Newton's Third Law
F(A on B) = -F(B on A)
Coulomb's Law
F=K q₁*q₂/r², magnitude of force between two charges
What electron carriers shuttle electrons from the citric acid cycle or glycolysis to the ETC?
FADH2 and NADH, respectively
True or False: Phagocytosis requires energy while pinocytosis does not.
False Both pinocytosis (the ingestion of extracellular fluid) and phagocytosis (the ingestion of solid material) are forms of endocytosis. Both endocytosis and exocytosis require energy as they do not occur spontaneously.
T or F: exposure to a mutagen always results in a mutation
False, exposure to a mutagen does not guarantee that mutations will result
True or false: Max Weber defined the characteristics of an "ideal bureaucracy" and coined that term because he considered it the most desirable kind of organizational system.
False. While Weber did define the characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy, the term "ideal" in this instance just means that these characteristics fit the definition of bureaucracy as closely as possible. An ideal bureaucracy is not necessarily the most desirable organizational system. In fact, Weber was aware that bureaucracies could be stifling and coined the phrase "iron cage of bureaucracy" to describe the stagnation that can occur in a bureaucratic system.
Centripetal Force
Fc = mv^2/r
Which of the following is true about an X-linked dominant trait?
Females with one copy of the mutated allele will always express the trait. Only one X chromosome is required for the expression of this dominant trait. However, in females, one chromosome is always randomly inactivated. Therefore, incomplete penetrance exists for X-linked dominant traits, as the X chromosome carrying the dominant allele may be randomly inactivated in some somatic cells.
What enables the fetus to obtain sufficient oxygen from the maternal blood?
Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than does adult hemoglobin.
Esophagus
Fibromuscular tube through which food passes to the stomach, runs behind trachea and pierces through diaphragm en route to stomach, passing through lower esophageal sphincter (aka cardiac sphincter)
Path of air to lungs.
First, air enters the oral cavity or nostrils, also called nares. Air then passes the pharynx at the back of the mouth, and then the path diverges into the airway and the esophagus. The air then passes the larynx. The epiglottis is part of the larynx. This is a flap of cartilaginous tissue that covers and protects the airway when swallowing food, shunting food toward the esophagus, but it opens up to allow air to pass into the airway during breathing. The larynx also contains the vocal cords. The vocal cords vibrate when air moves over them, and they're consciously controlled during speaking and singing. Air then continues down the trachea, which is lined with ciliated epithelial cells and mucus-producing goblet cells. This mucus traps any stray bacteria or particulate matter, which is then pushed upward by cilia toward the oral cavity so it can be expelled, or swallowed, as phlegm.
Plasma (blood)
Fluid component, 55% of volume, carries ions, proteins, nutrients, and gases
blastoseal
Fluid filled cavity in blastocyte
most electronegative element
Fluorine
Fapplied must be greater than ____ for the object to start moving
Fmax
Newton's First Law of Motion
Fnet = 0 at equilibrium
Newton's 2nd Law of Motion
Fnet=ma
A 5 kg box is resting on a ramp with an incline of 45 degrees. What can we say about the value of the coefficient of static friction between the ramp and the box?
For this problem it is crucial to realize that the force parallel along the incline, a component of gravity, must be equal to the force of static friction currently being exerted. If this were not the case, the box would not be at rest. From this we can setup an inequality, knowing that static friction increases in response to an applied force until the applied force is greater than the maximum possible static friction. Knowing this we can setup the equations below: mgsin(theta) <= usN N = mgcos(theta) mgsin(theta) <= us mg cos (theta) tan(theta) =< us 1<= us And thereby determine that our coefficient of static friction must be greater than or equal to 1, or the box would be in motion. Notice that although you were provided with the weight of the box, it turned out to be irrelevant.
secondary active transport
Form of active transport which does not use ATP as an energy source; rather, transport is coupled to ion diffusion down a concentration gradient established by primary active transport.
formal vs informal norms
Formal: -generally written down, like *laws* -precisely defined, publicly presented and have strict penalties for violators informal: generally understood but less precise and carry no specific punishment
Which forces are nonconservative?
Friction, Air resistance
capillary beds
Gas, nutrient, and waste exchange occurs in capillary beds, and plasma from the circulatory system contributes to interstitial fluid in the tissues, which is returned to the circulatory system via lymphatic vessels.
What small molecules can undergo simple diffusion freely through plasma membrane? Why is this necessary?
Gases, o2 and co2; respiration
McDonaldization
George Ritzer's term describing the spread of bureaucratic rationalization and the accompanying increases in efficiency and dehumanization
difference between sphingolipids and glycolipids
Glycoglycerolipids and sphingolipids differ from each other in their backbone molecule: Glycoglycerolipids have a glycerol backbone and sphingolipids have a sphingosine backbone. Glycoglycerolipids and sphingolipids can contain the same hydrocarbon head group, but they still belong to their respective glycolipid subclasses because of their backbone.
Forces in vertical direction
Gravity (mg), and normal force
What is biggest example of a retrovirus?
HIV
malonic acid
HOOC-CH2-COOH
q = mcΔT
Heat in kJ = mass in kg * specific heat (unit kJ/kg*K) * delta T
Incomplete dominance
Heterozygote has blended/gradient phenotype that is in between dominant and recessive phenotype (i.e. Snapdragons can be red or white, but have a pink phenotype)
Conditions that make gases behave "ideally"
High temp, high volume, low pressure
The hemoglobin-oxygen (Hb-O2) dissociation curve at high altitude (red) has a distinct shape from that at atmospheric pressure (black). Which of the following best explains the sigmoidal shape of the curves?
Homotropic regulation by oxygen occurs.
Aldosterone
Hormone that stimulates the kidney to retain sodium ions and water
Abraham Maslow
Humanistic psychologist known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" and the concept of "self-actualization"
In miRNA-directed gene silencing, a small RNA binds to another mRNA molecule and suppresses its expression. Which of the following terms describes the process through which this binding occurs?
Hybridization
Effect of pressure on equilibrium
If pressure is increased, the side with fewer *gas* molecules is favoured (NB: only gaseous molecules).
secondary appraisal
If primary appraisal determines the presence of a threat, secondary appraisal begins. During secondary appraisal, the individual decides whether and how he or she can cope with the threat.
Gluconeogenesis is run if____
If there is high ATP to ADP ratio
Virus Replication with RNA Viral Genome
Immediately translated to protein in host cytoplasm or reverse transcribed to DNA by reverse transcriptase (retroviruses)
acquisition
In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
In prokaryotes, genes can exist as operons that are transcribed into a polycistronic mRNA, containing multiple genes in a single transcript. In eukaryotes, transcripts exist only as monocistronic mRNA containing a single gene. What fundamental genetic difference is responsible for this distinction?
In eukaryotes, each gene has its own transcription initiation site.
Where is the velocity of blood flow the slowest?
In the capillaries because the total cross-sectional area is the greatest
Increasing plasma concentration of aldosterone is most likely to be followed by which of the following?
Increased sodium reabsorption in the distal tubule
spinal cord transection
Injury that severs the cord loss of sensation & motor control below the injury
HPA axis
Interaction between the nervous and endocrine systems to produce the body's response to stress. Elevated levels of one of these hormones may lead to depression
electrolyte
Ions that dissolves in water to give a solution that conducts electric current
suicide inhibition
Irreversible enzyme inhibitor Enzyme binds inhibitor (substrate analog) forming an irreversible complex thru covalent bond during normal catalysis rxn.
electric force is measured in
J/m or N
SI unit heat
Joule (J)
Units for Work
Joules
Energy is measured in
Joules (J)
Kinetic Energy Formula
KE = 1/2mv^2
glycolipid key components and function
Key components: glycerol or sphingosine backbone, lipid modified with carbohydrates Involved in cell signaling and adhesion processes
What organ has a lot of aquaporins?
Kidneys, collecting ducts of nephrons
competitive inhibition Km and Vmax
Km increases, Vmax stays the same
Other names of the citric acid cycle
Krebs cycle, TriCarboxylic Acid cycle
Diaphragm
Large, flat muscle at the bottom of the chest cavity that helps with breathing
Wolffian duct
Later forms male reproductive organs in lieu of the Mullerian Duct in females
How does the last step of CAC proceed if it is unfavorable?
Le chatlier's principle, the product, oxaloacetate is quickly used up in first step of cycle which is favorable
What amino acids *cannot* be converted into pyruvate?
Leucine, Lysine
Low and High Ksp values mean
Low = solute does not dissolve readily (very low = insoluble) High = solute dissolves readily
In which situation would GLUT1 be upregulated?
Low levels of cellular glucose because when cellular levels of glucose are low, the expression of GLU1 is upregulated to ensure that cells receive adequeate supplies of glucose
How to pathogenic bacteria harm their hosts?
Many different mechanisms, including reproducing intracellularly, outside of host cells, and secreting damaging toxins
Where are secreted proteins translated?
Membrane-bound ribosomes on rough ER, then fed into ER for processing. Then they go to Golgi apparatus, secretory vesicles, then out of cell.
X linked recessive
Men express phenotype if they have only 1 copy of recessive allele from their mom. (Why hemophilia is more common in males). Women express if have recessive allele in both X chromosomes (rare for female to have an X linked recessive disorder)
Umbilical artery
carries deoxygenated blood from fetus to placenta
The start codon, AUG, codes for the amino acid:
Methionine
Retrotransposons
Mobile elements that make up 40% of the human genome
At moderate to high temperatures (including physiological temperature), does cholesterol make the cell membrane more fluid or more rigid?
