MCAT

What did Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase do?

proved DNA was genetic material

what oxidation state are metals ending in -ous or -ic referring to?

-ous is ox state of 2+ (ex: ferrous is Fe2+) - ic is ox state of 3+ (ex: ferric is Fe3+)

what are unicellular eukaryotes

protists/ algae

What is one requirement for a molecule to be optically active?

Must have chiral centers and MUST LACK a plane of symmetry.

does the adrenal cortex, medulla or renal pelvis have lowest solute concentration under normal conditions

cortex. renal pelvis is highest bc concentrated urine found here

what is the equation for osmotic pressure?

van't hoff factor= number of particles

Define social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

actor-observer bias

the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities (usually negative actions).

a membrane receptor is most likely to be a________.

transmembrane protein with catalytic activity.

How are cyclic carboxylic acids named?

by listing the cycloalkane with the suffix carboxylic acid

all muscle cells require __________ to contract

ca 2+

Define resonance structure

A potential arrangement of electrons in the molecule

What forms when you oxidize a quinone?

A hydroxyquinone. This is the same as a quinone but with OH groups attached as well.

Dominant vs non dominant hemisphere's functions

dominant- analytic. Also contrains Broca and Wernike for language use nondominant- intuition, creativity, spatial processing ,etc.

In naming organic compounds, if there is a tie between assigning priority to a double bond or triple bond, which takes precedence?

double bond

What are chemical properties?

Have to do with reactivity of molecule and result in changes to chemical composition. Dictated by functional groups.

What reagent is needed to convert a secondary alcohol to a ketone?

CrO3, Na2Cr2O7 or K2Cr2O7

What is saponification? What reagent is needed?

It is the ester hydrolysis of triacylglycerols using a strong base.

Are single bonds sigma bonds or pi bonds

Sigma

What are the occipital lobes and where are they?

The occipital lobes contain the visual cortex

define cleavage as it relates to cell divisions. what is indeterminate vs determine cleavage. as cells divide, how does the nuclear to cytoplasmic ratio (N:C) ratio change?

cleavage: as a zygote moves to the uterus for implantaion, the zygote undergoes rapid mitotic cell divisions indeterminate cleavage: results in cells tha can still develop into complete organisms determinate cleavage: fates of cells are already determined and they are committed to differentiating into a certain type of cell. the N:C ratio increases as cellls divide into progressively smaller cells.

Define ganglia

clusters of neuron cell bodies outside the CNS

what is the difference between evaporation and boiling

evaporation: liquid loses a high-energy particle, so the temperature of the remaining liquid decreases boilingL rapid release of the liquid as gas particles. can only occur if above the boiling point of the liquid.

What are sex-linked disorders? which sex will display them more often? in a female, are one or two copies needed for her to phenotypically show it?

genes for a disorder found on the X- chromosome. males will express these more often because they only have one x chromosome while female of 2 so they may be recessive (carriers). needs two copies to show it. if only one, than carrier

what is the equation for calculating change in entropy?

delta S=change in entropy Qrev= heat that is gained or lost in a reversible process T= temperature in kelvin

when no charge is moving between the two terminals of the cell that are at different potential values, the voltage is called the _______

electromotive force (not really a force, is measured in V not in N).

define plane polarized light

light in which the electric fields of all the waves are oriented in the same direction- electric field vectors are parallel. Thus, their magnetic fields are also parallel

What is mass defect? What is the famous equation that accounts for this?

mass defect is the the idea that the mass of a nucleus would seem to the addition of all the protons and electrons that compose it, but in reality it is a bit less than this. Mass defect is a result of matter that has been converted to energy.

gross vs fine motor skills

move large muscle groups/whole body ex) sit, crawl, walk vs. smaller muscles of finger, toes, eyes ex) track motion, draw, catch, wave

Does prejudice always lead to discrimination?

no- a person may have a negative attitude about something (prejudice) but may not act on it (discrimination).

does damping have an effect on the frequency of a wave?

no- so the pitch will not change. It just causes a decrease in amplitude during each oscillation.

do all cells divide to form identical cells?

no. autosomal cells do but when germline cells divide, the daughter cells are not equivalent.

what is the reaction called when a phosphate ester is formed by transferring a phosphate group from ATP onto a sugar?

phosphorylation

What does the pentose phosphate pathway do? What are its products used for? What is the rate limiting enzyme? name all products.

produces ribulose-5-phosphate- used for nucleotide synthesis. Also generates NADPH for biosynthesis (fatty acids and cholesterol), assisting with cellular bleach in WBCs, and maintains reduced state of glutathione (protects against free radicats). The rate limiting enzyme is glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase (activated by NAD+ and insulin), inhibited by NADPH. all prodcutsL fru-6-p, glyceraldehyde- 6-p, NADPH, ribose- 6- P.

parasympathetic signals to the heart will ______ (slow/ speed up) the heart rate. these are delivered by what nerve?

slow the heart rate. vagus nerve.

3 carbon sugars are called ________. 4 carbon sugars are ____________. etc.

trioses and tetroses

difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes. which requires insulin?

type 1- autoimmune destruction of B cells, resulting in low insulin production. require insulin. type 2- receptor- level resistance to the effects of insulin. only require insulin when their bodies can no longer control glucose levels.

How long is a typical sleep cycle in adults and children

adults- 90 min children0 50 min

inverted images are always _________ (real/ virtual)

real

Sensation vs. Perception

sensation is the conversion of physical stimuli into neurological signals, while perception is the processing of sensory information to make sense of its significance

How are organizations different from groups?

1. They continue despite the departure of an individual member 2. They have expressed goals, generally recorded in a written format and guide the members and their activities 3. characterized by the hierarchical allotment of formal roles or duties to members

what factors can affect the dissociation constant. for hemoglobin, will adding O2 affect the dissociation constant?

-temperature -lowering pH= by adding something like NH3 for example - salt concentration adding o2 would not, it would disturb the equilibrium, but it will return to equalibrium due to le chateliers principle.

What is rectilinear propagation?

when light travels through a homogeneous medium, it travels in a straight line

The elaboration likelihood model proposes two routes of processing info. what are they?

Central route- people who think deeply about info given to them Peripheral route- people who do not elaborate and focus on superficial details (like catchphrase, slogans, etc.) Most people lie somewhere in middle

What is conformational coupling? how does this differ from chemisomotic coupling?

Chemiosmotic coupling suggests a direct relationship between the proton gradient and ATP synthesis.Confromational coupling sugggests that the relationship between proton gradient and ATP synthesis is indirect- the F1 portion is like a turbine that harnesses the energy for chemical bonding in ATP.

What is chemotaxis? What structure does it use? Name this structure and its components

Chemotaxis: ability of the cell to detect a chemical stimuli and move toward or away from it. A cells ability to do this is enabled by flagella (bacteria may have 1,2, or many) - filament is the hollow helical structure - flagellin (in the hollow helical structure) - basal body (anchors the flagellum to the cytoplasmic membrane and its the motor of the flagella (up to 300 Hz). - hook connects the filament and the basal body. As basal body rotates, there is torque on the filament that propels the bacterium forward

Is cholesterol a steroid? Is it amphipathic? What is its behavior in high or low temps and how does this affect the cell membrane?

Cholesterol is a steroid that is amphipathic so it interacts with the hydrophilic heads and the hydrophobic tails of phospholipids. In high temps, it holds the cell membrane in tact. At low temps, it keeps the membrane from solidifying

Define androgyny, undifferentiated and gender schema theory as they relate to gender identity.

Androgyny- simultaneously being very masculine and very feminine Undifferentiated- being neither masculine or fmainine gender schema theory- key components of gender identity are transmitted through cultural and societal means.

what are the 3 factors that cause ring strain?

Angle strain, torsional strain and non bonded strain (aka steric strain)

What is cocaine and what does it do

Cocaine is a stimulant. Decreases reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and seratonin. Has vasoconstrictive properties, so can cause heart attacks or stroke. Highly addictive. Crack is a form of cocaine.

what are electrolytes. ionic compounds are an example of this, true or false ______(strong/weak) electrolytes are solutes that completely dissociate into their ions while _________ electrolytes do not.

A solution that conducts electricity because it contains ions. true. Strong; weak

What is active transport? Does it require energy? What is the difference between primary and secondary? Which one is associated with the terms symport/antiport and what do they mean?

Active transport requires energy. Primary- uses ATP directly Secondary- couples the transport to a passive transport system to make it energy favorable. If both are transporting in the same direction, it is a symport. If opposite, antiport.

All amino acids are chiral (and therefore optically active) except for __________. All amino acids are L- aminos (in fischer projection, amino group is drawn on the left) so all are in the (S) absolute configuration except _____________.

All are chical except glycine. All are L-amino acids. All are in the S absolute configuration except for cysteine because while it is still an L-amino acid, it has R configuration because the -CH2SH group has priority over the -COOH group

Name the parts of the limbic system and their functions in regards to emotions

Amygdala- think attention, ambiance, and actual emotion. It is related to attention and processing environment in order to produce emotions. Also involved with the memory of the actual emotion (implicit) Thalamus- think transmitter station. It is a sensory processing station and routes information to cortex/other appropriate areas. Hypothalamus- think that it is the Head of producing emotion as it controls the neurotransmitters that cause emotions Hippocampus- History. Involved with creating long term explicit memories- meaning NOT having a memory of how the emotion felt but just the memory of experiencing an emotion.

The crossover of optic nerves is called the _________. Describe where visual information goes after this. The right visual field from both eyes will project onto the __________ side of the brain and vice versa.

Crossover is called optic chiasm. After the optic chiasm, the info goes to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus, then does through radiation in the temporal and parietal lobes and eventually ends up in the visual cortex in the occipital lobe. There are inputs into the superioir colliculus which controls some responses to visual stimuli.

name some liver functions

-carbohydrate metabolism (glycogenolysis, genesis, neogenesis) -denimation of AA and conversion of ammonia to urea - lipid metabolism (cholesterol and lipoprotein synthesis) does NOT produce lipases (pancreas) produces bile- which is an emulsifier NOT a digestive enzyme. BILE DOES NOT DIGEST ANYTHING

above what solubility are solutes considered soluble?

0.1 M. below this number, insoluble. Above- soluble

Name the Pyrimidines and how many rings they have.

1. Cytosine (C) 2. Thymine (T, in DNA) 3. Uracil (U, in RNA) - One ring

There are 4 types of signaling lipids. Name them

1. terpenes/terpenoids 2. steroids 3. prostaglandins 4. Vitamins

if the Keq for a forward reaction is 3, that is the Keq for the reverse reaction?

1/3

How many electrons can a molecular orbital hold?

2

What are the cells in animals that store fat?

Adipocytes

what is the formula for acetone

C3H6O

do oxidation states change in acid-base reactions?

No.ƒb

Define dyssomnias and parasomnias

Dyssomnia: difficulty falling asleep (ex insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea) parasomniaL abnormal movements/behviors when sleeping (night terrors, sleepwalking

What kind of bond is required in a compound that is either cis or trans?

Immovable bond- such as a double bond, or around a ring structure.

How is an ester formed?

Reaction of a carboxylic acid and an alcohol.

What is conjugation when talking about resonance?

Requires alternating single and multiple bonds. Pi electrons delocalize through this p-orbital system. ( pi electrons delocalize because sigma ones still hold the single bond together during delocalization.)

What are the 4 equations related to electric potential energy/ electric potential that a required to know for the MCAT? Know how they relate to each other

Start by memorizing Coloumb's law. Then, going left to right, know to multiply by r. Going top to bottom, divide by q.

what is a better way to store energy in the body? triacylglycerols? of glycogen? Why?

Triacylglycerols. The carbons of a fatty acid chain are highly reduced, so when oxidized, they yield more energy.

Which hemisphere is usually dominant regardless of what hand one writes with?

Usually left is dominant, right is non dominant

which nerve innervates the heart

Vagus

How is a sigma bond formed?

When a molecular orbital is formed by head to head or tail to tail overlap (bonding orbitals)

protein structure is seen by using __________.

X-ray crystallography

define volatility. will smaller or larger molecules be more volatile?

a measure of how readily a substance vaporizes. smaller molecules are more volatile

What is general adaption syndrome? What are the three stages?

a model used to explain physiological reactions to stressful situations

what do grignard reagents do

act as strong nucleophiles to add C-C bonds to a carbonyl carbon

which enzyme is active in the bicarbonate buffer system

carbonic anhydrase convers Co2 to bicarbonate.

in very basic or acidic conditions, amides can be hydrolyzed into: (2 things)

carboxylic acid and ammonia

what is the envelope of the prokaryotic cell?

composed of cell wall and cell membrane

when electronegativities of two atoms are similar, they form a __________ bond.

covalent

what is the monoamine/catecholamine theory of depression

depression caused by too much norepinephrine or serotonin in synapse.

what are the external and internal anal sphincters.

external is under voluntary control and internal is under involuntary control.

What is gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT)? Name the 4 things that are included in it.

immune tissue located near the digestive system. includes tonsils (head), adenoids (head), peyer's patches (small intestine) and lymphoid aggregates (appendix).

what is an amber codon

one that stops

Define meritocracy. Define plutocracy.

social stratification (classing) based on personal merit, intellectual talent and achievements. Plutocracy, on the other hand, is the rule by the upper classes.

Define catecholamines

the chemical structures of a substance that can produce a sympathomimetic response- epi/ norepi and dopamine are all catecholamines (NOT ACETYLCHOLINE)

What is power?

the rate at which energy is transferred from one system to another

SN2 reactions are result in a product that has the same relative configuration. True or false?

False, there will be an inversion of relative configuration.

Describe how to name an ester

First part of name is the group attached to the oxygen. The second part is the name of the parent chain but with the suffix -oate. ex: ethyl propanoate

What is a current?And what is the equation for it

Flow of positive charge, even though negative charges are actually moving. Si unit is the ampere which is equal to 1 C/s

Name the following compound using E/Z nomenclature

(Z) 1-chloro-2,3-dimethyl,-2-pentene

Name the 5 stages of psychosexual development and name at which ages they occur. Also name who created this development proposal?

*libido(sexual drive) starts at birth oral:0-1 anal:1-3 phallic/oedipal: 3-5 Latency: 5- puberty Gential: puberty+ Sigmeund Freud.

For the initiation phase of translation, describe the difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes.

Intitiation in prokaryotes: Starts when the 30S ribosome attaches to the Shine-Delgarno sequence and scans for start codon. It lays down N- formylmethionine in the P site of the ribosome eukaryotes: Starts when the 40S ribosome attaches to the 5' cap and scans for a start codon. Lays down methionine first in the P site.

True or False: aldehydes/ketones and Carboxylic acids are similar in the sense that they both undergo Nucleophilic acyl substitution?

False. Aldehydes and Ketones usually undergo ADDITION, not substituion. Carboxylic acids usually undergo substitution in which a nucleophile is added, than a leaving group (weak base) are eliminated.

What is the difference between fertility rate, birth rate, mortality rate and migration rate. What is the difference between immigration and emigration and how does this relate to the current population of the US? What are push and pull factors?

Fertility rate: The average number of children a woman of childbearing years would have in her lifetime Birth rate: children per 1000 per year Mortality rate: deaths per 1000 per year migration rate: immigration rate minus emigration rate Immigration: movement into a new geographic space emigration: movement away from a geographic state. US has more immigration than emigration, so the population has increased Push factors: negative things that PUSH someone out of the old location Pull factors: positive things that PULL someone into the new location

talk through how to solve a problem in which silver needs to be melted completely. Name the equations used and overall process.

First, need to find how much head is needed to get to the melting point phase. This is determined by q=MCdeltaT. Once you got here and find the heat needed to do this, then you must find the heat change related to the phase change from solid to liquid. Since no temp change occurs here, we must use the equation q=mL( using the heat of fusion coefficient given).

What is a bimodal distribution?

It is a distribution that has two modes. (may not be equally as high but both stand out from rest of data).

what is electric potential energy? what is the equation used for it? What are the SI units? What happens if the charges are the same? If they are opposite?

Form of potential energy that is dependent on the relative position of one charge with respect to another charge or to a collection of charges. It is the work necessary to move a test charge from infinity to a point in space in an electric field surrounding a source charge Joules If same charges- then potential energy is positive. When they are close together, the will be less stable. When far apart, more stable If opposite- the potential energy is negative

How is an anhydride formed and how to name an anhydride.

Formed from 2 carboxylic acids and one water molecule is removed. Naming: If the 2 carboxylic acids involved are the same (lets say ethanoic acid), then the anhydride would be ethanoic anhydride. If there are two different carboxylic acids, then each is named alphabetically. Ex: ethanoic propionic anhydride

In wha type of cells is keratin found? What is its function? What body features is it found in?

Found in epithelial cells. They help with the mechanical integrity of the cell and function as regulatory proteins. Makes up hair and nails

What transports free fatty acids in blood? How are triacylglycerol and cholesterol transported in blood?

Free fatty acids- transported through blood in association with albumin. Triacylglycerols and cholesterol- transported as lipoproteins

When does mismatch repair occur? Which genes does it use?

G2 phase- uses MSH2 and MLH1 to detect and correct errors.

what is the free energy when the reaction is at eqUilibrium? what does this mean for the equation?

G=0 so delta H= T deltaS

Fructose and galactose can also enter into glycolysis. What are the enzymes used to do this.

Galactose: comes from lactose in milk. Galactokinse traps it in the cell. Then galactose-1 phosphate uritdyl transferase and epimerase form it into glucose 1- phosphate to enter into glycolysis. Fructose cmes from sucrose (table sugar). It is trapped in cell by fructokinase and is cleaved by aldolase B to form glyceraldehyde and DHAP

Differentiate between geminal diols and vicinal diols. Diols are alcohols with two hydroxyl groups instead of one.

Geminal (twins): Diols that have both hydroxyl groups on same carbon. These are also known as hydrates and are not commonly seen because the spontaneously lose water. Vicinal: diols that have the hydroxyl groups on ADJACENT carbons

Name the two types of DNA libraries and the difference between them. Which can be used to make recombinant proteins and gene therapy.

Genomic- contain large DNA fragments that have the coding and noncoding regions in them. They cannot be used to make recombinant proteins or for gene therapy. cDNA(expression) library- contain smaller fragments of DNA. It results from the reverse transcription of processed mRNA. Only include exons (the expressive part of the gene). They can be used for recombinant proteins or for gene therapy.

Can glycerophospholipids hace different head groups? If so, give examples.

Glycerophospholipids all have glycerol backbone but can have different head groups. 2 kinds: 1. a phosphatidylcholine is a glycerophospholipid with a choline head group. 2. Phosphatidylethanolamine has an ethanol-amine head group

for 3 helices that are tightly wrapped around each other, which amino acid would likely be found with the highest concentration?

Glycine because it is the least bulky.

What is glycogenesis? Name the two main enzymes. What is glycogenolysis? Name the main two enzymes.

Glycogenesis- production of glycogen (stored form) from glucose. 1. glycogen synthase forms the alpha 1,4 glycosidic bond. Activated by insulin in liver and muscle. 2. branching enzyme- takes a branch of oligoglucose and adds it as a branch using an alpha 1,6 glycosidic link. Glycogenolysis- brakdown of glycogen 1. glycogen phosphorylase- removes glucose 1- phosphate molecules by braking 1,4 links. Used by liver to prevent low blood sugar. In excercising, epinephrine and AMP stimulate it so more glucose can be used for muscles. 2. debranching enzyme moves block of oligoglucose to the rest of the chain leaving one free glucose molecule where the 1,6 link was. The rest of the 1,4 links are broken to glucose 6 phosphate and mutase makes them into glucose 6 phosphate. Then they can be transformed to glucose by glucose 6 phosphatase.

Define allosteric enzymes?

Have multiple binding (allosteric) sites. If an activator binds, it will make the active site more available. If an inhibitor binds, it will make the active site less available.

Define somatic symptom disorder

Have one somatic symptom which may or not be linked to and underlying medical condition. Causes a lot of stress for the person focusing on this one symptom.

describe the functions of the three types of T-cells: Helper/ CD4+ T-Cells/ Th Cytotoxic/ CDS+ T-Cells/ Tc Suppressor or regulatory/ Treg cells memory T-cells

Helper/ CD4+/ Th T-Cells: secrete lymphokines- which recruit other immune cells (macrophages, cytotoxic t-cells and plasma cells). Loss of these is what occurs during HIV/AIDS. Respond to antigens on MHC 2 (exogenous) molecules, so most effective against bacterial, fungal and parasitic infections pneuominc: 4x2= 8 CD4+ responds to MHC 2 cells 8x1=8 CD8+ responds to MHC 1 cells Cytotoxic/ CDS+ / Tc T-Cells: directly kill virally infected cells by inducing apoptosis. Respond to antigens on MHC-1 molecules (endogenous) so they are most effective against viral or INTRACELLULAR bacterial or fungal infections Suppressor or regulatory/ Treg cells: express protein Foxsp3,. they tone down the immune response once infection has been contained. they also prevent autoimmune diseases (termed self-tolerance). memory t-cells: like memory B-cells. They wait until next exposure to same antigen to produce a more robust and rapid response.

A binding protein may have different affinity for its molecule of interest depending on function. For what functions will affinity be high and when will it be low?