More rigid
degeneracy of the genetic code
More than one codon codes for an amino acid, making third codon position a wobble one
Missense Mutations
Most common type of mutation, a base pair mutation in which the new codon makes sense in that it still codes for an amino acid.
Where does post-translational modification take place?
Mostly in Rough ER, but also in Golgi Apparatus
Pascal
N/m^2
What is responsible for MRSA?
Multidrug resistance
In which direction are peptides synthesized by ribosomes?
N terminus to C terminus of a polypeptide chain
Amine
N with three R's
1 joule =
N*m = kg*m^2 / s^2
Is cell differentiation irreversible?
No, cancer cells can become less differentiated and pluripotency can be artificially induced by scientists
In prokaryotes, is post-transcriptional modification of RNA performed?
No, newly synthesized RNA is immediately *translated* into proteins
Does fermentation produce ATP?
No. The point of fermentation is to continue glycolysis to produce ATP.
What is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain?
O2
semantic networks
Organization of information in networks of meaningfully related memories
A mass of 10 kg is dropped from a height of 20 m. Ignoring air resistance, what is the maximum speed it achieves?
PE = mgh PE = 10kg * 10 m/s^2 * 20 m PE = 2000 kg/s^2 = 2000 J KE = 1/2*10kg v^2 = 2000 J v = sqrt(400) = 20 m/s
corona radiata
Outer layer of cells surrounding the oocyte. These cells are secreted by follicle cells.
systematic bias
Overrepresentation or underrepresentation of some population characteristics in a sample resulting from the method used to select the sample; a sample shaped by systematic sampling error is a biased sample.
In the electron transport chain, which of the following is the component that is reduced but never oxidized?
Oxygen
What is rare example of positive feedback?
Oxytocin in childbirth, contractions stimulate more oxytocin release from pituitary gland
Ideal Gas Law
PV=nRT
pacreatitis
Pancreas contains proteolytic maintained in dormant state, activated in small intestine to digest proteins. processing hormones in Enzymes become prematurely activated in pancreas, resulting in rampant proteolytic activity.
paramagnets
Paramagnetic materials have unpaired electrons in their atomic suborbitals. unpaired electrons have random spins. material as a whole has no net dipole. weakly attracted to magnetic fields.
Insertion (chromosomes)
Part of first chromosome breaks off and inserts itself into 2nd chromosome
Chyme
Partially digested, semiliquid food mixed with digestive enzymes and acids in the stomach.
Nonconservative forces
Path Dependent
Conservative Forces
Path independent
mitochondrial outer membrane
Phospholipid bilayer that encloses the organelle, highly porous, studded with porins (small polar molecules can diffuse), *not* permeable to protons
A student finishes an experiment involving several types of highly pathogenic bacteria. She wishes to dispose of the agar plates and micropipette tips she used. Which of the following procedures should she carry out?
Place all materials in an open metal container and autoclave the container.
isoelectric point
Point at which a compound (e.g. amino acid) is electrically neutral.
If a problem gives you work, distance, and time, it is likely that _____ is what you are looking for
Power
Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
Pressure of walls on container is result of elastic collisions of particles on walls. Average Kinetic Energy = 3/2RT
Translation
Process by which mRNA is decoded and a protein is produced
Anaerobic
Process that does not require oxygen
ADP Phosphorylation
Process where ADP, the phosphate group and energy join to form ATP, nonspontaneous
Transcription Factors
Proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences or other regulatory proteins that promote or block RNA polymerase by recruiting other mediator proteins.
Enzymes
Proteins that speed up chemical reactions by reducing activation energy
What are possible sources of pyruvate for gluconeogenesis?
Proteins Glycerol from fatty acids Lactate
parasitic organism types
Protozoa (single celled parasites) helminths (multicellular worms); ectoparasites (multicellular parasites that live outside host such as lice) -Immune system mediates these infections primarily by eosinophils and IgE antibodies
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures formula
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3...
Right hand rule for direction of magnetic field
Put right thumb in direction of current, fingers will curve around to show direction of field
Thioether
R-S-R
Ester
RCOOR -oate -neutral -lower melting and boiling points compared to carboxylic acidst
vasoconstriction
Reduces blood flow and heat transfer by decreasing the diameter of superficial blood vessels.
Hypotonic
Referring to a solution that, when surrounding a cell, will cause the cell to take up water. Happens when someone has water intoxication.
Anomie
Refers to situation where there is a poor match between society's stated norms and the norms that an individual responds to
Rh factor
Refers to the presence or absence of the Rh antigen on red blood cells.
Diastole
Relaxation of the heart, BP goes down
Benign tumors
Remain clustered and can be removed
Order of turning DNA into Proteins
Replication, Transcription, Translation
dynamic equilibrium
Result of diffusion where there is continuous movement of particles but no overall change in concentration
Neurulation
Rod of mesodermal cells form the notocord, which induces the formation of the Neural Plate from ectodermal cells. The neural plate invaginates to form neural folds, and a central neural groove. It continues to fold until the neural tube is formed, which will later give rise to the central nervous system. the neural crest cells will give rise to peripheral nervous system.
Osmosis
Simple diffusion of *solvents* (liquid that solutes are dissolved in, almost always water)
What aspects separate single-crossover events from double-crossover events?
Single-crossover events affect only the ends of chromosome arms, while double-crossover events can affect segments in the middle of chromosome arms.
What can also undergo simple diffusion, albeit not as freely as gases?
Small, uncharged, polar molecules (water, ethanol, urea)
Capillaries
Smallest blood vessels, 1 cell thick, gas exchange occurs through these -blood spilling out causes bruising
rods
Specialized visual receptors that play a key role in night vision and peripheral vision.
Why do our 20K genes produce 100x more proteins?
Splicing, exons can be connected in different combinations
pluripotent stem cells
Stem cells that can differentiate into any cells of the ectoderm, mesoderm, or ectoderm. Cannot differentiate into cells of the placenta.
totipotent stem cells
Stem cells that can differentiate into any type of cell, only applies to early embryos, up to the morula or 16-cell stage
Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution
Step 1: Nucleophilic Addition Step 2: Elimination of the leaving group and reformation of the carbonyl. can make: esters, amides, acid anhydrides, acid chloride, acid bromide
RNA polymerase II
Synthesizes hnRNA (mRNA precursor) Located in nucleus
For an anterior force of 98 N and a torque of 13 Nm, what is the distance from which force was applied? Given force was applied perpendicular to rotation
T = r F sin(theta) Perpendicular so theta = 90 degrees, sin theta = 1 13 Nm = r (98N) (1) r = 13 Nm/98N r = 0.133 m or r = 133 mm
mitochondrial matrix
The compartment of the mitochondrion enclosed by the inner membrane and containing enzymes and substrates for the citric acid cycle, electron carriers, mitochondrial DNA and RNA, Ribosomes
While the blood is buffered primarily through the equilibrium between carbon dioxide and carbonic acid, coupled with hemoglobin, the blood may also be buffered through other plasma proteins. Which of the following is true?
The amino acid residues that make up the protein may act as Brønsted acids or bases, reducing shifts in pH.
Segregation (genetics)
The law of segregation postulates that during meiosis (not mitosis) the individual alleles constituting a pair of homologous chromosomes will segregate randomly into chromosomes.
Zaitsev's Rule
The most substituted alkene is formed preferentially
A scientist conducts a cross of two zebrafish, each of which has a genotype of UuWw. How would the scientist be able to tell if the genes are NOT assorting independently? Select all that apply.
The percent of each type of phenotype differs from approximately 56%, 19%, 19%, 6%. DNA analysis indicates that the two genes are close together on a chromosome. (Two genes which are close together on a chromosome are likely linked due to a reduced frequency of crossover events, and are therefore unlikely to assort independently.)
Transesterification
The process that transforms one ester to another when an alcohol acts as a nucleophile and displaces the alkoxy group on an ester. 1) cat. H2SO4 2) heat
fundus of stomach
The upper left portion of the stomach, which has a curved, dome-shaped appearance.
tertiary structure of proteins
Three-dimensional structure of a peptide, results from hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions between residues far apart on the chain. Disulfide bonds and hydrogen bonds can also add to the tertiary structure of the protein.
Why do cells carry out gluconeogenesis?
To maintain blood glucose levels and to replenish glycogen in the liver
Tumorgenesis
Transformed cells then exhibit uncontrolled cell division
Transition metals color and properties
Transition elements are malleable and readily conduct electricity, and their aqueous solutions often have *vivid colors due to electronic transitions between d orbitals*.
Virus Replication with DNA Viral Genome
Translocates to the nucleus, transcribed by the host cell's RNA polymerase
aquaporins
Transporters specific for water.
Fetal Blood Vessels
Umbilical artery, umbilical vein
Treisman's Attenuation Model
Unattended information is attenuated (reduced in intensity) while intense or important information comes to attention. Explains the cocktail party effect.
endoderm gives rise to
Urinary Bladder, gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts (pancreas, lungs)
Ohm's Law
V=IR (voltage = current x resistance) I = V/R R = V/I
atrioventricular valves
Valves located between the atrial and ventricular chambers on each side of the heart, prevent backflow into the atria when the ventricles are contracting.
Why is HIV so hard to treat?
Viral DNA integrates into the hosts genome
Power unit
Watt (joule/second)
Balanced Translocation
When the chromosome material is present in the correct amount even though its position is different, harmless
schemas
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
How is HIV treated?
With antiretroviral drugs that target reverse transcriptase
work-energy theorem
Wnet = ΔE = KEf - KEi or PEf-PEi
If the bicep exercises last 5 minutes, what is the total work performed by the patient's muscle in kJ? The load is 50 Watts
Work = Power/Time Work = 50 J/s (5min) (60s/min) = 15,000 J 15,000J * 1kj/1,000J = 15 kJ
An object with a mass of 10 kg is rolled down a frictionless ramp from a height of three meters. If a factory worker at the bottom of the ramp slows the object until it comes to a stop, how much work must the factory worker have done?
Work = ΔKE = KEf - KEi Since the object is coming from rest and has no KE initially, its change in KE is = PE = mgh = 3m* 10kg * 10m/s^2 = 300 kg/s^2 = 300 J
Negative work
Work done by the object on it's environment, decrease in an object's energy
Positive work
Work done on an object by its environment, increases object's energy
chiasmata
X-shaped regions where crossing over occurred. form in random locations between 2 sister chromatids
Ksp =
[prodA]^coefficient[prodB]^coefficient *don't include solids or liquids, only aq products*
Keq
[products]/[reactants] raised to power of coefficients *do not include solids or liquids! only gases and aqueous* -Temperature dependent -Not concentration dependent -catalysts do not change -concentrations must be at equilibrium
centripetal acceleration
a = (v^2)/r
visiospatial sketchpad (working memory)
a buffer that holds onto visual and spatial information as it is processed by working memory
ketal
a carbon atom bonded to two alkyl groups and two -OR groups
centripetal force
a force that acts on a body moving in a circular path and is directed toward the center around which the body is moving.
Ligand Gated Transport
a form of passive transport that can be shut off by the presence of a ligand
polycystronic
a mRNA that codes for greater than 1 protein (in prokaryotes)
negative feedback
a mechanism of response in which a stimulus initiates reactions that reduce the stimulus
Na/glucose symporter
a membrane transport protein that simultaneously transports glucose and sodium ions into cells, with the movement of sodium ions down their electrochemical gradient driving the transport of glucose against its concentration gradient
Fads
a new behavior that suddenly becomes extremely popular, then fades
Gram staining
a technique used in differentiating between different types of bacteria based on structure of cell wall. -gram positive: turns purple -gram negative: turns red (counterstain)
Confirmation bias
a tendency that people have to focus on information that is in agreement with the beliefs they already have, rather than the information that is contrary to those beliefs.
unbalanced translocation
a translocation in which a cell has too much genetic material compared with a normal cell
p53
a tumor suppressor protein that is encoded by the TP53 gene. It has two major functions: to initiate DNA repair as needed, and to initiate apoptosis when the DNA damage is too extensive. Loss of function mutations in p53 allows cells to evade these checks on cell cycle progression, leading to cancer.
In which of the following molecules does the carboxylic acid functional group have the highest Ka? a. CH3CF2COOH b. CHF2CH2COOH c. CH3CHFCOOH d. CH3CH2COOH
a. CH3CF2COOH This one has most fluorines, which are e- withdrawing groups, which would stabilize the conjugate base, which indicates the most acidic, so highest Ka
Aneuploidy
abnormal number of chromosomes, typically results from nondisjunction, chances increase in older eggs
tumor
abnormal proliferation of cells
Do basic or acidic amino acids have the potential to become negatively charged?
acidic
pH of intermembrane space
acidic because of proton pumping.
parturition
act of giving birth
Vitamin D
acts as a hormone that regulates calcium and phosphate concentrations in the blood stream -increases absorption of calcium, phosphate, and other minerals -can be synthesized in the skin from exposure to UV radiation -The two major forms are converted to the biologically active form, calcitriol
percent yield
actual yield/theoretical yield x 100
insertions and deletions
additions or losses of nucleotide pairs in a gene -*could be* frame shift if the insertion/deletion is different from 3
ATP structure
adenine nucleotide, ribose, 3 phosphate groups (a, B, gamma). Gamma subunit is highly negatively charged.
nucleotides in RNA
adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil
cyclic AMP pathway steps
adenylyl cyclase is activated, cAMP levels increase, protein kinase A is activated, PKA phosphorylates proteins
What causes capillary action?
adhesion and cohesion
what releases Aldosterone, and why?
adrenal cortex, as a response to low blood pressure. Primary fxn is to increase sodium reabsorption in the distal tube and the collecting duct.
facultative anaerobes
aerobic metabolism when oxygen is present, anaerobic when oxygen is lacking
citric acid cycle
aerobic respiration
amniotic sac
an amniotic fluid-filled sac that cushions and protects a developing embryo and fetus in the uterus
Lysozyme
an enzyme found in saliva and sweat and tears that destroys the cell walls of certain bacteria
mitotic nondisjunction
an event in which chromosomes do not segregate equally during mitosis
Milgram Experiment
an experiment devised in 1961 by Stanley Milgram, a psychologist at Yale University, to see how far ordinary people would go to obey a scientific authority figure with giving electric shocks
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
lactate fermentation
anaerobic respiration
example of secondary active transport
antiporters Secondary active transport is a combination of active and passive transport. The active transport generates a concentration gradient that powers the passive transport of something else. Antiporters move two solute types in opposite directions. One solute moves with its concentration gradient and the other moves against its own concentration gradient.
Non-conservatice forces
any force that causes energy to be lost from a system to the environment (most prominent are friction and air resistance)
supercritical fluid
any substance at a temperature and pressure above its critical point, where distinct liquid and gas phases do not exist
door-in-the-face technique
asking for a large commitment and being refused and then asking for a smaller commitment
foot-in-the-door technique
asking for a small commitment and, after gaining compliance, asking for a bigger commitment
Where would obligate anaerobes be found in a test tube that is slightly open at top?
at bottom
A wide variety of biological life forms carry their genetic information in the form of DNA. This genetic material is converted into RNA, which is then used to construct protein. One type of organism or agent that forms an exception to the central dogma of molecular biology is:
at least some positive sense viruses Retroviruses are positive-sense ssRNA viruses. These pathogens have a single-stranded RNA genome that must be reverse transcribed to form DNA. The DNA is then transcribed into RNA and used to synthesize viral proteins. It should be noted that viruses are not living organisms, as they cannot survive on their own without other living organisms.
Where would obligate aerobes be found in a test tube that is slightly open at top?
at top of test tube where more oxygen is
membrane proteins
attached to plasma membrane
appendix
attached to the cecum, vestigial organ, but might be reservoir for gut bacteria
Do basic or acidic amino acids have the potential to become positively charged?
basic
Where are Erythrocytes created?
bone marrow, in response to erythropoietin (EPO), a hormone that is released from the kidney whenever erythrocyte levels are low. During development in the bone marrow, erythrocytes lose their membrane-bound organelles, including their mitochondria and nucleus. As such, they only engage in anaerobic metabolism and have a limited lifespan of only about 100 days. Their lack of internal organelles contributes to their characteristic biconcave shape, which helps them travel more efficiently through capillaries and maximizes their surface area, which assists in gas exchange. Erythrocytes are degraded by the spleen, which is located in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen.
Sequence information travels from CNS to periphery
cerebral cortex, spinal cord, efferent neurons, interneurons, motor neurons, muscle tissue
post-translational modification
changes made to polypeptides following translation
obidience
changing one's behavior at the command of an authority figure
primary groups
characterized by deep, long-lasting bonds among members which are not easy to dissolve. We would instead expect primary groups to stay together throughout a person's life. For example, in some families, the strong ties between family members result in a primary group that stays together even during adverse circumstances.
riots
characterized by large # of people who engage in dangerous behavior, such as vandalism, violence, or other crimes. Deindividation, loss of self identity, occurs. Often violent and targeted against an established institution or authority figure.
What happens when voltage is applied to a parallel plate capacitor?
charges accumulate on the plates
Hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
Mutagenic agents
chemical or physical agents that can cause mutation in DNA -includes ionizing radiation, UV radiation
Conservative missense mutations
chemical properties of mutant amino acid are similar to the original amino acid -Impact is small -Example: Thr replaced with Ser - both polar and similar in structure
second main component of phospholipid bilayer
cholesterol
When normal human cells are grown in culture, they only undergo mitosis a limited number of times - typically 50 divisions. After this limit is reached, cells become apoptotic. This eventual cell death is the result of:
chromosomal telomeres shortening after each round of division.
Magnetic Field coming out of or into page
circles = out of page x = into screen *like arrow*
Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo)
classic "experiment" where individuals were assigned to be guards / prisoners. w/in days they took on their roles and went too far. Highly unethical
elongation (translation)
codon recognition, peptide bond formation, translocation
Fkinetic
coefficient of kinetic friction*N (N = normal force)
Fmax
coefficient of static friction * N (N = normal force of object)
cones
color vision
most bacterial relationships to humans are
commensal
In the presence of friction, the velocity of an object sliding along a uniform surface with no other forces acting on it will do what?
decrease linearly
parasympathetic nervous system activation
decreased cardiac output and heart rate, bronchial constriction, muscular relaxation, pupils constriction, decreased motility of stomach and gastro. tract, vasoconstriction of vessels within skeletal muscle
Ritonavir is an antiviral drug that mimics the natural substrate for a key viral protease enzyme. As a competitive inhibitor, ritonavir:
decreases the rate of reaction by binding to the active site. This question is asking us for the definition of a competitive inhibitor, which binds to the active site and blocks the substrate from attaching.