High affinity- when sequestration is the goal (acquire a lot of molecule of interest) Low affinity- if the protein is a transport protein that has to bind and unbind its target.

Rank alcohols, ketones/aldehydes and parent alkanes (all with equal length carbon chains) on a scale from highest boiling/melting points to lowest. Explain why this is the case.

Higher in alcohols, then ketones/aldehydes, then alkanes. Hydrogen bonding causes a high melting/boiling point and hydrogen bonding is most prominent in alcohols.

If you pair two molecules with different reduction potentials, the molecule with the (higher/lower) potential will be reduced and the other will be oxidized. Give an example of this as it is related to oxidative phosphorylation

Higher. Oxygen has high reduction potential, making it a great final acceptor in the ETC.

how is efficiency of a pulley calculated? What is the efficiency of an ideal pulley? By adding more pulleys to a pulley system, what happens? How is the total work by the person expressed.

In an ideal pulley is massless and frictionless (conservative systems) so 100%. But actual pulleys have a small amount of energy lost to external forces. Be sure to express efficiency in as a decimal- 80% would be 0.8. By adding more pulleys, the mechanical advantage will increase further. Looking at the equation, Win would be the work put in by person. This is equivalent to effort x effort distance.

breifly look over these child development milestones- notice trends

- gross motor skills progress in head to toe order - skills closer to core are developed first, extremities developed later - social skills go from parent oriented to self-oriented to other oriented.

What type of bonding occurs in the active site of an enzyme? What are the two theories for how enzyme-substrate binding occurs?

Hydrogen bonding, ionic interactions, transient covalent bonds.

In glutamic acid at ph7, the charge of the molecule is _______.

-1. This is because glutamic acid has a negative side chain so even though the ph is 7, this only balances out the charge of the amino group and caboxylate group, not the side chain. The side chain gives the molecule an overall negative charge of -1.

Name 4 strong nucleophiles

-OH, RO-, CN- and N3-

define the following terms as they relate to macrophages: part of innate or specific immune response? granulocyte or agranulocyte? monocytes resident population microglia langerhans cells osteoclasts Major histocompatibility complex antigen cytokines

-innate - agranulocyte - macrophages are derived from monocytes - can become a resident population in a tissue, whch is a permanent cell group in a tissue - microglia: example of resident macrophage- in CNS- - langerhans cells: example of resident macrophage- in skin - osteoclasts: example of resident macrophage- in bone - major histocampatibility complex- allows macrophage that just digester invader to present pieces of invader on surface to show signal to other cells. - antigen: the piece of the invader that is presented -cytokines: macrophages release cytokines that stimulate inflammation and recruit more immune cells to area

what do the suffixes -ite and -ate refer to? What would the prefixes hypo and per (for hyper) mean?

-ite and -ate are used for oxyanions (polyatomic ions with oxygen). -ite is used for the compound that has fewer oxygen molecules and -ate is used for the compound that has more oxygen molecules (think that -ate refers to the compound that ATE another molecule). ex:SO32- is sulfite SO42- is sulfate hypo and per (hyper) are used to indicate one less oxygen than sulfite or one more oxygen than sulfate. ex: SO22- is hyposulfite SO52- is persulfate

define the following as they relate to the action potentials - resting membrane potential value - in the resting membrane, is K+ concentration higher inside or outside cell - potassium leak channels (does it induce a pos or neg change on the cell) - equilibrium potential of potassium (define and give value) - in resting, is Na+ conc higher inside or outside cell - sodium leak channels - equilibrium potential of sodium - action of Na/K ATPase - why is the resting membrane potential value closer to the potassium equilibrium potential

-resting membrane: -70mV -in resting, K concentration is higher inside cell, but slowly leaks out - potassium leak channels- positive potassium is slowly leaking out, so causes negative charge on cell. makes inside slightly neg and outside slightly pos - equilibrium potential of K, when each K cation that is pushed out is coupled by one coming in. this is at -90 mV - in resting, Na conc is higher outside of cell - sodium leak channels causes NA to leak into cell equilibium potential is around 60mv bc sodium is moving into cell -action of Na/K ATPases is to keep K high inside and Na high outside. thing pumpKin (pumps K inwards). - resting membrane potential is closer to K value since the cell is more permeable to potassium.

For the azumuthal quantum number (l), the possible ranges are 0 to (n-1). What subshells do each of these numbers correspond to?

0- s subshell, 1- p subshell, 2- d subshell and 3- f subshell

briefly describe newtons 3 laws of motion

1. A body at rest or in motion will remain that way unless a net force acts upon it 2. An object of mass m will accelerate when the vector sum of the forces results in some nonzero resultant force vector. The net force vector and the acceleration vector will point in the same direction. 3. to every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. When you hit a desk, you exhibit a force on it, but it exhibits an equal force on you too. This does not have to be in physical touch (think of gravity).

Decision making is affected by the following 4 tools. Define each one. Also put each term into the categories (which are also listed in the bank below) - Disconfirmation principle - belief preserverence - Representativeness heuristic Availability heuristic - base rate fallacy -Intuition - emotion - confirmation bias - overconfidence - Bias/ overconfidence - recognition-primed decision model

1. Heuristics- simplified principles (rules of thumb) - availability heuristic- try to decide how likely something is by usung how easily similar instances can be imagined - representativeness heuristic- categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical or stereotypical or representative image for the category. Ex; if we get 6 heads in a row, we would thing that the probability for getting a a tail next is higher than the flip before... this is called BASE RATE FALLACY 2. Bias/ Overconfidence - disconfirmation principle: when a solution to a problem fails during testing, it should be discarded - confirmation bias- (goes against disconfirmation principle) focuses on information that fits your beliefs. Also contributes to OVERCONFIDENCE - belief preserverence- inability to reject belief despite evidence to the contrary. 3. Intuition- ability to act on perceptions that are not supported by evidence.. usually developed by experience. - recogntion-primed decision model: seeing a pattern will cause you to feel intuitively about what the issue at hand is without actually having evidence yet. 4. emotion

Name the 2 steps in an SN1 reaction. Which one is the rate-limiting step?

1. Leaving group leaves, which results in a positively charged carbocation (rate-limiting) 2. Nucleophile attacks the carbocation, resulting in the substitution product

Answer the following questions as they apply to aggression 1. evolutionarily, why are we aggressive? 2. what part of the brain is responsible for associating stimuli to their relevant rewards/punishments and therefore will be stimulated if we determine something is a threat? 3. what brain structure gives this perceived threat more thought? 4. what hormone, when at high levels, results in a high level of aggession? 5. what is the cognitive neoassociation model

1. aggressive for protective purposes 2. amygdala 3. prefrontal cortex (reasoning) 4. testosterone 5. cognitive neoassociation model: we are more likely to respond to others aggressively when we are feeling negative emotions (sick, in pain, frustrated)

what are the 4 fundamental tenants of cell theory

1. all living things are composed of cells 2. the cell is the basic functional unit of life 3. cells arise only from preexisting cells 4. cells carry genetic information in the dorm of DNA. This is passed from parent to daughter cell

How to determine the R or S form for chiral centers. Which form is counterclockwise and which is clockwise?

1. assign priority using Cahn-Ingold-Prelog rules 2. In your mind, orient the atoms so the lowest priority is in back 3. Draw circle from highest priority, to 2nd highest to 3rd highest 4. If circle is going in ccw direction, it is in S form. If it is in cc direction, is in R form. Pneumonic: Clockwise is the Right way the hand on a clock move.

Nucleophilicity is based on 4 factors. Name and describe them.

1. charge- nucleophilicity increases with a molecules that have a greater negative charge. 2. elecronegativity- nucleophilicity decreases as electronegativity increases-- electronegative atoms are less likely to share their electron density 3. steric hindrance- bulkier molecules are LESS nucleophilic 4. solvent- In POLAR PROTIC solvents, nucleophilicity increases down the periodic table. (most commonly seen on MCAT) In POLAR APROTIC solvents, nucleophilicity increases up the periodic table (F has more nucleophilicity than I).

neurulation steps

1. ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow, forms neural groove with two neural folds 2. cells at edge of neural groove are called neural crest (will form many different tissues) 3. furrow closes to form the neural tube, which will develop into the CNS 4. Neural tube has alar plate (forms sensory neurons) and basal plate (forms motor neurons)

There are 2 steps of aldol condensation. Name them.

1. enolate is formed, which attacks the keto-group's carbonyl carbon to form an aldol. 2. dehydration of the aldol. The -OH is removed, forming a double bond between the alpha and beta carbons. C=O group remains in tact.

What are the two common characteristics of defense mechanisms? Then name and describe all the defense mechanisms (RRRRSSPD)

1. first, they deny, falsify or distort reality 2. operate unconsciously

Answer the following questions regarding transcription: What unwinds the DNA double helix to be read? What enzyme reads the DNA and makes hnRNA? What is hnRNA and how is it related to mRNA? Where does this enzyme bind- name the region and how many base pairs upstream or downstream?

1. helicase 2. RNA polymerase 2. hnRNA still has introns in it. Once cap and tail are put on and introns are removed, then it is mRNA and is ready to be transported to cytoplasm. 3. RNA poly 2 binds to the TATA box about 25bp upstream (to the left) from the first transcribed base.

Name 3 ways that enzymes enable a quicker reaction.

1. may provide favorable environment in terms of charge/pH 2. stabilize the transition state 3. bring reactive groups nearer to one another

name the order and function of the following components of the digestive tract: pharynx rectum stomach large intestine esophagus oral cavity small intestine what to the salivary glands, pancreas, liver and gallbladder do?

1. oral cavity 2. pharynx: shared pathway of food and air that will enter respiratory system 3. esophagus- transports food to stomach 4. stomach 5. small intestine 6. large intestine 7. rectum the 4 structures listed help provide enzymes and lubrication

Fill in the blanks with parts of the ear. Then, draw a general diagram of the terms involved. A sound wave first reaches the outer ear, called the 1.________, which channels sound waves into the 2._________, which then directs sound waves to the 3. ___________, which vibrates at high frequency with high-frequency sounds (and vice versa) Louder sounds have greater intensity, which will increase the 4._________ of the vibration. Then in the middle ear, there are 3 components:, the 5.__________, 6._________, and 7. ________, which connects to the oval window. The 8__________ connects the middle ear and the nasal cavity, and helps to equalize pressure. Up next is the iner ear, which contains the 9_______, 10________ and the 11__________. These structures are continuous with eachother and are filled by 12________, 13________ and 14_________. In the inner ear, the cochlea has three scalae. Once contains the hearing apparatus called the 15________, which contains hair cells submerged in 16_______ and rests on the 17____________ membrane. On top of this hearing apparatus is the 18____________ membrane. The other two scalae in the cochlea are filled with 19________, which actually moves within the cochlea. The hair cells in the 20______ will convert this physical stimulus to an electrical signal to be carried to the CNS by the 21_____________. Another part of the inner ear is the 22_________, which contains the utricle and saccule. There contain hair cells covered in otoliths. This part of the inner ear is sensitive to 23_____________. The last part of the inner ear is the 24__________, which have swelling at the end called an _25_________, which is where hair cells are located. This part of the inner ear is sensitvie to 16_____________.

1. pinna/ auricle 2. external auditory canal 3. tympanic membrane (eardrum) 4. amplitude 5. malleus (hammer) 6. incus (anvil) 7. stapes (stirrup) 8. eustachian tube 9/10/11: cochlea, semicircular canals, vestibule 12/13/14: membranous labyrinth, perilymph and endolymph 15. organ of corti 16. endolymph 17. basilar 18. tectorial membrane 19. perilymph 20. organ of corti 21. vestibulocochlear/ auditory nerve 22. vestibule 23. linear acceleration 24. semicircular canas 25. ampulla 16. rotational acceleration

the following parts of the kidney are in order of how filtrate passes through them. define the function of each structure: 1.proximal convoluted tubule 2. descending limp of the loop of henle 3. ascending loop of henle 4. diluting segment 5. distal convoluted tubule 6. collecting duct 7. excretion

1. proximal convoluted tube: amino acids, glucose, water soluble vitamines and salts are reabsorbed along with water. secretion of waste products occurs here too (HUNK- H+, Urea, NH3 and K+). 2. descending limb. if interstitium around it is concentrated, lots of water will flow outwards from the loop of henle and be retained in this interstitium. at normal physiological state, osmolarity of cortex is same as that of blood, so not a lot of net movement. But deeper in the medulla, can range from notmal to extremely concentrated (in which it will retain water). 3. ascending limb takes advantage of decreasing medullary osmolarity at maximizes salt reabsorption. 4. diluting segment: thicker portion of loop of henle. allow reabsorption of sodium and chloride by active transport. important for when we overhydrate as it provides a mechanism for eliminating excess water 5. distal convoluted tubule- responds to aldosterone, which promotes sodium reabsorpion. water will follow, so the urine will become more concentrated and less volume. 6. collecting duct: responsive to aldosterone and ADH. water can be reabsorbed into blood here, increasing blood pressure. If well hydrated, collecting duct will be impermeable to salt and water. If in conservation more, ADH and aldosterone will increase reabsorption of water, meaning more concentrated urine. 7. anything left over is excreted.

fill in the blanks for the description of the anatomy of the eye and then draw a picture uses all of the terms as labels. The same word is used more than once. The white, exposed portion of the eye used for structure is called the 1._______, but it does not cover the frontmost part of the eye, the 2._________, which gathers and focuses incoming light. They eye is supplied with nutrients by two sets of blood vessels, the 3.__________ and the 4.________ which are located between the 5.__________ and the 6.__________. The front of the eye is divided into 2 chambers, the 7.____________ and the 8.____________, which is located between the 9.________ and the 10.____________. The 11._________ is the colored part of the eye and has two muscles, the 12._____________, which opens the pupil under sympathetic stimulation and the 13. ___________ which constricts the pupil under parasympathetic stimulation. The iris is continuous with 2 things, the 14.________ and the 15.____________, which produces the aqueous humor that bathes in the 16._______ part of the eye before draining into the 17.______________. The 18._______ is right behind the iris and controls refraction of the incoming light, and its shape is changed by the pulling on the suspensory ligaments by the 19._______________ in a phenomenon called 20.___________. Behind the _21._________ lies the 22.___________, a transparent gel that supports the ________, which is in the back of the eye and converts incoming light photons to electrical signals.

1. sclera 2. cornea 3. choroidal vessels 4. retinal vessels 5. sclera/retina 6. retina/sclera 7. anterior 8. posterior 9. iris 10. lens 11. iris 12. dilator pupillae 13 constrictor pupillae 14. choroid 15. ciliary body 16. anterior 17. canal of Schlemm 18. lens 19. ciliary muscle 20. accomadation 21. lens 22. vitreous humor 23. retina

Name the 4 stages of Piaget's proposed cognitive development (in the word bank below) and organize the words that are associated with each one. Then define each term. (not each stage has a related term) Preoperational stage Sensorimotor stage Circular reactions Concrete operational stage Centration Secondary circular reactions Symbolic thinking Conservation (name the stage in which it lacks, then when it is learned) Formal operational stage Egocentrism Primary circular reactions Object permanence Representational thought

1. sensorimotor stage (0-2): learn to meet physical needs - circular reactions: repetitive actions - primary circular reactions: reptetition of movements that occured by chance but persisted because it is soothing (sucking thumb) - secondary circular reactions: manipulation is focused on something outside of body and are repeated because child gets response from environment (throwing toy and parent picking it up) - object permanence- understanding that figures exist even when out of view - representational thought: object permanence start this idea... it is when a child has begun to create mental representations of external objects and events. 2. preoperational (2-7)- characterized by following terms - symbolic thinking- pretend, playing make believe, imagination -egocentrism- inability to imagine what a person may think or feel - centration- child only focuses on one aspect of a phenomenon (cries because only has one large piece instead of 2 small pieces). They do not understand concept of CONSERVATION 3. Concrete operational (7-11)- can understand CONSERVATION and perspectives of others. Engage in logical as long as it is about concrete, available info- no abstract thought yet. 4. formal operational (11+)- logical thinking about abstract ideas

name and describe the three steps of cell specialization

1. specification- determining what type of cell it should be 2. determination- commitment to a specific cell type (may be determined by the presence of mRNA, protein molecules, or morphogens- which are neighbording cells that cause the cell to follow a specifc pathway.). ** determination is irreversible 3. differentiation- once the cell type has been determined, the cell must undergo changes that cause the cell to develop into the determined cell type

Name 2 conditions for an SN2 reaction

1. strong nucleophile displaces the leaving group from a backside attack 2. Substrate cannot be sterically hindered. Less substituted carbon are more reactive in SN2 reactions.

what are the three genetic recombination processes seen in bacteria that produce variability? Use following word bank to identify the 3 types and the words that are associated with them. Be sure to define each term. There is also one word that is defined as "genetic elements capable of inserting and removing themselves from the genome... seen in prokaryotes and eukaryotes"- identify which one this is. Transduction High frequency of recombination Transformation Conjugation bridge Fertility factor Vector Donor male (+) Recipient female (-) Conjugation Bacteriophages Transposons Sex factors Sex pili

1. transformation: integration of foreign genetic material into host genome that is located in the vicinity of the bacterium. Many gram-negative rods are able to carry out this process. Sex factors can also be passed during this process even though they are more common in conjugation. 2. Conjugation- bacterial form of mating - 2 cells form conjugation bridge - only happens in one direction (from donor male (+) to recipeint female (-)) - Bridge is made from sex pili that are found on donor male. In order to form the pilus, the bacteria must have plasmids known as sex factors. - most common/studied sex factor is the Fertility (F) factor.- Bacteria that have this are called F+ while those who dont are F-. - during conjugation, the F+ cell replicates the F factor and passes it to the recipient F- cell so that it now becomes an F+ cell that can form a pilus. (THIS IS HOW TRANSFER OF GENETIC MATERIAL IS MADE SO EASY.....EACH CELL KEEPS FORMING A PENIS) - sex factors can also be passed during transformation in which they are incorporated into the host genome instead of simply being a plasmid. Cells that undergo this are referred to as Hfr for high frequency of recombination 3. Transduction: requires a vector- a virus that carries genetic material from one bacterium to another. They cannot reproduce outside of host cell. - bacteriophages are viruses that infect bateria and can accidentally be incorporated into a segment of host DNA during assembly. Transposons are the genetic elements capable of inserting and removing themselves from the genome and is seen in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. if insert in middle of coding sequence, mutation will disrupt gene

identify the following quantities on a diagram of a concave mirror: also identify the relationship between each one r i focal point (F) center (C) O (object) Image f o what does a positive i vs a negative i mean

1/f= 1/o + 1/i = 2/r (don't need to use a specific unit but need to keep whichever you choose consistent amont the variables) positive i means that it is a real image and it is in fron of the mirror negative i means that it is virtual and located behind the mirror

An electron is known to be in the n=4 shell and the l=2 subshell. How many possible combinations of quantum numbers can this electron have?

10. Ml could be from -l to +l, so -2,-1,0,1 or 2. These are 5 different options. Next, the spin quantum number could be either +1/2 or -1/2 for each of these numbers. So 10 possible combinations.

what is the umbilical cord and what does it contain?

2 arteries and one vein encased in a gelatinous substance. the vein carries oxygenated blood from the placenta to the embryo and the arteries carry deoxygenated blood and waste to the placenta in exchange.

Define cooperativity and how it relates to the T and R states.

A situation in which the binding of a ligand at one site on a macromolecule affects the affinity of other sites for the same ligand. Both negative and positive cooperativity occur. If a ligand binds and makes the other active sites relaxed and higher affinity, this is called the R state. If the ligand binds and makes the other sites tense with low affinity for substrate, this is called the T state. Graph of cooperatively has sigmoidal S shape

What is cellulose?

A substance (made of sugars) that is common in the cell walls of plants and is a source of fiber

What is a zwitterion? At what pH do zwitterions form? What does a zwitterion look like in terms of charges on the amino acid?

A zwittterion is when the amino acid has both a positive and negative charge, but overall the charge is neutral. They form at pH 7.4 (the physiological pH). The carboxylate group will be unprotonated and the amino group will be protonated.

The ANS is responsbile for all ____________ (automatic/voluntary) processes. There are two divisions of the ANS: sympathetic and parasympathetic. How do these two divisions differ with the following responses: - pupils -saliva - bronchi (constriction/relaxation) -heartbeat -sweating - peristalsis/secretion - GLUCOSE release or BILE release - secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline -bladder. -orgasm

ANS: automatic processes In addition to picture: sympathetic stimulates sweating and orgasms.

Motor proteins can have enzymatic activity, acting as ______________.

ATPases. These power the conformational change that is necessary for motor function

What is Henry's Law? What is the equation for it?

According to this law, gases dissolve in liquids in proportion to the partial pressures, depending also on their solubilities in the specific fluids and on the temperature. [A]= kH (depends on identity of gas) X Pa (partial pressure of gas A) from this equation, solubility of the gas increases as partial pressure increases

What are the three different types of cues used when forming attributions about someone's behavior

Acronym: CDC consistency- if a behavior is more regular, we are more likely to associate that behavior with the motives of the person- meaning we form a dispositional attribution. Distinctiveness- the extent to which a person engages in similar behavior across a series of scenarios. If it varies in differeny situations, we are more likely to form a situational attribution to explain it. Consensus- the extent to which the person's behavior differs from others. If it deviates greatly, we are more likely to form a dispositonal attribution

What are afferent vs efferent neurons? What are interneurons? Which are linked to our relexive behavior and why?