Kelvin
degrees Celsius + 273
formula for *First Law of Thermodynamics* - closed system
deltaU = Q- W Change in internal energy = Amount of heat added to system - Work by system
Catecholamines
dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine
small intestine structure
duodenum, jejunum, ileum (Dow Jones Industrial)
Mechanisms of tumor spread
evade immune system, invade basement membrane and spread to other tissues. -Excrete growth factors, produce proteases that digest components of the extracellular matrix providing escape path through basement membrane. -secrete factors that promote angiogenesis to give tumor a blood supply.
taboos
even more restrictive norms that generate extreme disapproval. Ex: cannabalism, incest. Driven by culture. Some are forbidden by law and some aren't.
analogous structures
evolved independently to carry out the same function, i.e. wing of bee and wing of bird
The peptide bonds found in the backbone of proteins are especially stable because they
exhibit resonance stabilization around the carbonyl carbons
In order for a reaction to cause a beaker to get hot to the touch, it must be _____
exothermic
Validity of an experiment
extent to which an experiment's measurements are accurate, and extent to which results apply to the "real world" -extent to which results are genuine and generalizable
content validity
extent to which the test covers the full scope the test was intended to measure
external validity
extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings
Trisomy 21 (down syndrome)
extra 21st chromosome
flashbulb memory
extremely vivid and detailed memory of important moments of our lives
Where does fertilization occur?
fallopian tubes (oviduct)
True or false: Primary groups are often the first to dissolve when a person grows up.
false
agents of socialization
family, education system, mass media, peers, workplace
steatorrhea
fatty feces, caused by liver dysfunction which affects bile production and lipid digestion
pentose
five carbon sugar
pulmonary circulation
flow of blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart
labeling approach
focuses on how behavior is affected by being labeled as a deviant.
strain theory
focuses on the role of social and economic pressures towards deviance. Says that some people would commit crime under straining conditions.
torque is caused by
force applied to a lever arm at a certain distance from an object capable of rotating, known as a fulcrum
Pressure units
force divided by area, and is commonly given in pascals (Pa), atmospheres (atm), mmHg, or torr, where 1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 Torr = 105 Pa (N/m2).
Magnitude of an electric field
force experienced by a charge/magnitude of the charge or E = f/q F=qE
work
force x distance
Pressure formula
force/area
tumor supressor genes
genes protecting against abnormal cell growth whose impaired function can promote cancer -Limit mitosis -Cell cycle regulation -Dna Repair
Oncogenes
genes that cause cancer by blocking the normal controls on cell reproduction
All cells have the same ____ code
genetic
Conversion
genuine change in someone's beliefs
gram negative bacteria
have a thin layer of peptidoglycan surrounded by a lipopolysaccaride
Silent mutations
have no effect on the amino acid produced by a codon because of redundancy in the genetic code -Do not change phenotype of organism
SA node
have pacemaker cells of the heart, instruct heart to contract. Cause atria to contract simultaneously because of gap junctions.
sympathetic nervous system activation
heart rate increases, sweating begins, respiration increases, digestion is inhibited, the eyes dilate, skeletal muscle vasodilation
irreversible denaturation includes
heat
denaturing agents include
heat, organic solvents, strong acids or bases, detergents, reducing agents, specific compounds
more force needs to be applied to ____ objects to get them to slide
heavier
carboxylic acids have ___ boiling and melting points
high because highly polar and strong H bonding
When the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood is low, the pH is likely to:
increase Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid and participates in an equilibrium between carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions plus dissociated protons. Note how elevated carbon dioxide production directly translates to increased concentrations of H+, which acidifies the blood and decreases the pH. Likewise, a decrease in the carbon dioxide concentration in the blood would result in a decrease in the concentration of dissociated protons, which corresponds to an increase in the pH.
adding a solute to water will ----- bp and ----- mp,
increase; lower
Mechanism of L-dopa
increases dopamine concentration
uterine endometrium
inner lining of uterus, site of implantation os blasocyst, supports embryonic and fetal development
Folkways
insignificant informal norms that involve small details, violating them does not cause too much of a problem, example: fashion, wearing socks with sandals
enterocytes
intestinal epithelial cells that line the intestine
G proteins
intracellular enzyme complexes involved in a variety of second messenger systems
Malignant tumors
invade surrounding tissues and can metastasize
characteristics of group think
invulnerability, rationalization, lack of introspection, stereotyping, pressure, lack of disagreement, self-deception, insularity
U (electric potential energy)
kQq/r Focus on changes in its location relative to the source of the electric field
temperature is proportional to
kinetic energy of atoms and molecules
language relativity hypothesis
language shapes the nature of thought
Conduction of charge favors:
large cross sectional area and short length
Bacteriophage Replication
lytic cycle and lysogenic cycle
formula to calculate unknown concentration
m1*v1 = m2*v2
Sphingomyelin
make lipid rafts along with sterols for various signaling processes
tumor suppressor genes
make proteins that stop cell division and kill cells
Mitochondria are inheirited
maternally
Total Lung Capacity (TLC)
maximum amount of air contained in lungs after a maximum inspiratory effort
infared spectroscopy
measures molecular vibrations of characteristic functional groups
Platelets are derived from:
megakaryocytes
Fusion
melting, solid to liquid
Irving Janis and groupthink
members of a group are so driven to reach unanimous decisions that they no longer truly evaluate the consequences of their decisions occurs when the groups making decision are isolated and homogeneous, there is a lack of impartial leadership inside or outside the gorup, when there is a high level of pressure for a decision to be made
prospective memory
memories about plans to do things in the future
procedural (implicit) memory
memory of how to do something, e.g. riding a bike
Working memory
mental operations performed on information in short-term memory. Order of seconds.
Potential Energy =
mgh
Osmotic pressure
minimum amount of pressure that prevents further osmosis
free radicals
molecules or atoms that possess an unpaired valence electron. Typically serve as highly-reactive oxidizing agents.
drive-reduction theory
motivation arises from the desire to eliminate drives, which create uncomfortable internal states
Floppases
move phospholipids from the inner leaflet to the outer leaflet.
Flippases
move phospholipids from the outer leaflet to the inner leaflet.
simple diffusion
movement of a solute from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
facilitated diffusion (passive transport)
movement of molecules across a membrane via specific transport proteins without energy from ATP hydrolysis Thermodynamically favorable because increases entropy
oncogenes
mutant genes promoting abnormal cell growth leading to cancer, arise from proto-oncogenes -Arise from: growth factors, growth factor receptors, transcription factors, protein kinases, other signaling molecules -Can come from viruses (Hep B, C, HPV, Epstein Barr) -bypass cell cycle checkpoints, avoidance in DNA repair
De Novo mutations
mutations that are not inherited, but rather appear first in the affected individual. Proofreading reduces rate of mutations in replication.
tumor growth is dependent on
natural selection
diamagnetic
no unpaired electrons. do not generate a net magnetic field. cannot be magnetised. water, wood, fabric. weakly repelled by magnetic fields.
mycobiome
non harmful fungi
where is dna found in bacteria?
nucleoid
mole fraction equation
number of moles of gas/ total number of moles of gas in the mixture
What is bacterial growth constrained by?
nutrient resources available
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
objects are in thermal equilibrium only when their temperatures are equal
point mutations
occur to single nucleotide
source monitoring errors
occurs when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source
Ligand gated calcium channels
opening allows Ca2+ to diffuse into the cytosol resulting in depolarization
nares
openings through the nose carrying air into the nasal cavities. tiny hairs, called vibrissae help filter out particulate matter as mechanism for innate immunity.
static friction
opposes movement of an object not in motion magnitude depends on force applied to object
kinetic friction
opposes the movement of two surfaces that are in contact and are in motion.
Organogenesis
organ formation that takes place during the first two months of prenatal development
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically, making them easier to encode
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
trophoblast
outer cells of the blastocyst that secrete enzymes that allow implantation. Later forms placenta.
anaerobes
oxygen is not required for metabolism
low-ball technique
persuasive technique in which the seller of a product starts by quoting a low sales price and then mentions all of the add-on costs once the customer has agreed to purchase the product
Main structural component of plasma membrane
phospholipids
three core components of emotion
physiological arousal (how your body reacts to emotions, emotional information or stimuli), expressive displays (how you express your emotions), and subjective experiences (how you feel and interpret your emotions, which is extremely personal and subjective)
Gallstones (cholelithiasis)
pigmented or hardened cholesterol stones formed as a result of bile crystallization
In the electron transport chain, O2 must possess a standard reduction potential that is more ____ than any other acceptor in the chain
positive
Is ΔH for a endothermic reaction positive or negative
positive
spacing effect
recall is more effective when the learning process is spaced out
Dishabituation
recovery of a habituated response after a change in stimulation
gastric bypass surgery
removal of the cells in the upper stomach that secrete Ghrelin to dampen hunger signals
base exision repair
removes a single erroneous base, fixes small changes -used after replication
negative punishment
removing a stimulus to decrease a behavior
spinal nerves
sensory and motor nerves that connect to the spinal cord
cranial nerves
sensory and motor nerves that directly enter the skull
In Eukaryotes, what residues are most often phosphorylated?
serine (s), tyrosine (y), and threonine (t) (all contain an OH group on side chain!)
hemoglobin-oxygen dissociation curve
shift left (hemoglobin holds onto oxygen tighter): lower temp, lower 2,3-BPG, higher pH, fetal shift right (hemoglobin lets go of oxygen a little easier): higher temp, higher 2,3-BPG, lower pH
active transport examples
sodium potassium pump, endocytosis, exocytosis, Protons are transported to the intermembrane space of the mitochondria via primary active transport that is powered by the redox reactions of the electron transport chain.
What phase (solid, gas, liquid) are metals and metal oxides typically in at standard temperature?
solid
Sublimation
solid to gas
network solids (network crystals)
solids in which all of the atoms are covalently bonded to each other
chiral
sp3 hybridized, attached to 4 different groups
stereocenter
sp3, bonded to 4 different substituents
G1 phase
stage of interphase in which cell grows and performs its normal functions
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures
states that the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures of all the gases in the mixture
As the number of cells in a zygote increases, the volume
stays the same
rectum
stores feces
If a box is sliding down a ramp, the normal force should be perpendicular to the
surface the box is resting on
Stimulation of the iris dilator muscle is a result of activation of:
sympathetic motor neurons
withdrawal symptoms
symptoms that occur after chronic use of a drug is reduced or stopped; tends to produce *opposite* symptoms that occur while using the substances.
Transcription
synthesis of an RNA molecule from a DNA template
Energy
the capacity to do work
Brownian motion
the chaotic movement of colloidal particles, caused by collision with particles of the solvent in which they are dispersed
mutant type
the uncommon phenotype
hepatic portal system
the veins that carry blood from the digestive organs to the liver
precision of experiment
this refers to the closeness of the measurements to each other; precise measurements are close to each other and there is little spread about the mean
Pharynx
throat
Alveoli
tiny sacs of lung tissue specialized for the movement of gases between air and blood -increase surface area of lungs -coated in surfactants, which reduces surface tension, keeping alveoli open -1 cell thick - alveolar wall -alveolar capillaries: blood is CO2 rich, then diffuses into aveoli to be expelled -oxygen entering blood attaches to hemoglobin
Veins carry blood ____ the heart
to
nagative-pressure breathing
to breathe in, we increase volume, which decreases pressure to breathe out, we decrease volume, which increases pressure
aerotolerant anaerobes
tolerate but cannot use oxygen
Gordon Allport
trait theory of personality; 3 levels of traits: cardinal, central, and secondary
tRNA
transfer RNA; type of RNA that carries amino acids to the ribosome, has unique anticodon that is complimentary to mRNA codon
Transferases
transfer functional groups from one substrate to another
Cytoplasmically inherited disease
transferred through organelles in the cytoplasm rather than through DNA in the nucleus (eg. mitochondrial DNA)
Chemotherapy
treatment of cancer with drugs.
True or false: Lipid anchored proteins are not in contact with the plasma membrane.
true; they are not in contact with membrane itself, just anchored to it
Oncogenesis
tumor formation and development
automatic processing
unconscious work on a task: doing things on autopilot. With practice, skills can be automatically processed (e.g. driving a car). Requires less attention, allows for more multitasking.
somatic stem cells (adult stem cells)
undifferentiated cells found among differentiated cells in a tissue or organ
Oocyte
unfertilized female germ cell (egg)
Svedberg unit
units used to describe sedimentation rate, not additive
stem cells
unspecialized cells that retain the ability to become a wide variety of specialized cells
pressure volume graphs
used to measure work in a system of gases gas expansion = positive work gas compression = negative work if volume remains constant (isovolumetric), then no work is done on the system if pressure stays constant (isobaric), then area under the curve - work - is a rectangle
moderating variable
variable that alters the relation between the independent variable and the dependent variable
What hormones are produced by posterior pituitary gland?
vasopressin, involved in fluid reuptake in the kidney, and oxytocin, a hormone associated with emotional bonding
Extrusion
viruses leave cell
Charles' Law
volume and temperature are directly related v1/t1 = v2/t2 or v1/t1 = k (constant)
what can passively diffuse across inner mitochondrial membrane?
water, CO2, oxygen
reconstructive memory
we build memories based on our perceptions of ourselves and others, context of events, etc.
reproductive memory
we encode information and reproduce it as needed
dependent stressors
we have control over
actor-observer bias
we often blame our own actions on external situations but the actions of others on personality.
Power
work per unit time
Equation for ∆G
∆G = ∆H - T∆S
relationship between ∆H and ∆S
∆H - and ∆S + = always spontaneous ∆H + and ∆S - = never spontaneous ∆H - and ∆S - = spontaneous only at low T ∆H + and ∆S + = spontaneous only at high T
millimolar (mM)
10^-3 M
micromolar (µM)
10^-6 M
nanomolar (nM)
10^-9 M
Bronchiolitis
inflammation of the bronchioles
3 power formulas
P = IV P = I^2R P = V^2/R
zeroth order reaction
a constant rate, independent of reactant concentration M/s
white blood cells (leukocytes)
immune cells
PE(grav)
mgh
Phonetics
study of speech sounds
how are fatty acids added to glycerol in phospholipid?
esterification
Arteries
-carry blood away from the heart -thick muscular walls
FADH2 produces
1.5 ATP
boiling points of carboxylic acids
170 C
Chargaff's Rule
A=T and C=G
angle of incidence always equals
angle of reflection
Isomerase
catalyzes the rearrangement of bonds within a single molecule
Entero
greek for intestine
parasitic
one party benefits while host is harmed
A cell in a hypertonic solution will
shrink and lose water
RNA Polymerase III
synthesizes tRNA and some rRNA
Cytokines
-Hormone-like chemicals facilitating communication between brain and immune system. -Usually paracrine signaling -Cells respond by promoting wound healing and inflammation
oxidative phosphorylation
-accounts for most of the ATP synthesis -involve NADH, FADH2, electron transport chain -electrochemical proton gradient is formed, go through ATP synthase, drives formation of ATP -can only occur in presence of Oxygen!
sickle cell crisis
- intense pain because blood vessels can become blocked or the defective red blood cells can damage organs in the body. HYDRATE
If the solution used in the titration curve shown in Figure 2 was 0.10 M sodium hydroxide and the volume of the glycine solution titrated was 20.0 mL, what was the molarity of the glycine solution?
. 0.075 M Choice A is correct. From Figure 2, the midpoint of the sharp increase in pH that occurs at 15 mL of added NaOH solution is the equivalence point (EP), where complete neutralization of the carboxylic acid group occurs. The EP can be used to calculate the concentration of the glycine solution. In this titration there is a 1:1 stoichiometric ratio with sodium hydroxide. Strictly speaking, you should convert the volumes to liters, but as long as you keep both volumes in milliliters, the units will cancel out in the calculation. (15 mL) (0.10 mol/L) (1 glycine/1) (1/20 mL) This simplifies to: (15/20) (0.10) = (3/4) (0.10) = 0.075 moles/L The second equivalence point occurs at a total volume of 30 mL of NaOH solution added and represents the deprotonation of the amino group. This could also be used to calculate the molarity of the glycine solution, using a stoichiometric ratio of 1:2 with sodium hydroxide.
In a follow-up experiment, two identical gurneys are placed side-by-side on a ramp with their wheels locked to eliminate spinning. Gurney 1 has a dummy placed on it to give it a total mass of 240 kg, while Gurney 2 is loaded with a dummy that makes its mass 200 kg overall. If the ramp has a coefficient of friction of μs, which gurney is more likely to slide down the ramp?
. Gurney 1 and Gurney 2 are equally likely to slide. In order for the loaded gurney to slide down the ramp, the force pulling it to slide downward (mgsinƟ) must be greater than the static frictional force (μsFN = μsmgcosƟ). The net force on each loaded gurney is thus Fnet = (mgsinƟ) - (μsmgcosƟ). Since net force is equal to the product of mass and acceleration, we can rewrite this equation as ma = (mgsinƟ) - (μsmgcosƟ), where an acceleration greater than 0 means the loaded gurney will slide down the ramp. Mass is present in all terms and can be canceled, meaning that it is not a factor in whether the loaded gurney slides. Thus, both loaded gurneys have an equal likelihood of slipping down the ramp, regardless of the fact that they have different total masses.
A physical therapist employs a pulley system to safely lift a 54 kg patient from their wheelchair to the pool for their exercises. If the physical therapist applies 200 N of force to displace the lever over a distance of 1.5 m, how high has the patient been lifted?
0.55 M Use mechanical advantage formula: (forceinput)(distanceinput) = (forceoutput)(distanceoutput) We can plug in the information from the question stem to our equation to get (200 N)(1.5 m)= (54 kg)(10 m/s2)( distanceoutput). Remember we need to multiply the patient's mass by the acceleration due to gravity to get the output force that must be generated in order for the patient to be lifted. Manipulating the equation to isolate for output distance gives us distanceoutput = (300 N•m)/540 N = 5/9 m which is approximately equal to 5/10m = 0.5m. Because we rounded the denominator up to get this estimation of 0.5m, it means that the true answer is a bit higher than 0.5m. Therefore, 0.55m is the best answer choice.
In a population of Amish people, the frequency of the recessive autosomal allele for polydactyly is 1.2%. What percent of the population are heterozygotes for the polydactyly allele?
2.37% Use Hardy Weinberg equation: total number of allelles must equal 1: A + a = 1 Total number of genotypes must also equal 1: AA + 2Aa + aa = 1 a = 0.012 so A = 0.988 Carries have Aa genotype. Frequency is: 2Aa = 2 * 0.988 * 0.012 = 2.37%
An automotive clutch spring is a mechanism that pushes two circular, rotating plates (the clutch and the flywheel) together with the purpose of keeping them locked together and rotating at the same angular velocity. Assume a maximum force of static friction exerted of about 6000 N between the clutch and flywheel and a coefficient of friction of 0.25 and a compression of the spring of 0.4 meters, what is the spring constant of the clutch spring?