Afferent = sensory Efferent = motor Interneurons are found between other neurons. They are the most numerous. Reflexive behavior is linked to interneurons because that way we don't have to wait for the brain to send a signal in a dangerous situatuin, the interneurons (IN SPINAL CORD) can just respond instead.

Name functional groups that usually act as acids. Name the functional groups that usually act as bases

Alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and carboxylic acid derivatives act as acids. Amines NR3 and Amides -NR2, act as bases.

Name the 4 states of consciousness

Alertness, Sleep, Dreaming, Altered States of Consciousness

IQ tests were pioneered by.... And what was the original formula for calculating IQ?

Alfred Binet. IQ= mental age/ chronological age x 100.

Who would make more fundamental attribution errors, someone raised in America or someone raised in Japan? Also what type of attributions are each of these people likely to make?

Americans make more fundamental attribution errors because of the individualistic nature. Americans are likely to make dispositional attributions (about the person) and collectivist cultures tend to attribute behavior to situational factors

The amino group of an amino acid has a pKa around _____. The carboxylate group of an amino acid has a pKa around ______. When the pH is below both of these numbers, both groups are ______________ (protonated/deprotonated) and the amino acid has an overall __________ charge. When the pH is between both of these numbers, the carboxylate group will be ___________ (protonated/deprotonated)and the amino group will be _________ (protonated/deprotonated). This is called a _____________. When the pH is above both of these numbers, both groups will be ____________ (protonated/deprotonated) and the amino acid has an overall ________ charge.

Amino group has pKa around 9-10. The carboxylate has a pKa around 2. When pH is below 2 (acidic), both groups are protonated, leaving a positive charge. When pH is between 2 and 9, the carboxylate group will be deprotonated and amino group will be protonated. This is a zwitterion. When the pH is above 9 (basic), both groups are deprotonated, the amino acid has an overall negative charge. (look at my diagram on pg 13 of biochemistry if confused).

Define amphoteric. Give an example

Amphoteric is when a molecule can act as an acid or a base. Water for ex

What are amylose and amylopectin? How do they differ from glycogen?

Amylose: linear chain of starch - has alpha-1,4, glycosidic bonds Amylopectin: branched-chain of starch- has alpha 1,4, and alpha 1,6 bonds (makes it branched) Amylose and Amylopectin is how starch is stored in plants Glycogen is similar except it has more alpha 1,6 bonds, making it more branched. It is the carbohydrate storage unit in animals

for open pipes, with open ends, are there nodes or antinodes at each end?

Antinodes at each end. Look at picture and understand it. for (a), there is only half of a wavelength when there is one antinode, so it will he half of the wavelength. in b, there are two nodes and the lines show a full wavelength so L= wavelenngth these are presented as transverse waves for simplicity but keep in mind that sound waves are actually longitudinal.

What are the three overarching domains that all life is classified into? Which of these are prokaryotic? Give a breif description of these and some similarities/ differences between them

Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya Archaea and Bacteria are prokaryotic Archaea- found in extreme environments. Have some similarities to Eukarya Bacteria- ALL HAVE cell membrane, cytoplasm and flagella/ fimbriae -Archaea and Bacteria are visually and structurally similar and undergo binary fission. Bot hahve single circlar chromosome . BUT archaea and eukaryotes both start translation with methionine, have similar metabolic pathways, contain similar RNA polymerases, etc.

What are Jung's 4 main archetypes? What is an archetype?

Archetype: Images that exemplify an underlying form or concept. 1. perosna- the aspect of personality we present to world 2. anima - a mans "inner woman" (THINK MAN) 3. animus- a woman's "inner man" (THINk MRS) 4. shadow- unpleasant thoughts, feelings in our consciousness

Differentiate between axial and equitorial

Axial stick up and down, equitorial stick out to sides

What is the language acquisiton device? What category of speech theory does it belong to?

Belongs to the nativist (biological theory) . it is the innate ability for children to learn to make transformations in grammer. Ex: instead of saying I will take the MCAT, it could transform to be The MCAT will be taken by me. Children make these transformations at an early age, and Chomsky believe this to be a theoretical pathway that allows infants to process and absorb language rules.

Organize/ define the following terms as they relate to sleep. Slow wave sleep Stage 1 Theta waves Beta waves Stage 2 Sleep Spindles K Complexes Stage 3 NREM sleep Paradoxical sleep Delta waves Alpha waves Stage 4 REM sleep

Beta waves- high frequency; active in alert stage Alpha waves- awake but with eyes closed, slower/more synchronized than beta waves Stage 1- when you doze off. theta waves Stage 2- sleep spindles and K complexes. theta waves Stages 3 and 4- slow wave sleep, delta waves (low frequency, high voltage) NREM: stages 1-4 REM- mostly beta, in between cycles, also called paradoxical sleep bc ones heart rate, breathing patterns and EEG mimic wakefulness, but individual is still asleep. REM and memory consolidation occur here. As night goes on, peoportion of REM sleep increases *remember order of waves as you fall asleep as BAT-D. (bats fall asleep during the day)

What is a semantic network? How does this relate to spreading activation and priming?

Brain organizes ideas based on concepts that are linked together by similar meaning. Spreading activation is the idea that when one thing is stimulated, the other things are unconcsiously stimulated. This idea lies at the heart of priming, which in which recall is aided first by being presented with a word or phrase close to that semantic memory

What is the function of Broca's and Wernicke's area? What is the structure that connects them? Also describe the aphasia that occurs when any one of these 3 structures are damaged.

Broca's area: in the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe. Controls motor function of speech by connecting with motor cortex. Wernicke's area: in the superior frontal gyrus.Responsible for language comprehension. Arcuate Fasciculus: connects the two areas. it is a bundle of axons that allows association between the two areas. Aphasia: deficit in language production or comprehension Broca's aphasia: comprehension is in tact but have reduced or absent ability to produce spoken language. Wernicke's (receptive) area: motor production is retained but comprehension is lost. Make nonsensical sounds and inappropriate word combos. Conduction aphasia: when acruate fasciculus is affected. Unable to repeat something that has been said because the connection between these two regions has been lost.

when considering the interconversion between one chair conformation to another, what kind of groups attached to the molecule will slow this process down? Also, will this group favor an equatorial position or axial position and why?

Bulky groups (SPECIFICALLY TERT-BUTYL) will slow down the chair flip. It will favor the equatorial position to reduce non bonded strain with the axial groups in the molecule.

A peptide bond forms between the _______ of one amino acid and the _______ of another. The formation can be classified as 2 types of reactions, which reactions are these and why?

Carboxylate (COO-) group of one and the NH3 group of another. It can be classfied as a condensation/dehydration reaction because it involves the removal of an H2O molecule. It can also be seen as an acyl substitution reaction. The amino group of one AA acts as a nucleophile and attacks the other amino acid. After this happens, the hydroxyl group from the other amino acid is kicked off, and a peptide bond is formed.

How do you name dicarboxylic acids?

Carboxylic acid on each end of compound. Number of carbons in between the two ends is the base name. The suffix is -dioic acid. if 2 carbons, ethanedioic acid. If 3, propanedioic acid. Common names are oxalic acids (2 carbons), malonic acid (3) and succinic acid (4) No carbons in midde- O, 1 carbon- M, 2 carbons- S, 3 carbons, G OMSG- oh my succinic god

What are physical properties? Give 6 examples (D. COMBS)

Characteristics that do not change the composition of matter. Density, color, odor, melting point, boiling point, solubility

Co2 is not very soluble in water AND hemoglobin has a low affinity for Co2. how does co2 leave the body then? how does this explain how pH changes in the blood.

Co2 + H20 forms carbonic acid, which dissociates into a proton and the bicarbonate anion, both of which have high solubilities in water. they can go to the lungs to be excreted. this also explains why an increased Co2 amount means a lower pH.... increased H+ production = lower pH.

what is cognitive appraisal? What are the two steps with it?

Cognitive appraisal is a subjective eval of a situation that induces stress. Primary appraisal: Initial eval of situation and threat- can be defined as irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful Secondary appraisal- eval of 3 things. 1. harm/damage caused by the event, 2. threat, the potential damage for future hurt, 3. challenge- potential to overcome or benefit from the event.

What is N-Ach. Who was it coined by?

Coined by Davind McCelland. N-Ach stands for the trait of needing achievement. They avoid high risks (avoid failing) and low risks (will not generate sense of achievement).

Who coined moral development theory? What are the three phases? Name their related ages and stages. Which stage is also called the instrumental relativist stage? Why? Which phase is held by post adults.

Coined by Kohlberg. Stage 2 (self interest) is the instrumental relativist stage because it is based on the concept of reciprocity and sharing. Phase 2- conventional morality is where most adults lie, only a few go on to phase 3.

Name the 4 types of reversible inhibition and define each one.

Competitive- inhibitor occupies active site where substrate wants to bind. Noncompetitive- inhibitor binds to an allosteric site, inducing an enzyme conformation Mixed- inhibitor can bind to enzyme of ES complex (different affinity for each). Bind at allosteric site. Uncompetitive: bind only to ES complex and lock the substrate in the active site

Which complex of oxidative phosphorylation uses FMN?

Complex 1

Name and describe the ways that heat can transfer energy between objects

Conduction: direct physical contact through molecular collisions. Metals are good conductors because their molecules are so close. Gases are bad conductors because there is so much space between individual molecules Convection: Transfer of heat by the physical motion of a fluid over a material- only liquids and gases can transfer heat by this means. Ex: a convection oven use fans to circulate hot air inside the oven to transfer heat to colder foods (think bravo). These cook more rapidly than radiation-only ovens radiation: transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves. Home ovens are usually radiation ovens

What is jung's definition of the conscious mind and unconscious mind? How is this related to the self?

Conscious mind- the ego Unconscious mind: 2 parts. 1. personal unconscious (thoughts that have been repressed-like Freud's definition) and 2. collective unconscious (shared among humans and are residues from early ancestors). It is the point of intersection of these 3 things that create the self. The self strives for unity

Aldehydes/ketones react with hydrogen cynanide (HCN) to form ___________. Describe what this looks like.

Cyanohydrins

Difference between distress and eustress

Distress is a stress that is caused by unpleasant stressors, while eustress is caused by positive stressors. An example of a positive stressor is graduating college - the new life path becomes a stressful situation, but this is overall a positive thing in life.

difference between dot product and cross product

Dot product is used for finding a scalar (magnitude only) Cross product is used for finding a vector (magnitude and direction) The second equation is used for generating a third vector like torque. The resultant of a cross product will always be perpendicular to the plane created by the two vectors (use right-hand rule) - remember "crosssin" cross=sin

what is different when analyzing heat addition/ removal during a phase change vs not in a phase change?

During a phase change, there is no temperature change so you cannot use the q=mcdeltaT equation. Instead, you must use the q=mL equation . q- amount of heat gained/lost from material. m= mass of substance and L= heat of transformation/latent heat When not in phase change, there is a temperature change so y

What is the SI unit for heat? What are other units that can be used for heat? What is the conversion between these?

Joule. Other units are the calorie (cal) or nutritional Calorie (Cal) which is equal to 1000cal. Another is the BTU (british thermal unit). 1 Cal= 1000cal= 4184 J= 3.97 BTU.

equation for kinetic energy. what is the SI unit for kinetic energy? What will happen if the speed doubles?

KE=1/2mv^2. SI unit is the joule, which is kg X m^2/ s^2. If the speed doubles, the KE will quadruple assuming mass is constant

Describe the acid dissociation constant (Ka) and how to find the pKa. What does a low pKa mean?

Ka = [H+] [A-] / [HA]. pKa is the negative log of Ka. Lower pKa values mean stronger acids. If the value is below -2, they are strong acids. Between -2 and 20, they are weak acids. the pKa is the pH at which half of the compount is in protonated form and the other half is in deprotonated form

what is the difference between Kc and Qc? Name what is happening when Qc is above, below, and equal to Kc (be sure to name what the free energy value is at each).

Kc is the equilibrium constant measured by the concentrations of products (raised to their stoichiometric coefficients) divided by the concetrations of reactants (also raised to their coeffcients). Qc is the same equation, but can be used at other times in the reaction, not only at the equilibrium. When Q<Kc, the reaction has not yet reached equilibrium because there is a greater concentration of reactants than products. Here, delta G is negative. When Q=Kc, the reaction is at dynamic equilibrium. delta G is zero. When Q> Kc, the forward reaction has exceeded equilibrium and the reverse rate of the reaction is increased to restore equilibrium. delta G is positive.

In liver, acetyl CoA cannot produce glucose, so forms _________.

Ketone bodies.

How do kinesins and dyneins interact with microtubules to produce movement?

Kinesins and dyneins have two heads, at least one of which remains attached to the tubulin at all times

Which motor proteins are associated with microtubules? Describe their distinct functions

Kinesins and dyneins. Kinesins align chomosomes during metaphase and anaphase. Dyneins help with sliding movement of cilia and flagella.

What kind of therapy is carl rogers known for? explain it. Also, what is his concept of unconditional positive regard.

Known as client-centered/nondirective therapy. People have freedome to control their own behavior, are not slaves to the unconcious. Therapy of this sort helps clients reflect on problems, make choices, etc to determine their destiny. (LIKE MARY JO) Unconditional positive regard is a technique in which a therapist accepts the client completely and expresses empathy in order to provide a positive therapeutic environment.

What is laminar flow? What is the equation for it? Pneumonic.

Laminar flow: smooth and orderly and is modeled as layers of fluid that flow parallel to each other. Poiseuille's law: this law allows us to determine linear flow without knowing the area and velocity at another area of the piple (so can't use A1V1= A2V2 equation). The full equation is not usually tested, but the relationship between radius and pressure gradient is. The relationship is inverse exponential to the 4th power meaning that even a small change in radius will produce a change in pressure gradient (assuming constant flow rate). cutie pie has the pressure (r) for 8 new leggings

What one reagent is used to reduce carboxylic acids/ aldehydes to primary alcohols, esters to pair of alcohols, ketones to secondary alcohols and amides to amines?

LiAlH4

What is the limbic system? What are the 3 components and their functions?

Limbic system is associated with memory and emotion - spetal nuclei- pleasure center in brain - amygdala- defensive and aggressive behaviors (fear and rage) - hippocampus- learning and memory processes. Communicates with other portions of limbic system via the fornix

define the following terms as they relate to the structure of a pulley: load, effort, load distance and effort distance.

Load: weight (mass x gravity) of the object that is held by the total tension in the ropes . Each rope supports 1/2 of crate's weight. Load determines necessary output force. Then from the output force and the mechanical advantage, we can determine the input force. effort: the half of the force that is required to lift the crate. load distance: the desired height of the object in the air effort distance: the length of the rope that needs to pulled in order to lift the weight. For a 2 pulley system, multiple the desired height by 2 and that will give you the effort distance. For a 6 pulley system, multiply the desired height by 6 and that will give you the effort distance. think about if you wanna bring a weight up 3 meters, you are pulling that rope so the 3 meters is no longer in line with the weight but is now part of the rope you are holding on to. (look at picture on pg 65 if confused)

what have studies on monozygotic (Mz/ identical) twins vs dizygotic (DZ/ fraternal) twins shown?

MZ raised in separate families are still more similar than DZ twins raised together. This suggests a strong genetic component ro personality.

Define mores in comparison to norms. These serve as a means of social control. Social control is also maintained by _____ which are formal or informal punishments or rewards for appropriate behavior.

Mores are more widely observed social norms. Social control is maintained by sanctions- which can be implemented formally (institutions) or informally (enforced by social behaviors).

For the proton motive force to power ATP synthesis, protons move from the ______________ to the ______________ creating a ________ (higher/lower) concentration of H+ ions that can drive ATP production

Move from the mitcochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space to crease a higher H+ conc.

What is a newman projection? name and define the 4 straight chain confirmations.

Newman projection: visualized along the line that extends thorugh the C-C bond. Conformations: -staggered/ anti. In this conformation, the two largerst groups are antiperiplanar (same plane but opposite sides). Low energy phase = Highly favored. - Gauche (means awkward) is when the 2 largest groups are 60 degrees apart. - Eclipsed: largest groups are 120 degrees apart and overlap with the hydrogens on adjacent carbon. To get from staggered to gauche, must go through this phase. - Totally eclipsed: largest groups overlap with 0 degree separation. They are synperiplanar. This is in the highest energy phase, so it is least favored.

What is the unit for force? Give the equation for gravitational force- make sure to include units too. Does gravitational force increase or decrease as you move away from earth? Using the equation, what would happen if the radius between centers were to be cut in half?

Newtons. 1N=kg x m/ s2. Gravitational force decreases as you move away from the earth's center. If r is cut in half, then the gravitational force would quadruple.

are viruses living things? Why or why not. What is a capsid? Envelope? Can they reproduce independently? what is the name given to virusus that can specifically target bacteria? What are the tail sheath and tail fibers?

No because they are a cellular. - capsid: protein coat. It is surrounded by phospholipids and virus-specific proteins. The envelope is sensitive to heat, detergents and desiccation - they cannot reproduce independently, they must replicate genetic info within a host cell. Once they attack that cell, they can replicate and release viriouns which can infect other cells. Bacteriophages are viruses that specifically target bacteria. They do not insert the cell, they just inject their genetic material. The tail sheath of the bacteriophage acts like a syringe that injects the material and the tail fibers help the bacteriophage recognize and connect to the correct host cell.

What is the equation to determine isoelectric point for an amino with no charged side chain. How do you determine the isoelectric point if there is a charged side chain?

No charged side chain means there will only be two pKa values: one for the amino group and one for the carboxylate group. You just need to add these together and divide by 2 to get the isoelectric point. For a charged side chain, take the 2 of the 3 pKa values are closest numerically and add them together and divide by 2. This gives you the isoelectriv point for charged side chains, such as glutamate, aspartate, histidine, lysine and arginine.

What is a resistor? What are materials that have no resistance? High resistance? What is the equation for resistance and name SI units.

No resistance- conductors High resistance- insulators resistors- conductive materials that have amounts of resistance between these two extremes. When a current delivers energy to a resistor, they convert this energy to some other form. For ex, in toasters, the resistors are the coils that transfer heat energy- this heat energy dissipates because of the resistance the coils pose to the current running through them resistivity constant for each material has an Si unit of the ohm-meter. (ohm x m)

By knowing the specific rotation of one diasteromer, can we know the rotation for the other one.

No, this only works for enantiomers.

for trailing zeroes, are they significant in both numbers that have a decimal point and ones that dont?

No- only fr numbers that contain decimal points. 3.600 has 4 white 3600 only has 2.

Do prokaryotes and eukaryotes utilize the same ribosomes? What implications does this have on protein synthesis?

No- prokaryotes use 30S and 50S. Eukaryotes use 40S and 60S. Different sized ribosomes implies that they carry out protein synthesis in different ways.

Can there be work done in a closed biological system?

No. In the human body, pressure and volume are usually fixed so no work can be done. The only way to increase internal energy in a closed biological system would be to add heat.

By increasing enzyme concentration, will you hit Vmax?

No. Increasing SUBSTRATE concentration will eventually hit Vmax. Increasing enzyme concentration will always increase the rate of a reaction.

Can a pi bond exist independently of a sigma bond?

No. It is only after a sigma bond forms that the p orbitals can line themselves up to form the pi bond

Will solution containing 2M (R)-2 butanol and 2M (S)- 2- butanol have optical activity? What kind of mixture is this?

No. Same concentration of enantiomers will not have optical activity. It is a racemic mixture

Are A,C,G,T, and U nucleotides or nucleosides?

Nucleotides bc they have phosphate groups

How is information from an odor passed all the way to the brain starting from the odor itself.

Odor in nostril, nasal passage, olfactory nerves (in olfactory epithelium), olfactory bulb, olfactory tract, higher regions of brain (limbic system)

What are opiates and opiods? What is the difference? What is the same?

Opium is the poppy plant from which they are derived. Opiates (morphine and codeine) are naturally occuring. semisynthetic versions are opiates (oxycodone, hydrocodone and heroin). They bind to opiod receptors inPNS and CNS and decrease reaction to pain and cause euphoria. Treatment for opiod addiction is to use methadone, which has lower risk of overdose.

Define optical activity. How does optical activity differ between enantiomers and how are they classified?

Optical activity is the rotation of plane-polarized light by a chiral molecule. One enantiomer rotates this light in one direction, the other rotates it in the opposite direction. the one that rotates to the right (clockwise) is dextrorotatory (d-) and is labeled +. left (counterclockwise) is levorotatory (l-) and is -.

define osmotic pressue. What type of property is this?

Osmotic pressure is the "sucking pressure" in which a solution is drawing water in. It is a colligative property because it depends on the concentration of dissolved particles put not hte identity of those particles.

what is the Whorfian Hypothesis? (linguistic relativity hypothesis)

Our perception of reality is determined by the content of language

According to Maslow, people who are self actualized have ______________ experiences.

Peak experiences which are deep and profound experiences that have important and lasting effects in an individual.

When talking about peer pressure, what are considered as peers? What is the identity shift effect? Cognitive dissonance?

Peers- individuals who are equals in a social group Identity shift effect is the mechanism of how peer pressure works. Identity shift effect is due to the feeling of internal conflict between their pressured behavior and the normal character of the person. In response to this, the person's identity will shift so that the individual adopts the standards of the group as their own. This also gives rise to cognitive dissonance- the simultaneous presence of two competing thoughts, which leads to discomfort.

Name the 5 basic components of language and describe them.

Phonology: actual sound of language. Speach sounds are called phonemes. Must also learn the suddle distinctions in word pronunciation, called categorical perception. Morphology: structure of words. Composed of building blocks called morphemes. (suffix, prefix, root) Semantics: association of meaning with a word. Certain phoneme combinations represent certain physical objects or events. Ex; your mom is a woman, but you would not call every woman mommy. Syntax: how words are put together into sentences. Pragmatics: dependence of language on context and preexisting knowledge. How we speak to our audience and our relationship to that audience. Also PROSODY describes the rhythm, cadence and inflection of voices.

Name and describe the three elements of emotional response: physiological, behavioral and cognitive. How do the James-Lange theory and the Cannon-Bard theory differ in regard to these elements.

Physiological: stimulated by autonomic nervous system. Includes change of heart rate, breathing rate, skin temperature, and blood pressure. Pronounced physiological changes are seen in fear, aggression and embarrassment Behavioral: Facial expressions and body language Cognitive: interpretation of the feeling being experienced. Influenced by past experiences for determining cause of an emotion. James-Lange: Stimulus first causes physiological arousal, them emotion is labeled. Cannon-Bard: Cognitive and physiological component come at the same time, then behavioral comes after.

For postive charges, they will spontaneously move from a position of _____________ electric potential ENERGY to a postion of __________ electric potential ENERGY. They will also move from a ___________ POTENTIAL to a ____________ POTENTIAL creating voltage For negative charges, they will spontaneously move from a position of ____________ electric potential ENERGY to a postion of __________ electric potential ENERGY. They will also move from a ___________ POTENTIAL to a ____________ POTENTIAL creating voltage

Positive: -high -> low for potential ENERYGY - high -> low for electric potential (voltage) Negative - high -> low for potential ENERGY - low -> high for electric potential (voltage) IN BOTH CASES, ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY IS INCREASING, JUST IN ONE CASE THERE WILL BE A NEGATIVE VOLTAGE (POSITIVE CHARGE) AND IN THE OTHER CASE THERE WILL BE A POSITIVE VOLTAGE (NEGATIVE CHARGE)

What are the three important factors of social inequality that influence prejudice. Also describe the "haves" and the "have nots". what theory is this? What is class consciousness? What is the barrier to class consciousness

Power- ability of people/groups to achieve their goals despite obstacles Prestige- level of respect shown to people/group Class- socioeconomic status (grouping of "haves" (people who have things) and "have-nots" (people who don't)). Marxist theory suggests that the have-nots (the proletariat) could overthrow the haves (the bourgeoisie) and the entire capitalist economy by developing class consciousness, which is the organization of the working class around shared goals and recognition for collective political action. The barrier to class consciousness is false consciousness- a misperception of one's actual position within society.

Define chemoselectivity

Preferential reaction of one functional group in the presence of another functional group

When in the presence of others, does the performance of simple tasks or complex tasks increase? What law is this?

Presence of others enhances performance of simple tasks, hinders importance of complex tasks. This is related to the Yerkes-Dodson law of social facilitation as it states that too high of arousal decreases performance. When others are around and you are performing something complex, this is too much arousal to be beneficial.

what is the principle of superstition. How does this relate to constructive interference and destructive interference? what would happen if two equal waves are exactly 180 degrees out of phase?

Principle of superstition: when waves interact, the displacement of the resultant wave at any point is the sum of the 2 interacting waves constructive interference: waves are perfectly in phase so the displacements (amplitudes) add together destructive: waves are perfectly out of phase so the displacements will counteract each other. The amplitude of the resultant wave is the difference between the amplitudes of the two waves *this is how noise cancelling headphones work. They put out a wave that is 180 degrees out of phase with the outside sound waves for a very minimal resultant wave that you hear. There can also be partially constructive and partially destructive in which they mostly add to each other or mostly subtract from each other if two EQUAL waves are perfectly out of phase, their amplitudes (which are the same bc they are equal) will subtract to give you zero.

What is different about the secondary structure of proline? Where is it found in alpha sheets and beta sheets?

Proline has a rigid cyclic structure, so it will introduce a kink if in the middle of a chain. For this reason, it is found at the start of an alpha helix or in the turns of a beta sheet.

What are the 4 areas for organizing theories of personality and name the prominent people and a BRIEF description of their theory.

Psychoanalytic: focus on the unconscious -Sigmeund Freud (id, ego, superego)- MAIN ONE.. other theories came out of his principles - Carl Jung- Myers Briggs type inventory - Alfred Adler: striving for superiority - Karen Horney- neurotic needs Humanistic: Person-centered approach instead of looking at behavior/drives - Kurt Lewin- force field theory (current state of mind) - Maslow: people who are self-actualized have peak experiences - George Kelly- personal construct psychology (how we anticipate events) - Carl Rogers- client- centered therapy/ nondirective Type and Trait- type (taxonomy of personality types), trait (personality is sum of person's characteristics) - Greeks: personality type based on body fluid - William Sheldon: somatotypes (personality types are based on body types). - Eysencks: PEN model (eventually expanded to Big Five model) - Gordon Alport (cardinal, central and secondary traits) - David McClelland- personality based on need for achievement Behaviorist- based on operant conditioning - Skinner- personality is reflection of behaviors that have been reinforced- uses token economics in therapy - Albert Bandura- social cognitive perspective. Reciprocal determinism.

Pyruvate enters mitchochindria via ___________ (active/passive)transport. It is then oxidized and _____________________ (carboxylated/ decarboxylated) by what complex? Write the overall reaction of this process (and is it exergonic or endergonic) and give the functions of the enzymes in this complex.

Pyruvate enters via active transport It is oxidized and decarboxylated by the pyruvate (loses a CO2)dehydrogenase complex. Overall raction: Pyruvate+ CoA-SH+ NAD+ (TPP, lipoate, FAD, Mg2+) ---------> Acetyl CoA, CO2, NADH. free energy= -33.4kJ/mol note: FADH/FAD+ are not products/reactants in this process. the process of oxidation/reduction allows for the reduction of NAD+ to NADH, which is a product.

Treatment of phenols with oxidizing agents will form _______? How are these names?

Quinones. Indicate the Positions of the carbonyl groups numerically and add "quinine to the name of the parent phenol.

Define reinforcement. What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement? Tell how the terms escape learning and avoidance learning are related to pos/neg reinforcement.

Reinforcment: process of increasing the likelihood that an individual will perform a behavior. -Positive: an action frquency will increase if given a postive consequence/incentive afterwards - negative: an action's frequency increases when a negative (unpleasant) thing is taken away afterwards. Escape learning- the role of the behavior is to reduce unpleasantness that already exist (ex: taking aspirin) avoidance learning- prevents unpleasantness of something that has not yet happened (ex: studying now to avoid the unpleasantness of a bad MCAT score).

oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve identifies the relationship between what. how does excersize shift this curve? how can you find the amount of oxygen released into the tissues?

Relationship between available oxygen and amount of oxygen carried by hemoglobin.\ excersice shifts it to the right amount of oxygen released is the difference in the y-value. if blood is 100 %saturated in the lungs at 100 mmHg O2 and only 80 % saturated in the tissues (at 40 mmHg O2), then 20 % has been released into tissues..

Babies have 4 main primitive reflexes, name and describe them

Rooting reflex- baby will turn head in direction of stimulus that touches cheek Moro reflex- infants react to abrupt movements by flinging out their arms, then slowly retracting and crying Babinski reflex- toes are spread apart automatically when sole of foot stimulated grasping reflex- infant closes fingers around object placed in hand.

the ear is responsible for three things. Hearing is one, what are the other 2?

Rotational and linear accelteration

Which bond is stronger independently, a pi bond or a sigma bond? Why?

Sigma is stronger independently. But double bonds are stronger than single bonds overall. Sigma is stronger because they have more overlap than p-orbitals

Define social reproduction and structural poverty. What is absolute vs relative poverty. Define the poverty line

Social reproduction: social inequality can be reproduced or passed on from one generation to the next. Structural poverty: holes in the structure of society cause poverty, not the actions of the individual. Absolute: poverty is a socioeconomic conditoin in which people do not have enough money or resources to maintain a quality of living that includes basic life necessities. relative: people are poor in comparison to the larger population in which they live. The poverty line is the government's calculation of the minimum income requirements for families to acquire the minimum necessities of life. But, one flaw of it is that it does not take into account the cost of living in different communities.

Name the start codon and what it codes for and the 3 stop codons.

Start: AUG (are you geeked for meth) Methionine is the first AA Stop: UGA, UAA, UAG (U Are Annoying, U Go Away, U Are Gone)

What is the difference between static and kinetic friction? What is the normal force? How are the 3 related? Also, is a wheel kinetic or static friction? Which is always larger, the coefficient of static friction or kinetic friction?

Static friction: exists between stationary object and the surface on which it rests Kinetic friction: exists between a sliding object and the surface on which it slides Normal Force (N): component of the force between two objects in contact that is perpendicular to the plane of contact between the object and the surface on which it rests. Static friction must be a value between 0 and (N x coefficient of static friction)-depends on amount of surface area in contact with the other object. Kinetic friction is equal to the coefficient x N. A wheel is static friction because it maintains an instantaneous point of contact- it isn't sliding on the road. Coefficient of static friction will always be larger. This is why it requires more force to get an object to start sliding than to keep it sliding.

Define status and the three types. Then define the following terms: role, role performance, role partner, role set. Then differentiate between role conflict, role strain and role exit.

Status: positions in society used to classify individuals - ascribed: involuntary- race, socioeconomic, gneder - achieved- come as a result of one's efforts (being an MD) - master- status by which a person is most identified (president for ex) Role: expectations of beliefs,values,attitudes for a person who holds a status Role performance: carrying out behavior related to a certain role Role partner: how someone acts in a role depends on their role partner, the person they are talking to Role set- various roles associated with a status. A set. Role conflict- difficulty satisfying roles of different statuses (think conflict of two different statuses) Role strain- difficulty satisfying many roles of the same status (think strained out in 1 specific status) Role exit- dropping one identity for another.

How do sugars participate in esterification?

Sugars can react with carboxylic acids and their derivatives and form esters

Name the 5 primary structural proteins in the body

T. CAKE Tubulin Collagen Actin Keratins Elastin

what is the equation for finding the net torque on a dipole? Why does the dipole exhibit a torque?

T= p (dipole moment, p+qd) E (magnitude of electric field) sin ⍬ ( the angle the dipole moment makes with the electric field) The dipole will exhibit a torque when exposed to a uniform electric field. When in absense of an electric field, it will rotate however it wants. This electric field, however, will cause each charge to feel a force from the field, causing one charge to go in one direction and the opposite charge to go in the opposite direction.

what is the active chemical in marijuana? What does it do?

THC. reacts at cannabinoid receptors, glycine receptors, opioid recpetors. How the reaction at the receptors causes a high is unknown. Inhibits GABA activity but increases dopamine activity. Falls into category of stimulant, depressant, and hallucinogen.

How are terpenoids different from terpenes?

Terpenoids are derivatives of terpenes that have undergone oxygenation or rearrangement of carbon skeleton. cannabinoids are an ex.

What is modern synthesis?

The combination of the principles of Mendelian genetics with evolution by natural selection

If 2 carbon chains are the same length in a molecule, which one becomes the parent chain?

The more substituted chain

What is the parietal lobe do? What cortex is in it and where is it.

The parietal lobes is to the rear of the frontal lobe. The somatosensroy cortex is the most important part of this lobe as it is the PROJECTION area for touch, pressure, temperature and pain.

What is the wobble position?

The third position on the codon, which may not matter in some cases. Doesn't bond anticodon as tightly as the other two.

Nucleophiles usually attack carbonyl carbons, pushing the electrons onto the electronegative oxygen. In some cases, the carbonyl will reform after this, releasing a leaving group. If there is no good leaving group the carbonyl will not reform. Which category do aldehydes/ketones fall under?

There is no good leaving group in aldehydes and ketones. They will not reform. In the case of carboxylic acids and the derivatives, they usually will reform (by releasing a good leaving group).

What are amphetamines? What do they do?

They are stimulants that cause arousal by increasing release of dopamine, norepinephrine, and seratonin but also decrease their reuptake. Include an increase in heart rate and blood pressure. Cause euphoria, hypervigilance, anxiety, delusions, paranoia.

What do the terms interaction process analysis and system for multiple level organization of groups (SYMLOG) refer to? What do they calssify as the three fundamental dimensions of interaction.

They are ways of analyzing interactions within small groups. The 3 dimensions of interaction are dominance vs submission, friendliness vs unfriendliness and controlled vs emotionally expressive.

What do prostaglandins do? how are they impacted by NSAIDS?

They regulate synthesis of cAMP which later affects smooth muscle function, influence on sleep, and elevation of temp (pain and fever). They are paracrine and autocrine hormones. NSAIDS inhibit the enzyme of COX (COX helpds make prostaglandins) so NSAIDS decrease prostaglandin production.

The Eysenck siblings were ________ theorists, meaning _______. What was the model they came up with to assess this? This model has been used to develop the Big Five traits of personality. What are these traits.

They were trait theorists, meaning they use a cluster of behaviors to describe individuals. They created the PEN model which looked at 3 traits: psychoticism (nonconformity or social deviance), extraversion (tolerance for social interaction), and neuroticism (emotional arousal in stressful situations). Used to create BIG FIVE (OCEAN): openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism.

If there is a complex 1 deficiency, what kind of diet would be recommened for someone to still get the max amount of energy and why?

They would need a diet that does not contain glucose/carbs. This is because glycolysis creates lots of NADH, but without a functioning complex 1, this would not be beneficial. A high fat diet would increase the ratio of FADH, which can be used for complex 2. The electrons can proceed, bypassing complex 1 and still generating ATP for energy.

Is tone of voice a verbal or nonverbal form of communication?

Tone of voice is nonverbal

What are G-protein coupled receptors?

Transmembrane receptor proteins that bind to an alpha, beta, gamma complex of proteins on the inner membrane. When a ligand binds the transmembrane receptor, the receptor causes the alpha subunit to release GDP and bind GTP. The alpha, beta, and gamma proteins then disconnect from the receptor - the a subunit alters the activity of adenylate cyclase. GTP is dephosphorylated to GDP and the subunits rebind together

Describe the structure of collagen. Where is it found and what are its functions?

Trihelical fiber. Makes up most of the extracellular matrix of connective tissue. Provides strength and flexibility.

watts are equal to Joules/ second. True or false?

True

an image is real if the object is placed beyond the focal point- true or false. If the image is real, what does this also mean?

True. if it is real, this also means the object is inverted (IR NO UV)

True or false: an oxidizing agent is one that is reduced. Also, what are some good oxidizing agents?

True. Good oxidizing agents are ones that have a high affinity for electrons (o2, O3, Cl2, Mn7+, CrO2-4, etc.)

What is a type theorist? What is a trait theorist?

Type theorist- attempt to create a classification of personality types. Trait theorists describe individual personality as a sum of characteristic behaviors.

The basic organization of society is found in its characteristic institution. What is this characteristic institution in organizations today? What did it used to be? What is the iron law of oligarchy? How about McDonaldization?

Used to be the kin, clan or sib. Today it is bureaucracy- rational system of political organization, administration, discipline, and control. fixed salary, but regular salary increases. They do not have elections by constituents. They are usually slow to change and are less efficient. Iron law of oligarchy- democratic or bureaucratic systems shift to being ruled by an elite group McDonaldization- used to refer a shift in focus toward efficiency, predictability, calculability, and control in societies.

starting with the vestibulocochlear nerve, how can sound information pass through the brain? (different ways)

VC nerve, brainstem, medial geniculate nucleus (thalamus), auditory complex (temporal lobe). Some info is also sent to the superior olive, which localizes sound, and the inferior colliculus which is involved in the startle reflex (keeps eyes fixed on point when head is turned)- aka vestibulo-ocular reflex.

what is the equation used for the process of work when something exerts forces or against something else

W= Fdcos⍬. W=work, F=magnitude of applied force, de= magnitude of the displacement through which the force is applied, ⍬= the angle between the applied force vector and the displacement vector.

How does the amount of O2 (what is regulation by O2 called) and ADP regulate oxidative phosphorylation.

When O2 is low, it is down regulated and NADH and FADH2 concentrations rise, which inhibit the krebs cycle. (this is called respiratory control). When there is enough O2 AND ADP is high, it us upregulated. ADP activates isocitrate dehydrogenase, to increase krebs cycle and NADH and FADH2 production.

When does a bacterium become less susceptible to superinfection?

When it is infected with one strain of a phage, it will make the bacterium less susceptible to superinfection which is the simultaneous infection of many phages.

When the pH is lower than the pKa, the amino acid will be (protonated/deprotonated). When the pH is higher than the pKa, the amino acid will be (protonated/deprotonated).

When pH is lower- it is protonated. So under acidic conditions, it will be positively charged. When pH is higher, it is deprotonated. So under basic conditions, it will be negatively charged. vice versa, when the pka of the AA is lower than the pH of the environment, then it is deprotonated, and therefore is charged.

What is a supercritical fluid?

When temperature exceeds critic temperature and pressure exceeds critical pressure and you can't tell it is a liquid or gas

When does translation termination occur?

When the codon in the A site is a stop codon. UAA, UGA, UAG. A release factor places a water molecule on the polypeptide chain and releases the protein.

what is a coordinate covalent bond

a covalent bond in which one atom contributes both bonding electrons. (like a lewis base giving electrons to a lewis acid to form a bond).

Name the following things about the conscious state of alertness: what is it how do we measure it cortisol levels high or low what brain structures accompany it

ability to percieve, process, assess and verbalize info measured using EEG cortisol levels high maintained by prefrontal cortex and reticular formation in brain stem

Define parallel processing. How is this related to feature detection?

ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding color, shape, and motion. Parallel processing allows us to detect features.

Define Social Action. How is this different from social interaction.

actions and behaviors that individuals are conscious of and performing bc others are around. Social action just focuses on the individual that is surrounded by others, not focusing on everyone involved (which is social interaction).

what is a carboxylase

adds a carboxyl group (think of a carboxylic acid without the hydrogen). Co2

what are alkali metals? what group are they in? describe some characteristics. what are alkaline metals?

alkali: they are in group 1. their zeff values are very low. they react readily with nonmetals. and air/water- alkali metals are usually found in essential oils.. alkaline: in group 2

an atom or molecule with all paired electons will be _____________ (paramagnetic/diamagnetic) and will be slightly (attracted to/ repelled from the magnetic field). an atom or molecule that has some unpaired electrons will be (paramagnetic/ diamagnetic) and will be slightly (attracted to/ repelled from) from the magnetic field

all paired: diamagnetic: repelled by a magnetic field some unpaired: paramagnetic: slightly attracted to magnetic field

what is the law of constant composition

all samples of a given compound have the same proportions of their constituent elements- for example, each sample of water will contain two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. in terms of mass, for every one gram of hydrogen, there will be eight grams of oxygen

Define Illness Anxiety Disorder

being consumed with thoughts about having or developing a serious medical condition. (think dad)

are the following statements true or false action potentials are all-or-nothing action potentials ultimately cause release of transmitters into synaptic cleft

both are true

what is considered a fluid? Can both fluids and solids exert forces perpendiculrt to their surface?

both liquids and gases because they flow and conform to the shapes of their containers Fluids and solids both can exert forces perpendicular to their surface (think of jumping into water is just as painful as hitting a solid) but only solids can withstand shear (tangential) forces

how are esters formed?

by the condensation reaction known as esterification between and alcohol and a carboxylic acid

least electronegative atoms are likely to be found at the _________ of a compound while halogens (very electronegative) and hydrogens are likely to be found at the ________

center; edges

Define chelation

central cation is bound to same ligand in multiple places. can be used to sequester toxic metals

what are the three stages of the sodium channels during depolarization then hyperpolarization

closed: before cell reaches threshold but after inactivation has been reversed open: from threshold to + 35mV inactive: when the cell is recuperating (when K conc is changing) which is from +35mV to the resting potential.