60,000 N*m To answer this, it is important to realize that the force of the clutch spring will be the source of the normal force (contact force) between the clutch and the flywheel. And we can determine the maximum force exerted by static friction (before the clutch and flywheel begin slipping) by Fstatic ≦ μstatic*N. Since we know that N = Fspring = -kx and we want to solve for k, we can substitute our expression to get Fstatic max = μstatic *( -kx) and then isolate k, resulting in -k = Fstatic max /(μstatic*x) or k = -Fstatic max /(μstatic*x). Solving this, we arrive at k = -6000N /(0.25*-0.4 m) = 60000 N/m. Notice that we did not formulate static friction as an inequality in this case because we were dealing with the boundary condition, the maximum possible static friction, and therefore designated our variable Fstatic max.
physiological pH
7.4
prokaryotic ribosomes
70S (30S and 50S)
Pedigree
A chart or "family tree" that tracks which members of a family have a particular trait. Males are squares and females are circles. Shading represents individuals with the phenotype in question.
Lactam
A cyclic amide; named according to the greek letter of the carbon atom that is bonded to the Nitrogen (alpha, beta, gamma...) -penicillin and other drugs have these -high ring string, reactive with bacterial enzymes
Does turning elements in their standard states (e.g. C (s), H2, O2, F2) into a more organized molecule result in a decrease or increase in entropy (∆S)?
A decrease in entropy, so negative ∆S
GERD (gastroesophageal reflux disease)
A digestive disease in which stomach acid or bile irritates the food pipe lining, passes through the lower esophageal sphincter if it is weakened
In a study about attitudes towards higher education, four subjects are asked to rate the importance of higher education. All four participants rate higher education as "very important" or "extremely important" on the survey. Which of the following participants is most likely to experience cognitive dissonance as a part of this response?
A high school math teacher who encouraged his own son to skip college and focus on learning a trade to "save all that wasted tuition money"
secretin
A hormone secreted by the small intestine (duodenum) in response to low pH (e.g., from stomach acid, chyme). It promotes the release of bicarbonate from the pancreas to act as a buffer.
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
A hormone secreted by the small intestine (duodenum) in response to the presence of fats. It promotes release of bile from the gallbladder and pancreatic juice from the pancreas, and reduces stomach motility. -high levels inhibit appetite after a meal
What is order of events of an egg being released?
A mature egg is released from ovary, into abdominal (same as periotneal) cavity, swept up by cilia into fallopian tube
Nonsense Mutations
A mutation that changes an amino acid codon to one of the three *stop codons*, resulting in a shorter and usually nonfunctional protein.
Which of the following charged particles will be attracted to the particle emitted during the decay of 145Nd?
A positron Passage says B particles is released, which is negative, the particle attached to it must be positive.
sampling bias
A problem that occurs when a sample is not representative of the population from which it is drawn.
Distillation
A process that separates the substances in a solution based on their boiling points
Insulin
A protein hormone synthesized in the pancreas that regulates blood sugar levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into tissues
commensal
A relationship between two organisms in which one organism benefits and the other is unaffected
Promotors
A short sequence upstream of a gene that serves as the initial binding site for RNA polymerase II to initiate transcription. -Contains TATA box
Binary fission
A single prokaryotic cell divides into 2 identical daughter cells
second messenger
A small, nonprotein, water-soluble molecule or ion, such as calcium ion or cyclic AMP, that relays a signal to a cell's interior in response to a signal received by a signal receptor protein.
Pinocytosis
A type of endocytosis in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes.
Prokaryote
A unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus and membrane bound organelles
Chromatography
A technique that is used to separate the components of a mixture based on the tendency of each component to travel or be drawn across the surface of another material. Based on the affinity to the column.
social desireability bias
A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.
Bolus
A term used to describe food after it has been chewed and mixed with saliva
zona pellucida
A thick, transpartent coating rich in glycoproteins that surrounds an oocyte.
Codons
A three-nucleotide sequence of DNA or mRNA that specifies a particular amino acid or termination signal; the basic unit of the genetic code.
ion channels
A transmembrane protein channel that allows a specific ion to diffuse across the membrane down its concentration or electrochemical gradient.
Aquaporins
A transport protein in the plasma membrane of a plant or animal cell that specifically facilitates the diffusion of water across the membrane
sodium-potassium pump
A transport protein in the plasma membrane of animal cells that actively transports sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell.
Solubility Rules
Alkali metals (Na, K), NH4+ always soluble nitrates, chlorates, acetates are always solubles sulfates are usually soluble carbonates are insoluble
residual volume
Amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced exhalation
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
Amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal tidal volume inhalation
dominant allele
An allele whose trait always shows up in the organism when the allele is present. (i.e. BB or Bb)
Aminopeptidase
An enzyme found within the small intestine that splits off one amino acid at a time, beginning at the N-terminal
Helicase
An enzyme that untwists the double helix of DNA at the replication forks.
nondisjunction
An error in meiosis or mitosis in which members of a pair of homologous chromosomes or a pair of sister chromatids fail to separate properly from each other.
hemoglobin
An iron-containing protein in red blood cells that reversibly binds oxygen. -iron 2+ in center that binds oxygen -cooperative binding -2a and 2B subunits -each red blood cell is packed with these -can also bind CO2
Heterozygous
An organism that has two different alleles for a trait
saturation kinetics (enzymes)
As substrate concentration increases, the reaction rate does as well until a maximum value is reached
The carrier frequency for cystic fibrosis, an autosomal recessive disorder, in the Ashkenazi Jewish population is 1 out of every 24 individuals. A baby born to an Ashekenazi couple from this demographic is tested for this mutation. A family history reveals that the mother's father was afflicted with cystic fibrosis. What is the approximate probability that the father is a carrier and the child will also be a carrier of this disease?
As the mother's father expresses the autosomal recessive trait, he must have two mutation copies. He passed one copy to his daughter, making her an obligate carrier. The husband has a 1/24 chance (the population risk) of being a carrier. If both parents are carriers, there is a 50% chance that the child will be one as well (along with a 25% chance that the child will have cystic fibrosis and a 25% chance that the child will be homozygous dominant). To determine the probability of the father and the child are carriers, multiply (1/24)(1/2) = 1/48. Round up to 1/50.
Strength of magnetic field, B =
B = μ0I/(2πr) B = strength of magnetic field μ0 = permeability of free space (given) I = current running through wire r = distance from wire
water soluble vitamins
B and C -body excretes excess
What are two types of prokaryotes?
Bacteria and Archaea
If elements in the same group of the periodic table tend to have similar chemical properties, which of the following is the most likely molecular geometry of hydrogen sulfide?
Bent The formula for hydrogen sulfide is H2S. Sulfur is in Group 16, directly under oxygen, so the molecular geometry of hydrogen sulfide would be similar to that of water: bent. Water has an H-O-H bond angle that is slightly less than the idealized tetrahedral angle of 109° (it is 104.5o), because the lone pairs occupy more space around the oxygen atom than do the bonding pairs. Sulfur's lone pairs occupy even more space, so the H-S-H bond angle is around 92°.
bile
Bile functions in the mechanical digestion of lipids.
aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase
During protein synthesis, an enzyme that attaches the correct amino acid to a tRNA molecule to form a "charged" aminoacyl-tRNA.
cocktail party effect
Can "tune in" to a particular stimulus, like a name being said across the room. Background information is processed to some degree even if not center of focus.
Autosomal Recessive disorders
Can skip generations because two copies of the abnormal gene must be present.
Amide
Carbonly with N - R1 & R2 -very high melting and boiling points -neutral
phenyl chloride
Cl attached to phenyl ring
The sickle-cell trait exhibits...
Codominance. In heterozygotes, both normal and abnormal forms of hemoglobin are expressed. Enough normal hemoglobin molecules are produced to ensure that the individual has adequate blood oxygen levels, allowing heterozygotes to live normally. However, enough abnormal hemoglobin molecules are also produced that they interfere with malaria's life cycle (malaria cannot easily reproduce in blood cells with abnormal hemoglobin).
types of post-translational modifications
Covalent: phosphorylation (by kinase enzymes), glycosylation (often in Golgi, ABO blood typing) ubiquitination (degradation signaling) Folding into 3D conformation by chaperone proteins Protein complex formation (quaternary structure) Proteolytic processing (cleaving, zymogen activating e.g. peptide hormones are activated from preprohormones) nitrosylation, methylation, acetylation, lipidation
Injection of insulin into the bloodstream is LEAST likely to result in which of the following?
Decreased lipid synthesis (Insulin is secreted in response to high blood sugar. If the body detects that there's plenty of blood sugar, then it would want to stop making more sugar, to store that sugar as glycogen, and to build up fatty acids into fats for storing up energy. In general, think of the function of insulin as causing the body to build up large molecules to store up energy (glycogen, lipids) and to stop the body from breaking down large molecules to provide energy.
During inhalation, which event occurs first?
Diaphragm mucles contract During inhalation, the muscular diaphragm beneath the lungs contracts, moving downward and causing the thoracic cavity to expand and the intrapleural pressure to become more negative. This causes the lungs to expand. Increased lung volume reduces the alveolar pressure, which causes air to flow into the lungs to maintain equilibrium with ambient air pressure. This is called negative-pressure breathing, not because the absolute pressure inside the lungs becomes negative, but rather because it becomes negative relative to ambient air pressure, forcing air to follow its pressure gradient to equalize pressures between the lungs and external air.
Nitrogen is primarily present in the atmosphere as a diatomic gas. Which of the following is true about this form of nitrogen?