What are clots composed of?

coagulation factors (proteins) and platelets

difference between codominance and incomplete dominance

codominance: more that one dominant allele exists (AB blood for ex) incomplete dominance: when a heterozygote (Aa for ex) is pink- an intermediate between the AA red and the aa white. Called incomplete dominance because for these heterozygotes, the dominant allele is not completely dominant, making it a pink color instead of fully red.

define the following as they relate to bone structure: compact bone spongy/ cancellous bone trabeculae bone marrow red marrow yellow marrow long bones diaphyses metaphyses epiphyses epiphyseal growth plate periosteum tendons ligaments

compact bone- strong part. outer part of bone spongy/ cancellous bone- consists of bony spikes (trabeculae). makes up inner part of bone. trabeculae- " bone marrow- fills in cavities between trabeculae (can be red or yellow marrow) red marrow- part that makes blood cells yellow marrow- made of fats, inactive long bones- have shafts called diaphyses diaphyses- have bone marrow metaphyses- swellings at each end of diaphyses, also contain bone marrow epiphyses- at the end of the metaphyses. no bone marrow, filled with spongey core to cushion pressure on bones epiphyseal growth plate- where growing occurs periosteum- fibrous sheath around bone and serves as site for muscle attachment. can differentiate into osteoblasts tendons- attach muscle to bone ligaments- hold bones together at joints

what is complete regenration vs incomplete regeneration?

complete: tissues that are lost or damaged are replaced with identical tissues (occurs in salamanders and newts). incomplete: newly formed tissue is not identical in structure or function to tissue that waas injured/lost. Occurs in humans

difference between compliance and obedience

compliance- requests made by people without authority over an individual. obedience- changing one's behavior in response to a direct order from an authority figure. (milgram experiment)

what are the two parts of the kidney called? what is the renal pelvis? what is the renal hilum and what comes/ goes from it?

cortex- outermost layer medulla- within the cortex renal pelvis is the widest part of the ureter that spans the renal hilum. the renal hilum is a deep slit in the medial surface. it is where the renal artery, renal vein and ureter enter and exit

The following are 5 types of receptors that receive tactile info in the dermis. is the dermis the outer middle or inner layer of skin?? Describe what each of the following does papillary layer reticular layer pacinian corpuscles meissner corpuscles merkel cells (discs) Ruffini endings free nerve endings

dermis is middle later papillary layer- upper layer (right below epidermis) and consists of loose connective tissue reticular layer- below papillary. denser. sweat glands, blood vessels and hair follicles originate here. Pacinian corpuscles- respond to deep pressure and vibration meissner corpuscles- respond to light touch merkel cells- respond to deep pressure and texture ruffini endings- respond to stretch free nerve endings- respond to pain and temp

the bladder has a muscular lining known as the __________. parasympathetic activity causes it to _____. Urine passes through the internal and external urethral sphincter. what is the difference between the two? what is the micturition reflex?

detrusor muscle. parasympathetic activity causes it to contract. internal- made up of smooth muscle (involuntary) external- made up of skeletal muscle (voluntary). micturition reflex: when bladder is full, stretch receptors cause parasympathetic neurons to fire and detrusor muscle contracts. this contraction causes internal sphincter to relax (involuntary peeing).

define diamagnetic, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials

diamagnetic: made of atoms with no unpaired electrons so no net magnetic field. They are slightly repelled by a magnet (wood, plastic, water, glass, skin) Paramagnetic: have unpaired electrons so they do have a net magnetic dipole moment. weakly magnetized in the presence of an external magnetic field (aluminum, copper, gold) Ferromagnetic: have unpaired electrons so they do have a net magnetic dipole moment. strongly magnetized when exposed to magnetic field in certain temps (iron, nickel, cobalt)

in a synapse, there is a presynaptic neuron and a postsynaptic neuron. if the presynaptic neuron signals to a gland or muscle, it is no longer considered a postsynaptic neuron, but an _________.

effector

define equilibrium position, displacement and amplitude as they relate to a wave

equilibrium: the central point waves oscillate about displacement: how far a particular point on the wave is from the equilibrium position amplitude: MAXIMUM DISPLACEMENT. note: max displacement is NOT from crest to trough. that would be double the amplitude.

define equivalent resistance. How do you determine the equivalent resistance in a parallel circuit? Series circuit?

equivalent: sum of the individual resistances. in a parallel circuit, each is added (1/Rp)= (1/R1) + (1/R2) + (1/R3), etc. As each resistor is added, the equivalent resistance decreases. Look at page 202 PM review

are elements in groups in 1 and 2 metals? Hydrogen? How about lacthanides and actinides?

everything in groups one and 2 except hydrogen are metals. lacthanides and actinides are also metals

what is translational equilibrium? What does this mean in terms of movement of an object?

exists when the vector sum of all the forces acting on an object is zero. The object may be stationary or the object could be moving with a constant nonzero velocity.

define genetic leakage

flow of genes between species. this is seen when species mate to produce hybrid off spring (ex mule is hybrid of male horse and female donkey)

Define rational choice theory- how does this relate to the exchange theory

focuses on decision making in an individual and attempts to reduce this process to a careful consideration of benefits and harms to the individual. In this theory, an individual will consider carefully the possible rewards and punishments of each social action and choose the option that has the highest benefit to harm ratio (like pros and cons list). Exchange theory- focuses not on the individual but on interactions in groups. It says that an individual will carry out certain behaviors because of anticipated rewards and will avoid others for anticipated punishments.

Name some post-translational modifications

folding by chaperone formation of quaternary structure cleavage of protein or signal sequences covalent addition of biomolecules (phosphorylation, carboxylation, glycosylation, prenylation)

a lower blood pH symbolizes a need for _____ (CO2, O2). how is hemoglobins affinity for O2 changed?

for O2. high co2 causes a drop in pH, so a low pH means that more O2 is needed. due to the bicarbonate equation, more Co2 forms H+ which binds to hemoglobin, decreasing its affinity for O2. this will cause O2 to be released from hemoglobin quicker to be dropped off at the tissues that desperately need it before entering into cardiac distress.

Define the following as they relate to hunger: foraging ( solitary and group) Lateral hypothalamus Ventromedial hypothalamus

foraging- seeking out and eating food - in group foraging: foraging is usually a learned behavior - solitary foraging also exists lateral hypothalamus: promotes hunger ventromedial hypothalamus- response to cues that we are full/ satiety

what is the difference between formal charge and oxidation numbers

formal charge underestimates the effect of electronegativity differences, whereas oxidation number overestimates the effect of electronegativity.

define the following terms as they apply to what phases are involved. - fusion - solidification - evaporation - deposition - sublimation - boiling - vaporization - melting - freezing - condensation - heat of fusion - heat of vaporization - melting point - boiling point

fusion: solid to liquid solidification: liquid to solid evaporation: liquid to gas deposition: gas to solid sublimation: solid to gas boiling: liquid to gas vaporization: liquid to gas melting: solid to liquid freezing: liquid to solid condensation: gas to liquid heat of fusion: heat of transformation (coefficient)used at the melting point heat of vaporization: heat of transformation (coefficient) used at boiling point melting point: phase change from solid to liquid/ liquid to solid boiling point: phase change from liquid to gas/ gas to liquid.

breifly define the following (in depth understanding is no necessary) glial cells astrocytes ependymal cells mircoglia oligodendrocytes schwann cells

glial cells- support and surround neurons. the following are all types of glial cells astrocytes- nourish neurons and form blood-brain barrier ependymal cells- lines ventricles of the brain, serves as shock absorbers microglia- break down waste products and pathogens in CNS oligodendrocytes- produce myelin in CNS schwann cells- produce myelin in PNS

if large proteins are detected in urine, what part of the kidney is not functioning correctly

glomerulus, which is invovled with filtration. it would be the proximal convoluted tubule if it were smaller aminos or glucose, but since it is a large protein, it should have been caught in the primary filtration

what are used to treat autoimmune diseases? why?

glucocorticoids because they have potent immunosuppresive qualities (decrease inflammation)

what substances are almost always reabsorbed from kidney filtrate into blood ? what happens to substances that are not reabsorbed

glucose, amino acids and vitamins. (small- not big like pro anything in filtrate that is not reabsorbed will be excreted

what is sucrose made of? give the 2 monomers, the anomeric bond (alpha or beta) and the numbers (location) that the bond connects.

glucose- alpha, 1,2, - fructose

what is maltose made of? give the 2 monomers, the anomeric bond (alpha or beta) and the numbers (location) that the bond connects.

glucose- alpha- 1,4,- glucose

Describe the structure of a triacylglycerol (aka triglyceride)

glycerol chain with 3 fatty acids. These fatty acids are very rarely the same.

How do the backbones of glycerophospholipids and sphingolipids differ?

glycerophospholipids have a glycerol backbone. Sphingolipids hace a sphingosine or sphingoid backbone

define granulocytes vs agranulocytes. give examples and define each

granulocytes- can be released using exocytosis. (BEN)- basophils, eosinophils and neutrophils. they are involved in inflammation, allergies, pus formation and destruction of bacteria. basophils (similar to mast cells)- large purple granules and are involved in allergic responses. release large amounts of histidine which lead to inflammation. eosinophils- bright red-orange granules. also release histamine, so large amount of inflammation. neutrophils- phagocytic and target bacteria, dead neutrophils are responsible for the formation of pus. agranulocytes- are not released by exocytosis. examples are lymphocytes and monocytes. -lymphocytes- attack infection AND have long term memory bank (vaccines) on how to respond to bacteria. if they mature in bone marrow- called B cells (antibody generation). if mature in thymus- called T cells (kill infected cellsand activate other immune cells -monocytes: phagocytize foreign matter. when they enter an organ, they are renamed macrophages. in CNS_ called microglia. In skin- langerhans cells and in bone- osteoclasts.

during pregnancy, what trends are observed in the following hormones: hCG progesterone estrogen FSH gnRH

hCG maintains high level of progesterone and estrogen throughout first trimester, then placenta takes over progesterone: high throughout estrogen: high throughout FSH: low because high estrogen and progesterone provide negative feedback so GnRH will not produce FSH and LH. GnRH: low because high estrogen and progesterone provide negative feedback for it.

name the two divisions of adaptive immunity

humoral immunity- when B-cells are activated cell-mediated- whan T cells are activated

what is hydrostatic pressure vs osmotic/oncotic pressure. how does this change on either side of a capillary?

hydrostatic- force per unit area that the blood exerts against vessel walls. pushes fluid out of bloodstream into interstitium osmotic or oncotic- sucking pressure generated by solutes as they attempt to draw water back into bloodstream. in the arteriole part, there is not may solutes that have been diffused to the blood yet, so hydrostatic is higher. in the ventule part, solutes have diffused over so osmotic is higher.

under normal physiological circumstances, primary function of the nephron is to create that is________ (hyper/hypotonic) to blood

hyper tonic. wants to get rid of wastes such as urea

is diabetes hypo or hyperglycemia. what effect will diabetes have on urination and thirst?

hyperglycemia bc not enough insulin to take care of the excess glucose in blood. they will have polyuria- increase in frequency of urination bc presence of glucose leads to excretion of water they will have polydipsia- increased thirst.

what role do lymph nodes play in the immune system

immune cells (B-cells and T-cells) communicate and mount and attack here.

Define network redundancy. What is the difference between immediate and distant networks.

in a network, network redundancy is the overlapping connections with the same individual. Networks are the observable pattern of social relationships among individuals or groups Immediate networks- dense with strong ties Distant networks- looser/weaker ties, include acquaintances

define selection bias

in an experiment, unintended differences between the participants in different groups. subjects used for the study are not representative of the target population. ex: someone volunteering for drug trial might be healthier than someone who does not volunteer due to inability to get to hospital

what are halogens. they are usually found in their _______ state.

in group 7A on the periodic table. they are desperate to complete their octets. usually found in their ionic state (called halides) or as diatomic molecules.

What are chalcogens?

in group 7A. oxygen and sulfur are examples. have 6 valence electrons. crucial to biologcial function

name some exceptions to the octet rule

incomplete octet: hydrogen (only holds 2), helium (2), lithium (2), beryllium (4) and boron (6) expanded octet: phosphorus (10), sulfur (12), chlorine (14)

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

what is the electron affinity on the periodic table? How does electron affinity value compare for groups 1&2 vs groups 7&8 vs metals?

increases across a period left to right. increases from bottom to top. this is due to the fact that when electrostatic pull (Zeff) is high, the electron affinity (energy release) will be higher. groups 1 and 2 have low electron affinities and prefer to give up electrons to achieve the octet. group 7 and 8 have high. metals usually have low electron affinity values

As the confidence level increases, the confidence interval

increases. makes it more likely that the value is in that range.

define the following terms: independent events dependent events mutually exclusive events exhaustive

independent: occurrence has no impact on each other dependent: events that have an impact on each other mutually exclusive: cannot occur at same time- cannot flip heads and tails on a coin at the same time. exhaustive: group of outcomes is exhaustive if it has no other possible outcomes. for example, heads and tails is exhaustive.

self-serving bias

individuals will view their own success based on internal factors and their failures on external factors. Protects our self-esteem

the cell secreting a signal is called an ________ cell. the cell that receives this is a ___________. for it to receive the signal, it must be ________.

inducer; responder; competent.

define innate/ nonspecific immunity vs adaptive/ specific immunity. organize the following into each category: inflammatory response secreting cytokines B-Cells (briefly describe) monocytes T-Cells (briefly describe) neutrophils

innate/nonspecific- defense that is always active against infection. not specific to invaders (inflammatory response, secreting cytokines, monocytes and neutrophils adaptive/specific- defense that target a specific pathogen (B-cells- bind to antigens and destory or mark for destruction and T-cells- some recognize antigens, some help activate B-cells and other T-cells and others directly attack infected cells.

Define the process of filtration. What is gravity filtration vs vacuum filtration

isolates a solid (residue) from liquid (filtrate). Gravity is used when the filtrate (liquid) contains the product of interest. Vacuum is when the solid (residue) is of interest

define the following terms as they relate to the first law of thermodynamics (deltaU= Q-W) isothermal adiabatic isovolumetric/ isochoric

isothermal (deltaU=0)- constant temp therefore no change in internal energy adiabatic= (Q=0)- no heat exchange isovolumetric/isochoric (W=0)- no change in volume, so no work accomplished)

the cardiac muscle has myogenic acitivty. what does this mean?

it can contract without neurological input. generates 60-100 beats per minute without innervation

what happens when an antigens binds to antibodies on the surface of a mast cell?

it causes degranulation (exocytosis), which releases histamine and causes an inflammatory allergic reaction

Is the outer mitochonrial membrane permeable or not compared to the inner

it is VERY permeable to metabolic molecules and small proteins. The inner mitochondrial membrane is not.

Define self-determination theory- what are the 3 factors needed

it is a need-based motivational theory that emphasizes three universal needs. Autonomy (in control of ones actions and ideas), competence (need to compete and excel at different tasks), and relatedness (need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships).

What is Bernoulli's equation? To what device is this equation usually applied on the MCAT. What is the venturi effect? look at problem on page 134.

it is essentially a statement of energy conservation The venturi effect is the idea that 2 tubes were placed in this device, one at point 1 and one at point 2, the pressure is going to be lower at point 2 meaning that there would be a lower amount of liquid in the tube coming up from the flow meter at point 2 than at point 1. See pg 133 of PM review if confused. REMEMBER density of water is 1g/cm3 OR 1000kg/m3

the epidermis is the (outermost/ middle/ innermost). layer of the skin. order the sublayers of the epidermis and define each one: stratum spinosum stratum basale stratum corneum stratum lucidum stratum granulosum calluses, fingernails, hair melanocytes and langerhans cells are also part of the epidermis. define these.

it is the outermost. pneumonic: BSGLC (bull shit good luck charm) deepest layer: basale- keratinocytes that produce kerain spinosum- location of langerhans cells granulosum- keratinocytes die and lose their nuclei lucidum- thick and hairless (palms or soles) corneum- flattened keratinocytes, prevents invasion of pathogens and prevents loss of fluids and salt calluses- excessive keratin depostiion. fingernails and hair are also formed from keratin melanocytes- found in basale. produce melain. more active= darker skin tone langerhans: special macrophages in spinosum. present antigens to T-cells to active immune system

what theorem shows direct relationship between net work and change in kinetic energy?

it is the work-energy theorem. It allows us to calculate work without knowing the magnitude of the forces of the object or the displacement through which the forces act.

What is the difference between ketogenesis and ketolysis? Which organ cannot use ketones?

ketogenesis: ketone built from acetyl CoA and HMG Ketolysis: using ketone breakdown for energy. The liver produces ketones but does not use ketones for energy.

what are the 4 organs in the excretory system?

kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra.

the kidneys, heart and thymus also each secrete a hormone. name what this is.

kidneys- produce erythropoietin- stimuates bone marrow to increase production of erthyrocytes. heart- atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)- regulate salt and water balance. lowers blood pressure and volume thymus- thymosin- ensures proper T cell development.

what is the difference between a kinetic and thermodynamic product?

kinetic: preferred when little heat is available bc less energy is needed to reach the transition state. But, these are less stable. thermodynamic: requires more energy but is more stable

What is the enteric nervous system?

large network of neurons that govern the gastrointestinal system. They trigger peristalsis. Parasympathetic involves secretions from exocrine glands and promoting peristalsis. Sympathetic inhibits these.

Keq is often represented as a single value (not a fraction) using exponents. What would a large postive exponent indicate? how about a large negative exponent?

large postive: lots of products compared to reactants and the reaction almost goes to completion large negative: lots of reactants compared to produces. the reacted amount is negligible compared to the amount of reactant that remains

if the resistance in the vacular system is decreased, then cardiac output will _________.

like the V=IRequation, as resistance decreases, I will increase to try to keep voltage (blood pressure) the same.

Name some of Gardner's multiple intelligences.

linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal

define lipid rafts

located in the cell membrane. They are collections of similar lipidds that serve as attachment points for other biomolecules. They also serve roles in signaling

in the capillaries, if the blood has low concentrations of albumin, the oncotic pressure will be ___________. in this case, there will be _______ water pumped into the bloodstream at the venule end, so there will be _________ fluid in the tissues if the lymphatics are blocked this leads to what condition?

low albumin= low oncotic pressure= less water pumped into bloodstream so there will be more fluid in the tissues if the lymphatics are blocked. if they are not blocked, fluid will return to the bloodstream. if they are blocked, this leads to edema- swelling due to fluid collected in the tissue

in male sexual development, what does FSH and LH do? How is this related to secondary sexual characteristics? in female sexual development, what do FSH and LH do? also name which hormones each stimulates.Be sure to use corpus luteum in your answer

male: FSH(follicle stimulating hormone)- stimulates sertoli cells and triggers sperm maturation LH- causes interstitial cells to produce testosterone (which also causes development of secondary sexual characteristics.. facial hair, deep voice, etc) female: FSH promotes estrogen secretion which results in maintenance of reproductive system and female secondary characteristics. In adults, estrogen also causes thickening of endometrium LH: causes progesterone to be secreted from the corpus luteum, which is the remains of ovarian follicels following ovulation

name the function of the following enzymes/hormones in he duodenum: maltase lactase sucrase peptidases aminopeptidases dipeptidases enteropeptidase (2 roles) secretin (2 roles)- what is it considered? cholecystokinin (2 roles) bile bile salts pancreatic juices

maltase: breaks down maltose lactase: breaks down lactose sucrase: breaks down sucrose peptidases: break down proteins aminopeptidases: type of pepsidase that removes the N terminal amino acid from a peptide. dipeptidases: cleave peptide bonds of dipeptides to release free amino acids enteropeptidase: activates trypsinogen to form trypsin. Also can activate procarboxypeptidases A and B secretin: hormone that causes pancreatic enzymes to be secreted into duodenum. Also regulates pH or digestive tract by secreting bicarbonate. It is also considered a enterogastrone because it moves slowly through the digestive tract cholecystokinin (CCK): secreted in response of entry of chyme into duodenum. Stimulates release of bile and pancreatic juices and also promotes satiety in the brain. bile- fluid made up of bile salts, pigments and cholesterol bile salts- derived from cholesterol. they are life soap that we use to wash things. They emulsify fats and cholesterol into micelles. By doing this, their surface area is increased so lipases have easier access to hydrolyze them. pancreatic juices: secretion is promoted by CCK. It is a mixture of many enzymes in a bicarbonate rich alkaline solution

describe the terms as they relate to mitosis: metaphase spindle apparatus/ kinetochore fibers asters anaphase cytokinesis telophase prophase centrosome spindle fibers kinetochores metaphase plate

metaphase- chromosomes align in center. centrioles are at opposite sides of cell spindle apparatus/ kinetochore fibers- attach to kinetochores asters- some microtubules form these to anchor the centrioles to the cell membrane anaphase- centromeres split so that the sister chromatids can separate cytokinesis- occurs at the end of telophase and is the separation of the cytoplasm and organelles giving each daugher enough material to survive on its own. telophase- opposite of prophase. spindle disappears, nuclear membrane reforms around each set of chromosomes. prophase- condensation of chromatin into chromosomes. centrioles go to opposite poles of cell. spindle fibers form centrosome- responsible for correct division of DNA spindle fibers- formed between centrioles (which are at opposite ends of cell) and kinetochores kinetochores- at the centrosome and serve as attachment points for spindle fibers metaphase plate- where the chromosomes align in metaphase

what are the three components of the cytoskeleton and organize them using the terms below - cilia - cleavage furrow - vimentin - lamins - centrioles - flagella - kinesin - 9+2 structure - keratin - actin - dynein - microfilaments - intermediate filaments - desmin -centrosome - microtubules - myosin - tubulin

microfilaments- made up of actin (think of FILA as soccer= active and muscles) - they are resistant to both compression and fracture - also can use ATP and interact with myosin to produce movement - help with the division of materials between daughter cells and form the cleavage furrow (site of division between daughter cells) Microtubules: hollow polymers of tubulin. Provide pathways for kinesin and dynein. (think microtubules=tubulin= which rhymes with kinesin and dynein) - cilia is a form of microtubule: cilia helps move materials along surface of cell. They line the respiratory track and move mucus - flagella move the cell itself (sperm) - have 9+2 structure (9 pairs of microtubules forming an outer ring and 2 in the center) -centrioles are found in centrosome. They are the organization centers for microtubules and are structured as nine triplets of microtubules with a hollow center. Intermediate filaments: filamentous proteins such as keratin, desmin, vimentin and lamins. They increase structural rigidity of cell

depth perception uses what two kinds of cues

monocular- relative size convergence of parallel lines binocular- given by slight differences in images projected on the two retinas

Children are more likely to engage in behavior modeled by individuals who are 1. famous 2. adults/parents 3. most like themselves/ gender 4. seems most developed

most like themselves/ gender.

does the blood of a mother and an embryo mix?

no. the placenta facilitates diffusion of nutrients and oxygen from mother to baby.

are noble gases electronegative

no. they have negligible electronegativities so they should not be included in the electronegativity trend

do catalysts make a nonspontaneous reaction into a nonspontaneous one?

no. they only help spontaneous ones move more quickly toward equilibrium.

does the fetus use its lungs and liver before it is born?

no. uses placenta for oxygen and detoxification/metabolism uses mother's liver.

what are the approximate ranges of electronegativities for nonpolar covalent bonds, polar covalent bonds, and ionic bonds

nonpolar: within 0-0.5 of each other polar: 0.5 to 1.7 ionic: over 1.7

What is normality? what is the equation used to find it when given molarity?

normality is a measure of concentration. It is most commonly used for hydrogen ion concentration. 1N solution of acid contains a concentration of hydrogen atoms equal to one mol per liter. in a 1N HCl solution, the molarity of HCL is 1M because HCl is a monoprotic acid (only one H) In a 1N H2Co3 solution, the molarity of H2CO3 solution is 0.5M because H2Co3 is a diprotic acid. molarity= normality/n (n= number of particles of interest produced or consumed per molecule).

define the following terms: null hypothesis alternative hypothesis test statistic p-value significance level: give the value that is usually used. What does it mean if p is greater than this? Less than this? type 1 error type 2 error beta power confidence

null: two populations are equal and that a single population can be described by a parameter equal to a given value alternative: population A is greater than population B test statistic: calculated and compared to a table to determine the likelihood that a statistic was obtained by random chance (assuming null hypothesis is true) p- value: the value on the table that the test statistic is compared to significance level: compare p-value to it. ). 0.05 is usually used. If p is greater than 0.05, then we cannot reject the null and the result is not stat significant. if p is less than 0.05, we reject null hypothesis and state that there is a stat significant difference. type 1 error: likelihood that we report a difference between the two populations when one actually doesnt exist. type 2 error: incorrectly fail to reject the null hypothesis, So there actually was a stat significant difference but the error we made made us think that there wasnt. beta: probability of committing the type 2 error power: probability of correctly rejecting a false null hypothesis (reporting a difference between 2 populations that acutally does exist)- think of power as the probability to do the right thing and actually reject null hypothesis. This is represented by power= 1 - Beta. confidence: correctly failing to reject a true null hypothesis (upholding null) look at chart on page 416 if confused.

what are the differences in the meanings for the positive/negative values of the following symbols between mirrors and lenses? o,i,r,f,m

o= + = object is in front of mirror/ object is on same side of lens as light source - = object is behind mirror (rare)/ object is on opposite side of lens from light source i= += image is in front of mirror (real)/ image is on oppostie side of lens from light source (real) - = image is behind mirror (virtual)/ image is on same side of lens as light source (virtual) r= + = mirror is concave (converging)/ lens is convex (converging) - = mirror is convex (diverging) / lens is convex (diverging) f= + = mirror is concave (converging) /lens is convex (converging) - = mirror is convex (diverging) / lens is concave (diverging) m= same for both + = image is upright - = image is inverted

define the following as they related to bony matrix organization: osteons/ haversian systems lamellae haversian channels volkmann's channel lacunae osteocytes canaliculi

osteons/ haversian systems- structural units of bony matrix lamellae- circles of bony matrix that surround a microscopic channel haversian canels- longitudinal channels (axis parallel to bone) volkmann's cannel- transverse channels (axis perpendicular to bone) *** both of these canals have blood vessels, nerve fibers and lymph vessels that maintain bone health lacunae- spaces between lamellae (circles) and store osteocytes osteocytes - mature bone cells stored in lacunae canaliculi- connect lacunae that allow for exchange of nutrients and waste between osteocytes and haversian/volksmann canals

define the following components of the female reproductive system: ovaries (what do they produce) ova (eggs) pronuclei secondary oocytes vaginal canal zygote follicles menarche uterus cervix vulva corona radiata peritoneal sac oogenesis fallopian tube/oviduct primary oocytes zona pellucida

ovaries: produce estrogen and progesterone ova: stored and protected in ovaries.. one egg per month is ovulated pronuclei: the haploid of the sperm that joins with the ovum to form a zygote secondary oocytes: produced after meiosis one. then remains in metaphase 2 and does not complete the rest until fertilization occurs vaginal canal: sperm are deposited during intercourse zygote: diploid follicles: multilayered sacs in the ovaries that nourish and protect eggs menarche: first period uterus: where fetal development occurs cervix: lower end of uterus that connects to the vaginal canal vulva: external female anatomy corona radiata: external to the zona pellucida and its a layer of cells adhered to the oocyte during ovulation peritoneal sac: lines the abdominal cavity oogenesis: production of female gametes. by birth, all eggs have formed.. none form later in life fallopian tube/ oviduct: propels egg forward with the cilia that lines it. primary oocytes: stopped in prophase 1 until menarche, then it will complete meiosis 1. zona pellucida: surrounds oocyte itself and is a mixture of glycoproteins that protect the oocyte and contain stuff for sperm binding.

draw a picture of the male reproductive system.define the following terms as they relate to the male reproductive system then tell the pathway that sperm takes. testes scrotum prostate gland ejaculatory duct seminiferous tubules spermatids vas defernes sertoli cells secondary spermatocytes seminal vesicles epididymis urethra primary spermatocytes seminal fluid bulbourethral glands semen spermatozoa spermatogenesis (where does it occur) interstitial cells of Leydig parts of sperm: midpiece head acrosome

pathway (SEVEN UP): seminiferous tubules, epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, (nothing) , urethra, penis testes contain seminiferous tubules and interstitial cells. located in scrotum scrotum: external pouch located below penis (2-4 degrees lower than body temp) prostate gland: along with seminal vesicles, give fluid some alkaline (basic) properties to survive the acidity of the female reproductive tract ejaculatory duct: fuse to form urethra seminiferous tubules: highly coiled and nourished by sertoli cells. sperm produced here. spermatids: haploid cells that are the product of meiosis2 vas deferens; sperm pass though here before they enter ejaculatory duct sertoli cells: nourish sperm in seminiferous tubules secondary spermatocytes: product of meiosis 1 seminal vesicles: contribute fructose to nourish sperm epididymis: flagella gain motility and stored there util ejaculation urethra: ejaculatory ducts fuse to form this. carries sperm through penis primary spermatocytes: result of replication of reproductive material in S phase seminal fluid: produced by seminal vesicle, prostate gland and bulbourethral gland. bulbourethral glands: produce clear viscous fluid that cleans out remnants of urine and lubricates urethra during sexual arousal semen: combo of sperm and seminal fluid spermatozoa: matured spermatids spermatogenesis: formation of haploid sperm through meiosis, occurs in seminiferous tubules interstitial cells of leydig: secretes testosterone and androgens parts of sperm: midpiece: mitochondria, generate energy for swimming head: covered by acrosome cap- needed to penetrate ovum acrosome: can penetrate the zona pellucida and corona radiata of the egg. it is a modified version of a golgi apparatus.

define peptide hormones long lived or short lived? water or fat soluble?- what does this mean in terms of their transportation

peptides hormones: made up of amino acids (ADH and insulin are peptides for ex). they utilize a second messenger system since they cannot leave the plasma membrane. peptides are the first messenger and they trigger the transmission of a second signal, the second messenger (cAMP for example). picture is ex of peptide hormone they are short-lived because they are easy to turn on and off with second messenger systems. (think of insulin, short lived and it has to be released at every meal to be active) water soluble- they can travel through bloodstream and do not require carriers

what is the Hardy-Weinberg principle? what conditions must be met? what equations are used? also define what p, q, p2, q2 and 2pq mean. how many alleles are in a population in comparison to people?

principle used to find allele frequency, but for this to be found, there must be a stable gene pool with is met by: - must be a large population - no mutations that effect the gene pool = mating is random - no migration in or out - genes in population are equally successful and reproduced p= frequency of dom allele, q= frequency of recessive allele p^2= frequency of homozygous dominant q^2= frequency of homozygous recessive. 2pq= frequency of heterozygous equations: p+q=1 (tells us about alleles in population) p^2 + 2pq + q^2= 1 (tells us about genotypes in population) 2 alleles per person so twice as many alleles as people

Before schizophrenia is diagnosed, a patient often goes through a phase characterized by poor adjustment. This phase is called the _____. This phase is exemplified by clear evidence of deterioration, social withdrawal, role functioning impairment, peculiar behavior, inappropriate affect, and unusual experiences.

prodromal phase (prodrome is an early sign or symptom)

how do you determine cardiac output

product of heart rate (beats per minute) and stroke volume (volume per beat). if cardiac output is too low, you should increase either the heart rate or the stroke volume

What is delirium?

rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical causes (nonpsyhcological). Examples are electrolyte/ pH disturbances, malnutrition, low blood sugar, drug reaction, alcohol withdrawal, pain

is the rate determining step in a reaction the fastest or slowest one?

slowest. the reaction is only as fast as the rate limiting step because the slow step acts as a bottleneck.

do large or small gases diffuse quicker?

small diffuse quicker. this is due to the faster kinetic energy/speed experienced by small particles

Define conversion disorder

sudden loss of a physical function without a medical explanation (going blind after watching son die tragically). They will not usually be worried about this due to the la belle indifference. For ex: if mother' s arm went numb after a bad argument with daughter, she isn't as concerned with the arm as she is with the argument.

what is the equation for exponential decay. What does this equation say about the relationship between the rate and the number of particles that remain

suggests that the rate at which they decay (delta n/ delta t) is proportional to the number that remain. delta n/ delta t = - (lambda (a constant) x n). then, exponential decay can be found in the pictured equation n0= number of undecayed nuclei at time t=0.

Define Globalization and urbanization. Which one of these is a newer phenomenon.

the process by which businesses or other organizations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale. New phenomenon urbanization: dense areas of the population creating a pull for migration. Cities are formed as individuals move into and establish residency in these new urban areas. This trend has been seen in many ancient populations.

What does the Yerkes-Dodson law state? Is this true for all tasks? explain.

there is U shaped function between level of arousal and performance. Essentially, performance is best at an intermediate level of arousal. Too high or too low results in bad performance. But, optimal arousal level is different for different tasks. Cognitive tasks, is better at a lower level. Physical endurance requires higher level.

What is Weber's Law?

there is a constant ratio between the change in stimulus magnitude needed to produce a jnd and the magnitude of the original stimulus

What are the transition elements? what are the valence electrons here

they are located in groups that have the d orbital. the valence electrons here are those in the highest s and d shell.

what is important to note in the concentrations of pure solids and pure liquids when calculating the equilibrium constant expression

they are not included.

what is the equation for finding energy of an electron. how is the quantum number (n.. increases as you go away from the nuclus), related to the energy

they are proportional. look at the equation and realize that increasing n will cause the rydberg constant to be divided by a larger number, but since it is negative, this will be a higher number. so E will also increase.

what is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) and the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian (HPO) axis?

they are three organ systems that must have receptors that recognize the levels of certain hormones. for example, in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, all three organs must have receptors for cortisol in order for negative feedback of high cortisol levels to work. it shows that there is a tie between the three organs in this sense.

what is the equation for lenses in contact (have negligible distances between them)? how are lenses that are NOT in contact considered? How do you determine the magnification?

they behave like single lenses. A classic example of this is contact lenses that are right on the eye because you must take into account the contact lens AND the lens of the eye. For lenses not in contact, the image of one object becomes the object of another lens. Microscopes and telescopes are good examples of this. The magnification of the system is m=m1 x m2 x m3....

define the following as they relate to the sacromere: thick filaments- composition thin filaments- composition titin Z-lines M-line I-band A-band H-zone which band/zone does not change length during muscle contraction (pneumonic for remembering these)

thick filaments are made up of myosin thin filaments made up of actin, troponin and tropomyosin (help interaction between actin and myosin) titin- acts as spring and anchors the actin and myosin together to prevent excessive stretching Z-lines- end of alphabet, end of sarcomere M- middle of the myosin filament I band- I is a thin letter, so thin filaments only H zone- H is a thick letter, so thick filaments only A band- All of the thick filament, and some overlap with thin A band does not change with contraction

define threshold frequency. what happens when a light's frquency is above the threshold frequency?

threshold frequency: the minimum frequency of light that causes ejection of electrons. depends on type of metal and is an "all-or-nothing" response so if frequence of incoming light is lower than threshold, then no electron will be ejected. the magnitude of the resulting current is directly proportional to the intensity of the light beam

the thyroid is controlled by the ________ hormone which is released from the ________________. what are the two functions of the thyroid and in order to do each of these things, what must it release?

thyroid is controlled by the throid stimulating hormone from the anterior pituitary. 2 functions: -setting basal metabolic rate (does this by releasing triodothronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4)) increasing these leads to an increase in cellular respiration. -promoting calcium homeostasis through release of calcitonin (which decreases calcium level)..

Define timbre and noise. What are the frequencies that are audible to healthy young adults

timbre: quality of sound determined by the natural frequency or frequencies of the object (which can usually be changed by changing some aspect of the object itself). Noise: sound productions that are not necessarily musical- like hitting a pencil on a table. frequencies for humans adults: 20- 20000 Hz

Top-down vs. bottom-up processing

top down: higher level processing influence lower levels in processing- expectations allow us to recognize objects bottom up: data relayed from a level of mental processes is always moving to a higher level. Individual sensory stimuli are combined together to get a cohesive image.

the ionic radii of anions are larger than the associated atomic radii, while the ionic radii of cations are smaller. true or false

true

true or false: alternating regions of increased and decreased particle density travel through the material allow the sound wave to propogate

true

true or false: endolymph is found in the membranous labyrinth and perilymph is found in the bony labyrinth

true

what do the upper and lower esophageal sphincters do? Where are they located?

upper: initiates swallowing. located in the oropharynx peristalis squeezes bolus down lower (cardiac sphincter)- relaxes and opens to allow passage of food. is located right above stomach.

define the hepatic, hypophyseal and renal portal system

usually blood only passes through one capillary bed. but, in the portal systems, they pass through two. hepatic- blood leaving the capillary beds in the walls of the guy passes through the hepatic portal vein before reaching capillary beds in the liver hypophyseal- blood leaving capillary beds in the hypothalaiys travels to a capillary bed in the anterior pituitay to allow for hormore secretion renal- blood leaving glomerulus travels through arteriole before surrounding the nephron in a capillary network called the vasa recta.

blocking angiotensin 2 will have what effect on potassiumand hydrogen ions.

usually, angiotensin promotes aldosterone which excretes potassium and hydrogen ions. but since it is inhibited, there will be a decrease in the excretion of potassium and a decrease in the excretion of H+ ions., so pH will go down.

What is the Michaelis-Menten equation? What is the michaelis constant and what does it mean? When it's value is higher does it mean the enzyme has a higher or lower affinity for the substrate?

v = (vmax [S])/(Km + [S]). Km is the Michaelis constant and it is the substrate concentration at which half of the enzyme's active sites are full. When Km is higher, that means the enzyme has a lower affinity for the substrate (more substrate is needed to reach this halfway point). when Km is lower, enzyme has higher affinity for substrate.

when using lewis structures to figure out the connectivitiy of a compound, you must first count the _______.

valence electrons

Do ionic compounds have high or low melting/boiling points?

very high

the amplitude of a SOUND wave is related to its ___________. the frequency of a wave is related to its __________.

volume; pitch

what is angular frequency and what is it used for (problems probably not on MCAT but helpful to know terminology)

w= 2pi/T measured in radians per second and is used in consideration of simple harmonic motion in springs and pendula

what is the equation that relates wavelength, length of string and n (harmonic) what is the equation for frequency when harmonics are involved. define fundamental frequency look over page 243

wavelength = 2L/n f= nv/ 2L fundamental frequency: lowest frequency that can be supported in a given length of string (first harmonic)

What are longitudinal waves? Give some examples. Define compression and rarefaction.

waves in which the vibrations are parallel to the direction of energy transfer

What are hallucinogens? How do they harm us?

we do not know the exact mechanism but thought to be a complex interaction between neurotransmitters, specifically serotonin. Cause distortions of reality and fantasy and enhancement of sensory experiences. Increased heart rate, blood pressure, dilation of pupils, sweating and increased body temp.

rank the following INTERMOLECULAR FORCES in terms of strength: dipole-dipole interactions, dispersion/london forces and hydrogen bonds. also define each one

weakest- dispersion/london- short lived and rapidly shifting dipoles that can be attractive or repulsive. only significant when molecules are close in proximity. ALL molecules possess them middle- dipole-dipole- oppositely charged ends of molecular dipoles are closest to each other. similar to dispersion but dipole-dipole last longer. strongest- hydrogen- can be intra or intermolecular. they occur when a hydrogen is attached to a very electronegative atom like fluorine, oxygen or nitrogen (pneumonic: hydrogen picks up the FON). the hydrogen is so positive when connected to these that it is basically a proton. hydrogen bonding is strong enough to mke it so substances that display hydrogen bonding tend to have unusually high boiling points. (water has lots of hydrogen bonding) all can still be overcome with energy

difference between western blot vs PCR/RT-PCR.

western blot- what proteins are present in the cell PCR/ RT-PCR- use RNA as template

define non bonded strain (or van der waals repulsion). In what conformation is this most commonly seen?

when NONADJACENT atoms or groups compete for same space. See in the cyclohexane boat conformation

What does the opponent process theory of motivation explain?

when a drug is taken repeatedly, the body will counteract the effects of the drug by changing its physiology. Ex: body will counteract alcohol by increasing arousal... the sensation of jitteriness and irritability will persist, causing someone to want to drink again. Also explains tolerance, the decrease in perceived drug effect over time.

What is the evolutionary stable strategy. Name the classic evolutionary example

when adopted by a given population in a specific environment, natural selection will prevent alternative strategies from arising. Strategies are passed along with the population with the object of the game being becoming more fit than competitors The prime example is the Hawk-Dove game. Look up if forgot.

Give the 4 equations used for determining linear motion. Which symbol is exchanged for x when considering vertical acceleration? Look to pg 23 of PM review to work through the problem.

when considering vertical acceleration, x is substituted by y (bc considering y component).

The electrical potential created by ONE ion can be calculated by using what equation?

when dividing by charge, be sure to include the number too. For ex: when considering calcium, z=+2

The resting potential of a membrane at physiological temperature can be calculated using what equation derived from the Nerst equation

when dividing by charge, be sure to include the number too. For ex: when considering calcium, z=+2

when is spin-spin coupling caused

when hydrogens are on adjacent carbons and they interfere with each others signals. Causes doublets, triplets and multiplets.

how can kidneys contribute to maintaining acid-base balance.

when pH is too low, kidneys can excrete more hydrogen and increase reabsorption of bicarbonate when pH is too high, the kidneys can excrete more bicarbonate and increase reabsorption of hydrogen.

When does REM rebound occur?

when someone can sleep normally after period of sleep deprivation, they exhibit REM rebound which is an earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep compared to normal

What is clonal selection?

when the adaptive immune system encounters an antigen and only the cells with antibodies or T-cell receptors specific to that antigen are activated.

What is the lytic cycle of a virus? If this lytic phase does not occur, what does the virus do?

when the bacteriophage (virus) uses all of the cell's machinery without regard for the survival of the host cell. The host cell then will burt and release virions produced which will attack other bacteria in the area. Viruses in this phase are called virulent. If this doesn't occur, the bacteriophage can integrate into the host genome as a provirus which initiates a lysogenic cycle. Since it is now part of the host's genome, the virus will be replicated.

What is the periodic law?

when the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, there is a periodic repetition of their physical and chemical properties

define acrosomal apparatus. what happens after this?

when the first sperm comes in contact with a secondary oocyte and forms a tubelike structure. its pronucleus is then inserted into the oocyte once meiosis 2 has completed. after this, the cortical reaction occurs, which is the release of calcium ions which depolarizes the ovum, making it so other sperm cannot fertilize it and helps the zygote.

how does lechateliers principle apply to changing pressure and volume

when there is an increase in pressure, the system will respond by decreasing the total number of gas moles. the reaction will go in the direction that produces less moles of gas.

define projection areas on the brain

where electrochemical energy from stimuli is send to be further analyzed

Where is the blind spot?

where the optic nerve leaves the eye, known as the optic disk. There are no photoreceptors here.

protons have a mass of how many amu's? how is an amu exactly defined.