Diatomic nitrogen gas is relatively inert and can be used in the atmosphere in laboratory reactions to prevent unwanted side reactions.
A ray of white light strikes the surface of water in a beaker. The index of refraction of the water is 1.33 and the angle of incidence is 30º. All of the following are true EXCEPT: I. the angle of reflection is 30°. II. the angle of refraction is 30°. III. total internal reflection will result, depending on the critical angle.
II and III only
Right hand rule for magnetic force vectors
Extend hand out like making a stop motion Allow thumb to point in direction of current, and other 4 fingers in direction of magnetic field the force vector will face the direction of your palm Reverse if the charge is negative
Force on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field
F = ilB sin θ
A car is continuously driving in a circle of radius 30 meters in a parking lot. How is the centripetal force for this circular motion being generated?
Friction between the tires and the road When a car turns, friction between the tires and the road is responsible for the change in the car's velocity vector. Despite being less intuitive, this is an identical scenario to all other circular motion scenarios we have discussed: Centripetal force is pointing inwards, directly at the center of the circle, while the car's velocity vector is perpendicular to the centripetal force. The result is circular motion of the vehicle.
mirror neurons
Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy. *observational learning, empathy*
Hooke's Law Equation
Fspring = kx : Hooke's Law Equation states that the force exerted by a spring is equal to the spring constant times the distance the spring is compressed or stretched from its equilibrium position (k) - the spring constant which depends on the stiffness and other properties of the spring (x) - the distance that the spring is stretched from its equilibrium position
Transduction
Gene transfer mediated by viruses that infect bacteria (bacteriophages) Helps increase microbiological diversity and has implications for biotechnology
Positively controlled gene
Genes expressed when activator present
do spingolipids and glycolipids always have a carbohydrate attached?
Glycolipids always have a carbohydrate attachment, but only some types of sphingolipids have a carbohydrate group attachment.
A strong base has a pH of
Greater than 7
current
I = charge/time Follows flow of positive charge. Measured in Amperes, which is current/second -Flows from a more positive point of voltage to a more negative flow of voltage
Which of the following do NOT have proteins with a nuclear localization signal? I. E. coli II. Homo sapiens III. Fungi IV. Archaea
I and IV only Bacteria and archaea do not have nuclei
Medical students may feel helpless when confronted with unethical behavior, because they believe that reporting will have serious negative repercussions. As time goes by, they often become more stressed and upset about the situation. What type(s) of stress are medical students likely feeling during these situations? I. Distress II. Eustress III. Neustress
I only (Distress)
Abnormal functioning of which brain region(s) plays a role in the development of depression? I. Frontal lobe II. Limbic system structures III. Hypothalamus
I, II, and III The frontal lobe is involved in humans' ability to project future consequences of current actions (I). Limbic system structures regulate emotion and memory (II), and the hypothalamus coordinates many hormones, some of which are involved in mood regulation (III).
Troponin isoenzymes are used as an alternative biomarker in the diagnosis of heart attacks. In which of the following muscle types does the troponin complex function in contraction? I. Skeletal muscle II. Smooth muscle III. Cardiac muscle
I. Skeletal muscle III. Cardiac muscle
Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment
In this experiment children watched a model attack a doll and then the children were put in a room with toys including the same doll and children it was found that the kids who watched the model were much more likely to imitate the actions.
Tucson, Arizona is well known for its sunny, dry weather. A 33ºC day in Tucson can feel relatively cool and pleasant compared to a similar temperature in a humid city like Tampa, Florida. The phenomenon of "dry heat" feeling subjectively cooler is a result of:
Increased evaporation from the skin helping to keep the body cool
positive reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
negative reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)
reduction potenial
Indicated how likely a molecule is to gain an electron. Electrons travel from molecules with the lowest reduction potential, to molecules with the highest reduction potential (O2).
ferromagnetic
Substances that can become magnetized; iron, nickel & cobalt. Their atoms will form magnetic domains. Ferromagnetic materials contain atoms with uniform and non-random spin.
Aorta
Largest artery in the body
LiAlH4
Lithium aluminum hydride is a very strong reducing agent. It will reduce aldehydes, ketones, esters, and carboxylic acids to alcohols, and amides and nitriles to amines. It will also open epoxides.
innate immune system
Nonspecific response; Nonspecific barriers that impede pathogens from entering the body or multiplying; Internal and external barriers
coding strand (sense strand)
Not used during transcription because it is also complimentary to the template strand, making it exactly the same as the mRNA strand
nucleophilic addition
Nucleophile adds to ketone (forming alcohol)
Normality of solution
Number of equivalents of interest per liter of solution. e.g. Normality of acid or base = (M)(number of hydrogen or hydroxide ions - e.g. 2 for H2SO4)
Tesla unit
N•s/C•m magnitude of the magnetic field at which a particle with a charge of 1 coloumb moving perpendicularly to the field at 1 meter per second experiences a force of 1 Newton
Alpha sugar vs. Beta Sugar
OH is opposite direction from carbon ch2oh group in alpha OH is same direction as ch2oh in Beta
substitution mutation and 3 possible effects
One base pair is converted to another. Only affects one codon. 1. no effect (Silent Mutations) 2. replacement of one codon with another (Missense Mutations) 3. replacement with stop codon (Nonsense mutations)
Power dissipated by a current
P = IV or power = current * voltage P = I^2R P = v^2/R
percent dissociation equation
Percent of acid that has dissociated into H+/F- (in case of HF, weak acid) [H+]/[HF} * 100%
Penetrance
Percent of individuals with a given genotype who display the associate phenotype (environmental effects or other moderating genes might explain this)
Resistivity equation
R = ρL/A
Loss of function mutations tend to be
Recessive
External validity (generalizability)
Refers to whether the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and other people, controlled by: random sampling, situational control, and cause/effect relationships.
SNOW DROP mnemonic
S= southern blotting -> DNA= D N= Northern Blotting -> RNA = R O= nothing W= western blotting -> protein = P
Which of the following is most likely to be a trait of cancer stem cells?
Self-renewal of undifferentiated stem cells
Centrifugation
Separates components by density using high speed spinning. more dense particles travel to the bottom.
Terminator sequence
Sequence of bases at the end of a gene that signals the RNA polymerase to stop transcribing
T and R states of hemoglobin
T - low oxygen conditions, low affinity for oxygen R - high oxygen conditions, high affinity for oxygen
Expressivity
Severity of a phenotype
Sequential attention
Switching between tasks rapidly to multitask (more likely to be the case, instead of simultaneous attention)
RNA Polymerase I
Synthesizes rRNA in nucleolus
What maters when looking at osmosis?
The *TOTAL* concentration of solute particles, not just one species
Test cross
a dominant phenotype of unknown genotype is crossed with a homozygous recessive organism
template (antisense) strand
The DNA strand that is used as a template in transcription. This strand is copied to produce a complementary mRNA transcript.
Empirial formula
a formula that gives the ratios of atoms (in mols, not grams!) in a chemical compound, e.g. CH2O for carbohydrates
second law of thermodynamics
The entropy of an isolated system will naturally increase over time (deltaS >= 0) -*energy flows spontaneously from hot to cold objects and the entropy of a closed system can decrease, but the entropy of its surroundings must increase so that entropy of the universe always increases* -increase in entropy results in a loss of energy available to do work
inner cell mass
The mass of cells in one pole of the blastocyst that ultimately give rise to the embryo and other embryonic structues (the yolk sac, amnion, the umbilical vessels, etc.)
mitochondrial inner membrane
The membrane of the mitochondria that is inside and has folds known as cristae, has high surface area, includes proteins of ETC
Shine-Dalgarno sequence
The prokaryotic ribosome-binding site on mRNA, found 10 nucleotides 5' to the start codon.
Given the procedure outlined in the passage, what must be true about SP peptide synthesis?
The protein is synthesized from C-terminal to N-terminal. Unlike ribosome protein synthesis, solid-phase peptide synthesis proceeds in a C-terminal to N-terminal sequence throughout the synthetic process. In the absence of a permanent support at one end — as in SP synthesis — amino acids could be added to either terminus. The passage states that the C terminus of the first amino acid is bonded to the solid support, while a new N-protected amino acid is added to its N terminus.
Mutarotation
The rapid interconversion between different alpha and beta anomers of a sugar
third order reaction
The rate is proportional to the cube of the concentration. 1/M^2*s
acceptor site (A site)
The region of the ribosome that binds an incoming charged tRNA.
G2 phase
The second growth phase of the cell cycle, cell prepares for mitosis
SRY gene
The sex determining region of the Y chromosome in males. Codes transcription factor that causes testes to develop in males and prevents development of uterus and fallopian tubes.
peritoneal cavity
The space within the abdomen that contains the intestines, the stomach, and the liver.
S phase
The synthesis phase of the cell cycle; the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated.
acquiescence bias
The tendency to agree rather than disagree with items on questionnaires.
Lazarus theory of emotion
The theory that a *cognitive appraisal is the first step* in an emotional response and all other aspects of an emotion, including physiological arousal, depend on it.
Which of the following correctly lists a pair of analogous structures and a pair of homologous structures, respectively?
The wing of a bee and the wing of a bird; the arm of a human and the flipper of a walrus
Electric Potential
The work done per unit charge in bringing a positive test charge from infinity to that point in the field. -Measured in volts -V= kQ/r -normalized for charge
Casinos maximize the amount of money that people are willing to put into slot machines by making sure that the slot machines pay out jackpots on a reinforcement schedule that is the most resistant to behavior extinction. These machines most likely use which reinforcement schedule?
Variable-ratio
True or false: Consider a pulley system on an incline, as pictured above. If the mass hanging off the side (m2) is larger than the mass in contact with the slope of the incline (m1), then the mass on the slope of the incline is always going to be pulled up. Assume a frictionless system.
This statement is true. If m2 > m1 and m1 is resting on an incline, then m2 must be accelerating down and m1 must be accelerating up the incline, because Fg on m1 = m1g·sin(θ) must be less than Fg on m2 = m2g. (Because sin(θ) can't be greater than 1 for any angle, we know for sure that m1g·sin(θ) < m2g as long as m1 < m2.)
Decarboxylation
a chemical reaction that involves the removal of CO2 using heat and favored when you have a second carbonyl group at the beta position, like malonic acid
Acetal
a carbon atom bonded to an alkyl group, two -OR groups, and a hydrogen
homogenous catalyst
a catalyst that is in the same phase as all the reactants and products in a reaction system
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten *Small Capacity, 5-9 items*
laxatives
affect large intestine by interfering with water absorption, does not affect nutrient absorption in the small intestine, ease constipation but not weight loss
mutagens and carcinogens
agents causing mutation (carcinogens when they cause cancer)
one of the waste products of protein metabolism is
ammonia
yolk sac and Amnion later form the
amniotic sac
social functionalism
behavior is explained by the effect that the behavior has
Ethnocentrism
belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic group; propagated from one generation to the next thru family
Lazarus Mnemonic
biblical story of lazarus rising from death, death was prematurely labeled just like how cog appraisal comes first before physio arousal and emotion
mutualistic relationship
both organisms benefit
dual coding effect
both visual and verbal information is used to represent information
brush border enzymes of small intestine
break down double sugars into simple sugars and complete protein digestion
pancreatic lipase
breaks down fats
The chromosome of a bacterium has a _____ shape.
circular
systemic circulation
circulation that supplies blood to all the body except to the lungs
Schacter-Singer Two-Factor Theory of Emotion
combo of physiological response and cognitive interpretation, I'm shaking, there is a rabid woodchuck, I must be afraid
Enzyme-linked (catalytic) receptors
commonly protein kinases, which add phosphate group to protein substrates. One class is Receptor tyrosine kinases.
Bonds in secondary structure
composed of alpha-helices or beta-sheets and arises from hydrogen-bonding between amine and carboxyl functional groups in the amino acid backbone of a protein
flagella in prokaryotic cells
comprised of filament called flagellin, basal body, hook. rotates.
IC50
concentration of inhibitor required to reduce enzyme activity by 50%
Depression and drive-reduction theory
depression stems from a reduction in the motivating forces of arousal
if environmental ph is lower than pka, the molecule will in it's ____ form
deprotonated
Carboxylic acid derivatives
derivatives from most reactive to least: 1. acid halide (add SOCl2 or PBr3 to carboxylic acid) 2. acid anhydride (add RCOCl) 3. ester (add an alcohol) 4. amide 5. carboxylic acid *more reactive derivatives can be converted to less reactive derivates, but not vice versa*
sickle cell trait
disorder in which individuals show signs of mild anemia only when they are seriously deprived of oxygen; occurs in individuals who have one dominant allele for normal blood cells and one recessive sickle-cell allele -confers resistance to malaria
Cyanide
disrupts ETC, inhibits cytochrome C oxidase
urea denaturation
disrupts hydrogen bonds, reversible
velocity
distance/time (m/s)
Where would aerotolerant anaerobes and facultative anaerobes be found in a test tube that is slightly open at top?
distributed throughout the test tube, no preference
Stop codons are unique because they __________.
do not code for amino acids that allow a releasing factor to bind to the A site of the ribosome
Asch Experiment
experimented how people would rather conform than state their own individual answer even though they know the group's answer is wrong, length of lines
Two masses are suspended across a pulley, and each mass rests on an incline of the exact angles shown below. 30 degrees for m1 and 60 degrees for m2 Friction is absent in this system and the pulley is massless. If m1 has a mass of 10 kg and m2 has a mass of 8 kg, what is the direction of acceleration of m2?
down the ramp, to the right Knowing that the net force on the system is Fnet = Fg on m2 - Fg on m1 (taking "rightward" to be the positive direction), we can simply solve for Fnet by plugging in our values for m1 and m2. Fg on m2 = m2gsin(60°) and Fg on m1 = m1gsin(30°). Fnet = Fg on m2 - Fg on m1 = (8 kg)(10 m/s2)(0.87) - (10 kg)(10 m/s2)(0.5) = 70 N - 50 N = 20 N. Since the force of gravity on m2 along its incline is greater than the force of gravity on m1 along its incline, the net force is positive, so m2 must be accelerating down and to the right.
pyruvate dehydrogenase
enzyme that mediates pyruvate decarboxylation. This step is the critical link between anaerobic and aerobic respiration. With this link broken, cells would be limited to anaerobic respiration.
Proteases
enzymes that break down proteins, catalyze hydrolysis of peptide bonds, often grouped by catalytic mechanism -favor cleavage at one specific site on their target protein ex: Trypsin
at equilibrium the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are ____
equal
ABO blood types
erythrocytes have characteristic cell surface proteins that can be considered antigens; blood type A has antigen A so it produces anti-B antibodies; blood type B has antigen B so it produces anti-A antibodies; blood type O has no antigens so produces anti-A and anti-B antibodies (universal donor); blood type AB has both antigens and is the universal recipient
EPO
erythropoietin; a hormone secreted by the kidneys in response to cellular hypoxia. It increases the production of red blood cells (erythrocytes) in bone marrow.
What essential function does a plasma membrane fulfill? Select all that apply.
establishment of a boundary, inhibition of random diffusion, absorption and secretion regulation, assists in cell signaling
Example of Estrogen as an Enhancer
estrogen binds nuclear estrogen receptor, which then binds enhancers, known as estrogen response elements.
episodic memory
experiences
Molecular formulas
give the exact number of atoms of each element in a compound, e.g. H2O
phospholipid structure
glycerol + 2 fatty acids (cis conformation) + phosphate group
regulation of cellular respiration
high ATP and citrate indicate Kreb's cycle activity, both inhibit PFK allosterically, activate fructose-1,6-P2ase (FBP) substrate availability- glucose influx activate glycolysis, OAA influx activates gluconeogenesis insulin- released with high glucose, activate PFK, promotes glycolysis, also recruits glucose transporters to plasma membrane, *increases storage in glycogen and lipids* glucagon- released with low glucose, inhibit PFK, activate FBP, promotes gluconeogenesis, *breaks down stored glycogen and lipids* Feedback inhibition: high NAD+, cAMP, coa, PDC is upregluated high ATP, NADH, AcetylCoa, fatty acids - PDC downregulated CAC: step 1 upregulated by ADP, downregulated by ATP, NADH, ctirate, succinyl Coa step 3: downregulated by ATP, upregulated by ADP Step 4: down regulated by succinyl Coa and NADH
when delta G is greater than 0, Keq is
less than 1
Air is bubbled through distilled water. The solution will have a pH:
less than 7, because carbon dioxide undergoes hydrolysis. Air contains elemental nitrogen as its major component (78%), but elemental nitrogen is essentially inert and is neither an acid nor a base. On the other hand, carbon dioxide can undergo a hydrolysis reaction in distilled water to produce carbonic acid, a weak acid that produces a solution whose pH is less than the pH of water (pH = 7).
the lower the IC50 value, the ____ inhibitor required to achieve a certain effect, the lowest IC50 should correspond to the conditions where inhibitory activity is ____
less; greatest
in the electron transport chain, electrons are passed from species with a ____ positive reduction potential to those with a ____ positive reduction potential.
less; more
amnesia
losing substantial memories of experiences, periods of time, and/or information
Boiling points & melting pts of alkanes and alkenes
low
Attrition bias
occurs when participants drop out of a long-term experiment or study
Electric Field Lines
point in the direction of the electric field vector (away from positive, and towards negative) -denser field lines show areas with greater strength
gene expression
process by which a gene produces its product and the product carries out its function. Only specific genes are expressed at specific times.
re-learning
process of re-learning is faster each time
simultaneous attention
processing two tasks at the same time to multitask
B cells
produce antibodies
Keq > 1
products are favored
Examples of ascribed status
race, gender, age
gamma decay
radioactive decay by emission of a gamma ray, no change in mass number or atomic number
functional group acidity
strong acids > sulfonic acids > carboxylic acids > phenols > alcohol and water > aldehydes and ketones > sp CH > sp2 CH > sp3 CH (more s character is better at stabilizing conjugate base) electronegative groups or positive charges can have inductive effect to increase acidity, stronger the close they are to the acidic proton on benzene rings, para EWG can stabilize conjugate base, para EDG can destabilize conjugate base acidity determined by stability of conjugate base: 1. electronegativity of adjacent atom 2. resonance stability 3. induction
homologous structures
structure that have a similar evolutionary history, arising from the same source, even if they now have different functions. I.e. human arm and flipper of walrus
structure of blood vessels
tunica intima (endothelial cells), tunica media, tunica externa
Autosomal recessive
two copies of an abnormal gene must be present in order for the disease or trait to develop
Amygdala
two lima bean-sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion. Neurons project to hypothalamus, connecting limbic and endocrine system.
implicit memory
type of long-term memory that reflects knowing how to do something (e.g. being able to ride a bike)
Conductivity equations
σ*A/l Conductance is the inverse of resistance. It is defined as conductivity (σ) times the cross sectional surface area of an object, divided by the length of an object. 1/ρ*A / l