1 amu. I amu is equal to 1/12 of the masss of a carbon-12 atom.

Carboxylic acids can be (reduced/oxidized) ______ to form primary alcohols. What reagent is used? How is this different from forming a primary alcohol from an aldehyde?

Reduced. Uses LiAlH4. (this is different from reducing an aldehyde to a primary alcohol. Aldehydes can be reduced using LiAlH4 OR NaBH4)

Give the relative priorities of functional groups when determining suffixes and prefixes. Also give the prefixes and suffixes of these groups

1. Carboxylic Acid-carboxy-oic acid 2. Anhydrides- alkanoyloxycarbonyl-anhydride 3. Esters-alkoxycarbonyl-oate 4. Amides-amido-amide 5. Aldehydes-oxo-al 6. Ketones-oxo-one 7. Alcohol-hydroxy-ol 8. alkene-alkenyl-ene 9. alkyne-alkynyl-yne 10. alkance-alkyl-ane Christina Aguilera eats amazing altering kiwi almonds

Name the 4 quantum numbers, their symbols, what they describe, their organizational level, and their possible values

1. principal QN (n), size, shell and 1- infinity. 2. Azimuthal QN (l), shape, subshell and 0 to (n-1) 3. Magnetic QN (ml), orientation, orbital, and -l to +l. 4. Spin QN (ms), spin, electron, and +1/2 to -1/2.

what are the two conditions of equilibrium?

1. translational equilibrium (vector sum of all forces on an object is zero) 2. rotational equilibrium (vector sum of all torques acting on an object is zero)

What is the lensmaker's equation? when is it used

1/f = (n-1)(1/r1 - 1/r2) f= focal length n= index of refraction of the lens material r1= radius of curvature of the first lens surface r2= radius of curvature of the second lens surface

which chromosome determines biological sex. if there is an Y-chromosome, that zygote will automatically be male. why?

23rd. if there is a y chromosome, it will have the SRY gene which codes for testes differentiation and male gonads. In this case, if a person is XXY, they will still be male.

how many spinal nerves are there? cranial?

31 spinal, 12 cranial.

how to determine the element given the n and l value.

4(l) +2 = the number of electrons within the shell it is referring to. for example, for n=3 and l=0, you know that the energy level is 3 and l=0 so there is only 2 electrons, meaning it is an s orbital. so you know it is either Na or Mg because there are in the 3s2 area.

what nm is the visible light spectrum at- important for test day

400-700nm

an element in group 5A will have ________ valence electrons and the configuration _________.

5 valence electrons and s2p3

What are the 3 post transcriptional modifications required for mRNA to form?

5' 7-methylguanylate triphosphate cap poly A tail to 3' end splicing done by the snRNA and the snRNPs in the spiceosome- introns are removed in a lariat structure and exons are ligated together

what is the timeline of language aquisiton?

9-12 months: babbling 12-18: one word per month 18-20: explosion of language and combining words 2-3: longer sentences (3+ words) 5 years: language rules mastered

what is the average body temperature in F and C

98.6 F and 37C

what is the phenotypic ratio for dihybrid crosses between 2 heterozygotes

9:3:3:1

What is the decay constant?

= 0.693/ half life. It is used to determine exponential decay. decay constant is lambda.

What is the DSM-5? What does it tell you about psychological condtions

A book of all mental disorders.... gives you a description of each disorder/ symptoms. Does NOT give cause/treatments.

Which has a greater degree of electrophilicity, a carbocation or a carbonyl carbon?

A carbocation because it has a greater degree of positive charge than a carbonyl carbon

Draw the structure of an amino acid

A carbonyl group, an -OH group, an -NH2 group on the alpha carbon, an -H group on the alpha carbon and an -R group on the alpha carbon

What is a secure base for attachment in a child's life?

A caregiver who is consistent, available, comforting and responsive.

What is a prosthetic group? Differentiate between a cofactor and coenzyme.

A non-protein component that forms a permanent part of a functioning protein molecule. It can be a cofactor (inorganic) or a coenzyme (organic).

Which purines pair with which pyrimidines?

A pairs with T - or U in RNA (2 hydrogen bonds) C pairs with U (2 bonds)

What is Chargaff's rule?

A=T and G=C. Percentages must be the same

How are acetals and ketals formed? Draw the structure of each of these.

Acetals are formed by reacting an aldehyde with 2 equivalents of an alcohol (a diol). Ketals are the same but start with a ketone.

Define acids and bases according to Lewis definition and the Lowry Bronsted definitions

Acids are electron acceptors (Lewis) and proton donors (LB). Bases are electron donors (Lewis) and proton acceptors (LB).

Which are slightly more reactive as electrophiles, ketones or aldehydes? Why?

Aldehydes are slightly more reactive electrophiles due to the fact that ketones have steric hindrance.

What is formed when an ammonia atom adds to an electrophilic carbon? This is an example of a ______________ reaction because water is lost.

An imine is formed (C=N). This is a condensation reaction because water is lost.

What happens in a well fed state- anabolism or catabolism?

Anabolism of biomolecules (synthesis)

Which race has the best health profile? gender?

Asian-americans. Women have better health profiles than males.

What does learning say in regards to attitude?

Attitudes are developed through different forms of learning anad can be direct (positive attitude of candy bc it is sweet and tastes good or negative attitude toward swearing bc parents taught her not to use curse words). Attitudes can be influenced by others. If all friends smoke, may develop positive attitude toward it.

how many chromosomes are in autosomal cells? How about germline cells? What is another way to describe these cells?

Autosomal cells have 46 chromosomes (diploid). Germiline have 23 (haploid).

what is the equation for sound level detected? what is the new equation used when the intensity of a sound is changed by some factor?

B= sound level given in dB (decibels) I= intensity of sound wave I0= threshold of hearing (1x10^-12)- this is the reference intensity ration If/I0= ration of final intensity to initial intensity.

when 2 balls of equal volume are placed in water and ball A has density of 0.5 and ball B has density of 0.7, which will accelerate toward surface the quickest? Why?

Ball A because they both experience the same buoyant force bc the yare in the same liquid and have the same volume. Bu, using equation F=ma, the one with a smaller mass will need a larger acceleration to maintain the same buoyant force.

What is a beta-dicarboxylic acid? Are these more acidic or basic than a regular dicarboxylic acid?

Beta-dicarboxylic: 1 carbon between the two carboxylic groups. The hydrgoens are extremely acidic because they have 2 EWG in close proximity.

How do you name a compound that has multiple double/triple bonds?

Between the root and the suffix, you will put di- or tri-. Ex: A 4 carbon chain with a triple bond between the 1st and 2nd carbon and the 3rd and 4th carbon would be 1,3-butadiene.

What is the study that is key to observational learning?

Bobo doll- when adults would be mean to bobo doll, kids were too.

What is the difference between barbituates and benzodiapenes? What do they both do?

Both are anxiety reducing and sleep aid drugs. Recently, benzos have been replacing barbituates because less prone to overdose. Benzos end in -epam and barbituates end in -barbital. Both increase GABA activty, causing sense of relaxation, both are highly addictive.

Name some common causes of schizophrenia. Also name the effects of schizophrenia that are seen in the brain. What type of medication is used to treat it? For depression, name some markers in the brain that are associated with it (4 main ones)

Causes: genetic, low oxygen at birth and marijuana Brain influences: excessive dopamine (neuroleptics used to treat it) Depression markers: high glucose level in amygdala hippocampal atrophy after long duration high cortisol decreased norepinephrine, seratonin and dopamine (monoamine/catecholamine theory of depression)

When an anhydride is split in two, it is a ___________ reaction.

Cleavage

List the structures of the visual pathway from where light enters the cornea to the visual projection areas of brain.

Cornea, pupil, lens, vitreous, retina, bipolar cells, ganglion cells, optic nerve, optic chiasm, optic tract, LGN (thalamus), radiation through parietal/temporal lobes, then visual cortex (in occipital lobe)

When studying the physiology sexual arousal, what factor had the most noticeable difference? Also, which hormores increase sexual desire?

Cultural influences and learned behavior. Estrogen, progesterone, and androgens.

What are nucleosomes? Name the 4 histones directly involved and the 1 that stabilizes it.

DNA and histone molecules which together form a bead-like structure. H2A, H2B, H3 and H4 are directly involved in wrapping the DNA. H1 stabilizes

During replication, what enzyme proofreads the bases? How does it identify the erroneous daughter strand?

DNA polymerase. Daughter strands are less methylated than the parent strand so it can identify it and correct the error.

What are the statistics of a population that are the mathematical applications of sociology? Give some examples.

Demographics- gender, race, sex orientation, ethnicity and immigration status

What is the reverse process of protein folding? What are the two main causes of this?

Denaturation- when a protein loses its 3D structure. This is caused by great increases in temperature or the presense of solutes, such as urea or detergent.

what is the density of water? give this value in both g/cm3 and kg/m3

Density of water= 1 g/cm3 and 1000 kg/m3

Are cis and trans isomers enantiomers or diastereomers. Give another name for cis-trans isomers.

Diasteromers. They are also called geometric isomers- because they differ only in respect to the double bond.

DNA sequencing uses___________. What do they do?

Dideoxyribonucleotides. They terminate the DNA chain because they lack a 3' -OH group. The fragments can then be separated by gel electrohporesis and the sequence can be read directly from the gel.

What are the functions of the dorsal, ventral, and ventromedial prefrontal cortex?

Dorsal- attention and cognition (backseat driver) Ventral- emotion (emotional bad driver) Ventromedial- decision making and controls response from amygdala. (buffer between the two)

Name 3 ways to analyze brain activity in humans

Electrical stimulation of a specific part of the brain which created cortical maps when a person is awake and alert during surgery (black box) EEG (electroencephalograms)s are used for analyzing larger groups of neurons rCBF- looks at blood flow to different parts of brain which detects broad patterns of neural activity.

Are electronegative atoms more acidic or basic? What trend does acidity have on the periodic table?

Electronegative atoms are more acidic, but acidity increases down the periodic table- as you go down the table, bond strength decreases. When electronegativity and periodic table oppose eachother, choose the one that is further down on the periodic table.

What are the 3 major processes of forming memories? Breifly describe each one

Encoding, Storage, Retrieval. Encoding- process of putting new info into memory Storing- storing this information retrieval- demonstrating that something has been learned and retained

endoskeleton vs exoskeleton

Endoskeleton: Skeleton/protection/structure inside body (humans) Exoskeleton: Shell/protective outer layer

Differnce between fad and mass hysteria

Fad- behavior that is viewed as popular and desirable Mass Hysteria- shared, intense concern about the threats to society (Salem Witch Trials for ex). All have huge concern about witchcraft- many agreed on execution

True of false: the earth creates a larger force on you than you create on the earth.

False: forces are always reciprocal.

What is Coloumb's law?

Fe= magnitude of electrostatic force k= coulombs constant (8.99x10^9 Nxm^2/ C^2) q1 and q2: magnitudes of the two charges r= distance between the charges

Define Feminist Theory and how it relates to the glass ceiling.

Feminist theory attempts to explain social inequalities that exist on the basis of gender. Women in the workforce are less frequently promoted and have more difficulty attaining top level administrative positions - so this barrier is termed the glass ceiling.

Which hormones oppose the actions of insulin? Are these expressed in the fasting state or the well fed state.

GLucagon, epinephrine, norepinephrine and the growth hormone. There are expressed with greatest degree in fasting state- but are not as overwhelming in the prolonged fasting (starvation).

Are nitrogen based function groups good electrophiles or nucleophiles?

Good nucleohphiles. They react readily with the electrohphilic carbons of ketones and aldehydes

Phospholipids have heads and tails. What is the head made up of? is it polar or nonpolar? What is the tail made up of? is it polar or nonpolar? What kind of linkages bind the head and the tail?

Head- contains alcohol and phosphate group. It is polar. Tail- contains fatty acids. It is nonpolar. Phosphodiester linkages bind the head and tail

What 3 things can denature/ pull apart DNA? How are they annealed?

Heat, alkaline (basic) pH, and chemicals like formaldehyde and urea. To anneal them, slowly remove these things.

What is the term that describes how a society socializes its members? (2 terms) What is the term that describes the spread of norms or customs through a culture?

How a society socializes its members: cultural transmission or cultural learning Spread of norms or beliefs: cultural diffusion

What is cretinism caused by?

Hypothyroidism

How is the power (the energy dissipation rate) of a resistor calculated?

I= current V= voltage drop R= resistance *commit this to memory*

what are D-sugars vs L-sugars? Are they enantiomers? Do they have positive or negative rotation?

In the fischer projection, D- sugars are sugars that on the highest number carbon (furthest away), the hydroxide is on the right. In L-sugars, the hydroxide is on the left. They are enantiomers so optical rotation can be determined from them.

Which would cause a person to eat more and why? Eating all meal courses separately or interrupting the main course with side dishes.

Interupting the main meal with side dishes because then habituation will not occur which would make each bite of the same food less pleasurable, therefore we would stop eating sooner.

What are lacteals? Also define chyle and how it is related.

Intestinal lymphatic vessels. fats packaged into chylomicrons enter a lacteal for transport. this lymphatic fluid carrying the chylomicrons is called chyle

What is pyruvate dehydrogenase? what is it stimulated/ inhibited by?

It is a complex of enzymes that convert pyruvate to acetyl coA. It is stimulated by insulin and inhibited in acetyl- CoA.

When diols act as protecting groups, what do they protect? What is used to remove the protecting groups?

Ketones and aldehydes. H30+ is used to remove the protecting groups.

Secondary alcohols can be oxidized to form ____? What are they oxidized with?

Ketones. Can be Oxidized with PCC or a stronger oxidized.

2 types of enolates can form when there are 2 alpha hydrogens. What are the names of these types?

Kinetic and thermodynamic types

What are cyclic amides called? How are they named based on the number of carbons involved?

Lactams. -oic acid is replaced by -lactam.

define macrosociology and microsociology

Macro: focuses on large groups and social structure Micro: Focuses on small groups and the individual

To determine the R/S configuration of a chiral center in a Fisher projection, we need to be sure that the lowest priority group is on a vertical line. If it isn't given to us like this, how do we change it so it is?

Make 2 switches. In the pictured top chiral center, H needs to be on vertical. So you would switch H and CH3 and ALSO switch Br with CHBrCH3.

Actin makes up what? (2 things). Which motor protein does it interact with? is actin polar?

Makes up microfilaments and the thin filaments in myofibrils. It interacts with myosin. Actin is polar because it has a positive and negative end allowing it to travel one way along an actin filament.

Drug addiction is related to what dopaminergic pathway in the brain? What does this pathway include?

Mesolimbic reward pathway. This pathway includes the nucleus accumbens (NAc), the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the connection between them (the medial forebrain bundle). Usually involved in motivation and emotional response. Gambling and falling in love also stimulate this pathway.

what is the difference between the equilibrium constant expresion and the rate law expression? or are they the same?

NOT THE SAME. easily confused on the MCAT. equilibrium constant expression(law of mass action): includes concentrations of both the reactants and the products of a reaction. rate law expression: includes ONLY reactants

how is a double or triple bond named in a compound?

Named like a substituent and is indicated by the lower numbered carbon involved in the bond. ex: 2-butyne would mean a triple bond between the 2nd and 3rd carbon of a 4 carbon chain.

name and describe the three theories for language development

Nativist- innate language acquisition device helps us learn language Leaning- we learn through reinforcment Social interactionist- driven by our desire to communicate and behave in social manner

what is the difference of direction between a negative electrostatic force and a positive electrostatic force?

Negative electrostatic force: points from one point to the other (attractive) Positive electrostatic force: points from one charge away from the other (repulsive).

Relationship between oncogenes, proto-oncogenes and tumor suppresor genes.

Oncogenes develop from mutations of proto-oncogenes and lead to cancer. Tumor suppressor genes code for proteins that reduce cell cycling or promote DNA repair. Mutations in these can also lead to cancer.

What is added to aldehydes/ketones to form hemiacetals/hemiketals? What is added to form acetals/ ketals?

One equivalent of alcohol to form hemi acetals/ hemiketals. Two equivalents of alcohol to form acetals and ketals.

DNA replication is semiconservative. Why?

One old parent stand and one new daughter strand are incorporated into the two new DNA molecules. It conserves some.

Carboxylic acids are prepared from the __________ (oxidation/reduction) of aldehydes or primary alcohols. What are common reagents used to accomplish this?

Oxidation. Reagents are Na2Cr2O7, K2Cr2O7, CrO3 or KMnO4.

What is Boyle's Law?

P1V1=P2V2

What moves rapidly in the plane of the cell membrane through simple diffusion? Which move more slowly?

Phospholipids move quickly. Lipid rafts, carbohydrates, proteins move slowly

P orbitals line up side to side to form what kind of bond?

Pi bond. P orbitals form pi bonds. S orbitals form sigma bonds

What hormones do the posterior pituitary gland and the pineal gland secrete?

Posterior pituitary- ADH (vasopressin) and oxytocin Pineal- melatonin

Alzheimers genetics show mutations on which genes/ chromosomes.

Presenilin genes on chrom 1 and 14 Apolipoprotein E gene on chrom 19 B-Amyloid precursor gene on chrom 21- why down syndrome peope have high risk of alzheimers.

Describe the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog priority rules for designating E or Z to a compound and for the R/S forms of a compound.

Priority rules: Priority will go to the atom that has the highest atomic number. If there is a tie, then go to the next atom that it is connected to. If that next atom is a C bonded to 3 other C's, then this would take priority over a C that is bonded to only 2 other C's.

equation for calculating STANDARD free energy change for a reaction. Once a reaction begins, however, this standard state does not apply. What is the new equation used? When is it negative? Positive?

R is ideal gas constant, T is temperature in kelvin and Keq is equilibrium constant after a reaction begins, the equation delta Grxn= RT ln Q/Keq. When Q is smaller than Keq, ln will be negative and G will be negative. When Q is larger than Keq, ln will be positive and G will be positive. When Q is smaller than Kew, ln will be negative and G will be negative

There are 3 types of RNA polymerase. What is each ones function?

RNA poly 1- located in nucleolus and synthesizes rRNA RNA poly 2- synthesizes hnRNA (eventually becomes mRNA) and snRNA (helps spliceosome). RNA poly 3- synthesizes tRNA and rRNA.

Give a brief description of how Strecker synthesis generates an amino acid. Name what reagents are needed and the type of reactions that take place

Reagents: aldehyde, ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), KCN (potassium cyanide) and water. The ammonia attacks the carbonyl carbon (forms an imine) then the amine is attacked by KCN, forming an aminonitrile. The aminonitrile is hydrolyzed by 2 equivalents of water, generating an AA type of rxns: nucleophilic addition, hydrolysis, condensation

Name the 4 types of mismatch repair mechanisms and name when they occur in the cell cycle.

S phase- proofreading by DNA polymerase G2 phase- MSH2 and MLH1 checks G1 and G2- Nucleotide and base excision are most active M- rare for repair to occur.

Explain why SN1 reactions result in a racemic mixture

SN1 reactions have a carbocation intermediate. The second step, then, can have the nucleophile attacking from either side of the carbocation. The resulting product will have varied stereochemistry.

For SN1 reactions, which reactive sites are preference? (Primary, secondary or tertiary carbons?)

Secondary and tertiary because STABILITY is a barrier to the reaction

Define a protein's secondary structure and the two most common ones

Secondary structure is the local structure of neighboring amino acids. Most common are alpha helices and beta sheets.

Describe the 4 types of attachment styles

Secure, Avoidant, Ambivalent, Disorganized

Comment on the relative strengths and lengths of single, double and triple bonds.

Single- long and weak, double, the triple- short and strong

There are 2 components need to maintain the membrane potential (the difference in electrical potential across cell membranes).

Sodium-potassium pump and leak channels

What did william sheldon propose?

Somatotypes- personality traits are based on body type. All short and stocky people are jolly for ex.

what is the only specific defense against intracellular pathogens (viruses- some bacteria and fungi can be intracellular too)

T-cells

frequency does not change between mediums. true or false

TRUE

Lev Vygotsky said that cognitive development is driven by __________. His is also known for his concept of _____________ that refers to the skills and abilities that are not fully developed but are in the process of development- usually with help of an adult.

The child's internalization of his or her culture (rules, symbols, language). Also known for concept of zone of proximal development (think that they are in the region of soon developing the skill).

what is the elastic potential energy? What is the equation used to solve it?

The elastic potential energy is when a spring is stretched or compressed from its equilibrium length. U=pot energy k= spring constant x= magnitude of displacement from equilibrium

Define decarboxylation. Under what conditions will a carboxylic acid spontaneously decarboxylate?

The removal of carbon dioxide from a molecule. A carboxyl group is completely removed in this process. Carboxylic acids will spontaneously decarboxylate under heat.

What is the stereotype content model? What are the two dimensions that are used when creating this model? Describe them and describe how they relate to give different types of stereotypes.

The stereotype content model attempts to classify stereotypes with respect to a hypothetical "in-group" 2 dimensions: warmth- warm groups are not in direct competition with the "in-group" for resources Competence- competent groups are those that have a high status within society. 4 different stereotypes: paternalistic, admiration, contemptuous, envious

In substitution reactions, does the weak base replace the strong base or vice versa?

The strong base replaces the weak base and the weak base acts as the leaving group.

what is kirchhoff's junction rule?

The sum of currents into a point equals the sum of currents out of that point.

What is Kirchhoff's loop rule?

The sum of the voltage sources (batteries) must be equal to the sum of the voltage (potential) drops IN THAT LOOP, not necessarily in while circuit.

What are hydraulic systems?

They use liquid under pressure, because they are nearly incompressible, to move loads. They increase the mechanical advantage of the levers in machines.

What is internal validity? what is generalizability / external validity ?

This type of validity is focused on determining whether a study's findings are accurate, or are more the result of the influence of extraneous variables. generalizability- if low, means that there are very narrow conditions that do not reflect the target population. ig high, they are representative of the target population.

What is threshold? What is the difference between absolute, threshold of conscious perception and difference threshold.

Threshold:the level of stimulation required to notice a difference in perception. Absolute: minimum intensity at which a stimulus will be transduced. Conscious perception: a stimulus below the threshold of conscious perception arrives at the CNS, but does not reach higher order brain regions (also called subliminal threshold). The stimulus is still detected, just not consciously. Difference: (or just noticeable difference) is the minimum difference in magnitude between 2 stimuli before one can perceive this difference.

What reagent is needed for Primary alcohols to become aldehydes? How about to become carboxylic acids?

To become aldehydes, need PCC, a mild oxidant. To become carboxylic acids, need CrO3, Na2Cr2O7 or K2Cr2O7

What is the equation for the potential energy stored in a capacitor? Also, what is a dielectric material? How is the capacitance calculated when a dielectric material is added? What is the equation when finding capacitance between two plates when a dielectric material is present?

U= 1/2 CV^2 dielectric material: is an insulator. It ALWAYS increases capacitance. C' (capacitor with dielectric)= kC (k= dielectric constant) CAKED

Difference between value and belief. What is a ritual?

Value: what a person deems important in life which dictates one's ethical principles and standards of behavior. Belief: something that an individual accepts to be truth. Ritual: formalized ceremony that involves specific material objects, symbolism, and additional mandates on acceptable behavior.

Name and describe all 4 fat soluble vitamins. Be sure to give their official name and their function.

Vitamin A- Carotene (think carrot). 2 metabolites of vitamin A are retinal (vision) and retinoic acid (epithelial development). Vitamin D- cholecalciferol. Converted to calcitrol (increases calcium and phosphate uptake in intestines) E- tocopherols. Act as antioxidants by getting rid of free radicals K- made up of 2 Compounds- phylloquinone and menaquinones. Forms prothombin (clotting)

which is subjective and which is objective: volume and intensity. For the one that is objective, give the equation related to it. also, how is amplitude related to intensity how is distance related to intensity.

Volume is subjective- changes for each person. Intentisty is objective: it is the average rate of energy transfer pera area across a surface that is perpendicular to the wave. Power is measured in watts and area is in meters. this can be used for calculating intensity of sound on the tympanic membrane. intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude since A=4pir^2, if distance (r) is increased (think about a sphere radiating out from source of sound), then intensity will be cut by 1/4.

What is hemizygous mean?

When a trait has an allele on the x chromosome but there is no match on the y chromosome (this is normal, not a mutation). this is in males since they have an x and y chromosome. Cannot be considered homozygous or heterozygous because only one allele.

Define hybridization in DNA technology. Name 2 types

When complementary base pair sequences are joined. PCR- millions of copies of a DNA sequence can be produced. It uses DNA polymerase - but not the kind found in human bodies as it cannot survive under high temperatures. Southern blotting- detects presence and quantities of various DNA strands in a sample. Then it can be probed with single stranded DNA to look for a sequence of interest.

A force can be created by a magnetic field when a point charge moves through the field. Can a current- carrying wire placed in a magnetic field also experience a magnetic force? Can the right hand rule be applied?

Yes. For a straight wire, the magnitude of the force created by an EXTERNAL magnetic field (Fb) is I= current L= length of wire in the field B= magnitude of magnetic field ⍬= angle between L and B The right hand rule is still applied

IS type A and type B part of type theorists? Define them

Yes. Type A is competitive and compulsive behavior. Type B is laid back and relaxed.

what is an equipotential line? What occurs when you move a test charge along the line? Between lines? where would they be in relation to a sphere?

a line that includes all points with equal potential (voltage) in an electric field. The potential difference between any two points on a line will be zero. No work is done to move a test charge q along any of the lines, Work is required only when moving from one line to another but it depends only on the potential difference between the two lines and not the pathway between them. W= -q x delta V. q is measued in Coulombs and is the value given. for a proton, this value is 1.6x10^-19 and for an electron, it is -1.6x10^-19. Pay attention to what the question is asking. In relation to a sphere, they would be rings around the sphere.

what is the electron affinity, ionization energy, and electronegativities of metals? do they have a small or large range of oxidation states?

all LOW. but they have a large range of oxidation states because they are capable of losing different numbers of electrons. this is why many metals act as cofactors

What is the law of reflection?

angle of incidence = angle of reflection the normal line is the one drawn perpendicular to the bondary of the medium. All angles are measured from this medium

Name the SI Units for length, mass, time, current, amount of substance, temperature and luminous intensity. Also give their symbols. Also, what are angstroms?

angströms: 1Å= 10^-10 m

What are defensins?

antibacterial enzymes that can be found on the skin

Name the 5 lipoproteins and their functions. What is the protein called that is associated with each one of them? (pneuomic: VILCH)

apoproteins

why can phosphoric acid act as a buffer over a large range of PH values

becayse it has 3 hydrogens, all with different pKa's.

What is the Hawthorne effect? Also called observation bias

behavior of the study participants is altered simply because they recognize that they are being studied

What are folkways?

behavior that is considered polite in particular social interactions. such as shaking hands after a tennis match

the combo of stimuli and responses serve as the basis for ___________

behavioral learning

Define refraction. What is the equation associated with it?

bending of light as it passes from one ,edium to another and changes speed. The speed through a medium will always be less than the speed through a vacuum (3.00 x 10^8) n=c/v where n= the dimensionless quantity called the index of refraction (n of vacuum is 1 obviously). for air, n is also very close to 1. c= speed of light in vacuum (2.0 and 10^*) v= speed of light in the medium

are bones vascular, innervated, or both?

both. thats why it hurts so much to break a bone.

define demographic shift vs demographic transition. How did demographic transition occur in the US?

changes in the makeup of a population over time. Demographic transition: a specific example of demographic shift referring to changes in birth and death rate in the country. the industrial revolution was the key time of demographic transition of the US. Note from the picture that during demographic transition, mortality rates drop before birth rates do.. so there is a period of high population.

Define diastereomers

chiral and same connectivity but are not mirror images.. They differ at some, but not all, of their chiral centers

because the valence electrons of a metal are loosely held to their atoms, metals can be good _________.

conductors

how to find solubility product constant from compound Ca3 (PO4) 2

consider when they break apart, there will be 3 Ca2+ and 2 (PO4 3-) so do

What are diffraction gratings?

consist of multiple slits arranged in patterns. The interference is not between diffracted rays but reflected rays

What is a test cross?

cross between an organism with an unknown genotype and an organism with a recessive phenotype. if the products are all dominant phenotype, the unknown genotype would be homozygous dominant. if product phenotypes are 1:1, then the unknown genotype is probably heterozygous

Define display rules

cultural rules that govern the expression of emotion

What is standard deviation? (name the 5 steps). How can standard deviation be used to calculate outliers? how are standard deviation sections represented on a normal distribution curve?

determined by : taking the difference between each data point and the mean, squaring this value adding these together dividing this number by the number of values minus one. take square root of this number if a data point falls more than 3 standard deviations from the mean, then it is considered an outlier. on a normal curve: 68% of data points fall within 1 standard deviation, 95% within 2 deviations and 99% within 3 deviations

what is a disulfide bond/ what amino acid does it compose of? is this a primary, secondary, tertiary or quaternary structure?

disulfide bond is formed when 2 cysteine molecules become oxidized and form cystine. they create loops in the protein chain. Formation requires the loss of 2 protons and 2 electrons. It is a component of the tertiary structure.

What is the Aufbau principle?

electrons fill from lower to high energy subshells

what is bond energy

energy required to break a bond

what are the enthalpy values for an exothermic and endothermic reactions.

enthalpy values follow the same trend as free energy values. enthalpy values for exothermic are negative and for endothermic are positive.

Describe the following terms as they relate to classical conditioning: extinction spontaneous recovery generalization discrimination

extinction: if conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus, the organism can become habituated (used to) the conditioned stimulus and extinction of the response occurs. (ex: if bell rings with no meat for dog, dog will stop responding with salivation. spontaneous recovery: a spontaneous REVERSAL of extinction. If the bell is not presented for a while, then when bell is presented again, a slight conditioned response may be seen. Moral of story: acquisition nor extinction are permanent. Generalization: if a conditioned stimulus is similar enough to another stimulus, it can also produce a conditioned response. Example: little albert was afraid of white rat bc paired with loud noise. He is still scared even when presented with white rabbit, or man with white beard. Discriminaation: an organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli (opposite of generalization).

What is spatial inequality

focuses on social stratification across territories and their populations. Gender, ethnicity, race, and class are disributed across spaces differently.

What is a replisome?

group of proteins needed to assist DNA polymerase in DNA synthesis

Define groupthink. What are the 8 factors that are indicative of groupthink

groupthink: desire for harmony so there is aloss of independent critical thinking. Acronym: SUM PRISM

define homogenous catalysis vs heterogenous catalysis

homogeous: the catalyst is in the same phase heterogenous: the catalyst is in a distinct phase

Define the terms incidence and prevalence as they relate to health statistics. Define morbidity and mortality.

incidence: number of new cases of an illness per population at risk in a given amount of time (does not include people who already have the illness). prevalence: measure of the number of cases of an illness overall- whether new or chronic- per population in a given amount of time. Morbidity: the burden or degree of illness associated with a given disease mortality: deaths caused by a given disease

In uniform circular motion, which way does centripetal force point. Where is the instantaneous velocity vector locate on the circle? What is the equation that describes circular motion?

instantaneuous velocity is tangent to the circle.

How do you perform vector substitution?

instead of adding vector A and B together, do Vector A+ -(Vector B). -B is the same magnitude as B but is in the opposite direction. Use same tip to tail method but just flip the direction of the vector being subtracted.

What two cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) are used for white blood cell migration

integrins and selectins

What does mastication do?

it begins the process of mechanical digestion, which breaks down large food particles into smaller ones and helps increase surface area to volume ratio of food, creating more surface area for enzymatic digestion

ionic bonds where the positively charged cation is attracted to the negatively charged anions form _________ structures

lattice structures with rows of cations and anions

Define latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. ex: i know how to get from here to frankenmuth but i won't demonstrate it until I have an incentive ( a day with the fam for ex).

the left lung contains __ lobes while the right contains _____ lobes.

left: 2... room for the heart. right: 3

leaukocytes make up ____ percent of total blood volume

less than 1 percent

Name the 6 simple machines

lever, pulley, wheel and axle, inclined plane, wedge, and screw

what does a calorimeter do

measures heat trasnfer

which is less suscpetible to influence from outliers- mean or median? if the median and mean are far from each other, what does this mean?

median if they are far from each other, this means that outliers are present or there is a skewed distribution

define two-point threshold

minimum difference necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli

Where does B-oxidation occur?

mitochondria

what is a morula? once it is formed, what does it undergo?

morula is a solid mass of cells. Once it is formed, it undergoes blastulation, in which it forms a blastula, a hollow ball of cells (thing that the inside was blasted out).

What is erythroblastosis fetalis?

mother maybe attacking Rh+ in second fetus, first child is fine but during 1st chidlbirth blood exposure creates antibodies to attack second child.

what is a motor end plate and neuromuscular junction? what is a motor unit?

nerve terminal of a motor nerve before a muscle. It is found at the neuromuscular junction. A motor unit is both these nerve terminals and its myocytes.

What is the second law of thermodynamics?

objects in thermal contact that are not in thermal equilibrium will echange heat energy such that the object with high temp will give off heat energy to the object with low temp.

when electron transport is inhibited, what will happen to oxygen consumption and glucose consumption?

oxygen consumption will decrease because in the absense of electron trnasport, O2 is not needed. Glucose consumption will increase because then the cell is relying solely on glycolysis for ATP, and will therefore need an excess of glucose to produce enough.

What is the locus of a gene?

position of a gene on a chromosome

name the positive amino acids. these tend to be _______ (acidic/basic). Name the negative amino acids. these tend to be (acidic/basic).

postive: histidine, arginine, lysine. tend to basic negative: aspartate, glutamate. tend to be acidic.

define power as it relates to energy and time used in a resistor problem?

power = energy dissipated over time; P=W/t

Define reducing sugars and how they are detected (2 methods)? (think about biochem lab)

reducing sugars have the capabaility to reduce, but in the process are oxidized. They are detected by reacting with Tollens' or Benedict's reagents.

What is proproception/ kinesthetic sense?

refers to the ability to tell where one's body is in space

redox reactions are a form of _________ reactions

single displacement

skeletal muscles help contractions in (veins/arteries) while smooth muscle helps contractions in (veins arteries)

skeletal-veins smooth- arteries.

What is somnambulism? When does it occur?

sleepwalking - during stage 3/4 sleep (SWS)

What is radioactive decay?

spontaneous decay of certain nuclei accompanied by the emission of specific particles.

what is the difference between standard state conditions and standard temperature and pressure (STP)

standard state conditions are used for measuring enthalpy, entropy and gibbs free energy and are 25 degrees celcius (298K), 1 atm pressure and 1M concentrations. they are used for kinetics, equilibrium and thermodynamics problems standard temperature and pressure are 0 degrees celcius (273K) and 1 atm pressure. These are used for ideal gas calculations

where does fatty acid catabolism start? where is most of it performed?

starts in cytosol, mostly performed in mito matrix.

define temporal vs spatial summation

temporal- multiple signals are integrated during a short period of time. a number of small excitatory signals could cause an action potential spatial- additive effects are baed on number and location of the incoming signals. ex: large number of inhibitory signals directly on the soma will cause hyperpolarization if the axon hillock compared to the few excitatory firing on the dendrites.

just-world hypothesis

the belief that people get what they deserve in life and deserve what they get- may have a cause in the "blaming the victim" issue.

what happens when the voltage source is disconnected from a capacitor?

the capacitor discharges. Provides current in opposite direction.

What is the Malthusian theory?

the idea that a population tends to grow faster than the subsistence needed to sustain it

define physiological zero

the idea that temperature is judged relative to our physiological zero (the normal temperature of the skin)

a type one error is related to choosing what?

the significance level (alpha- usually 0.05 is chosen). if this level is too high, then we may get results that support the rejection of the null hypothesis when in reality it should be upheld.

what is the hierarchy of salience

the situation dictates which identity holds the most importance for us in that moment (salience= noticeable/important)

define labeling theory

the view that the labels people are given affect their own and others' perceptions of them, thus channeling their behavior into either deviance or conformity. ex: if a woman is called a hoe, this can make her be more hoe-ish or change her behavior to be less hoe-ish.

define peroxisomes

they contain hydrogen peroxide. Main functions of peroxides is the breakdown of a very long chain of fatty acids vis B-oxidation. Also contain some of the enzymes involved in the pentose phosphate pathway.

what is a primary reinforcer vs a secondary reinforcer.

things that humans and or animals do not need to learn are satisfying. secondry reinforcers, however, aquire their ability to reinforce behavior by being paired with a primay one.

what is the equation for determining the probability of two independent events occurring at the same time? the probability that at least one of the two independent events occurs

two independent events at same time : P (A ⎍ B)= P (A and B) = P(A) x P (B) at least (key word : at least meaning one or both) one of two independent events occurs: P (A U B) = P (A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)

define tautomers. Does the equilibrium lie to the keto or enol side?

two isomers that differ in the placement of a proton (hydrogen) and the double bond. Equilibrium lies to the keto side. (C=O) instead of (C=C).

define umbilical arteries and umbilical vein

umbilical arteries: carry blood away from fetus toward the placenta (A=away). these carry deoxygenated blood because the blood is oxygenated in the PLACENTA, not the lungs. umbilical vein: carries blood toward the fetus toward the placenta. (oxygenated).

How does an ultrasound work? what is a doppler ultrasound?

uses high frequency sound waves outside the range of human hearing to compare the relative densities of tissues in the body. It relies on reflection. transmitter generates wave, reflects off object and returns to transmitted (also functions as receiver). a doppler ultrasound determines the blood flow within the body by detecting frequency shift that is associated with movement toward or away from the receiver.

When no force is being applied, the velocity must be:

velocity is constant. No acceleration of deceleration.

all images produced from plane mirrors are _________.

virtual

what does it mean for a solution to be saturated? what happens when you continue adding past the saturated state.

when the maximum amount of solute has been added and the dissolved solute is in equilibrium with its undissolved state past the saturated state, the solute will precipitate to the bottom of the container

what is interquartile range? What is it used for? how do you calculate the position of the quartiles?

Q2 is the median Q1 is 0.25 x n (number of numbers in the set), if decimal, round up, if whole number, Q1 is between that number and the next highest one. Q3 is 0.75x n interquartile range is Q3- Q1. You can use this range to detemine outliers. If any value falls more than 1.5 interquartile ranges below Q1 or above Q3, then it is considered an outlier

What are proactive social movements vs reactive social movements? What is relative deprivation.

Proactive- social movements that promote social change Reactive- social movements that resist social change Relative deprivation: decrease in resources, representation, or agency relative to the past or to the whole of society.

Overall DNA and the associated histones make up ________ in the nucleus. Name the 2 different types.

chromatin. Heterochromatin- tightly wound,dense, transcriptionally silent, DNA appears dark under light. Euchromatin- loose, less dense, transcriptionally active DNA, appears light.

name the three segments of the small intestine and briefly state their functions

duodenum- chemical digestion jejunum- absorption ileum- absorption

external intercostals are active during inhalation in exhalation. When are internal intercostals active?

during strenuous activity, internal intercostals force air out and speed up ventilation

What are the two parts of the endoplasmic reticulum and what are each of their functions?

rough ER- has ribosomes- this is where translation of proteins occurs smooth ER- no ribosomes- lacks ribosomes and is used for lipid synthesis and the detoxification of drugs and poisons (think about at bravo how we learned that if someone is intoxicated we should give them fatty things)

What effects does alcohol have on the brain

Increases activity of GABA receptor, a chloride channel that causes hyperpolarization of the membrane. Increases dopamine levels. It is a depressant. Can also cause werninke-korsakoff syndrome, caused by deficiency of thiamine (b1) and characterized by severe memory impairment with changes in mental status and loss of motor skills.

Individual vs institutional discrimination

Individual discrimination refers to one person discriminating against a particular person or group, while institutional discrimination refers to the discrimination against a person or group by an entire institution.

What is chemiosmotic coupling? Which part of ATP synthase sees the first interaction with this? What is the approximate free energy of the PMF radiating through the F0 portion.

It allows the chemical energy of the gradient to be harnessed as a means of phosphorylating ADP and thus forming ATP. The F0 portions interacts with the proton motive force and passes on the energy to the F1 portion to phosphorylate ADP. The free energy is about -220kJ/mol. Extremely exergonic.

is ATP a high, mid or low level energy carrier? Why?

It is mid-level. We wouldn't want it to be high because then a process that just needs a little bit of energy would have to waste a whole ATP. It's like having dollar bills instead of using a 20 for a 5 dollar item and getting no change.

What is the difference between a kinetically controlled enolate vs a thermodynamically controlled enolate? In what conditions is each one favored?

Kinetic: formed rapidly, but less stable. Double bond is between carbonyl carbon and less substituted alpha carbon. Favored in low temperatures with a strong, sterically hindered base. Thermodynamic: formed slowly, but more stable. Double bond is between carbonyl carbon and more substituted alpha carbon. Favored in high temperatures with weak, smaller bases.

The auditory cortex and Wernicke's area are in which lobe? What are their functions? Are there other functions of this lobe?

Located in the temporal lobe, which also functions in memory processing, emotion and language. Auditory cortex- site for sound processing Wernicke's area- language reception and comprehension

Name the two types of long term memory what is included in each of them.

Long term memory can be implicit or explicit. Implicit (procedural) is our memory of skills and conditioned responses (unconscious)--- ex: remembering to put on seatbelt when in car. Explicit (declarative) can be divided into semantic (facts that we know) and episodic (events/experiences). *note: memory disorders may affect one type of memory but leave others alone.... could remember how to ride a bike but forget the names of the parts of the bike.

Order the potential energies for anti staggered, eclipsed, totally eclipsed and gauche isomers. Is conformation interconversion more likely at high temperatures or low temperatures

Lowest: anti staggered, then gauche, then eclipsed, then totally eclipsed (highest). More likely at high temps.m

Rank the following for increasing acidity. Hexanol, phenol, and cyclohexanol

Lowest: cyclohexanol, hexanol, highest: phenol. Acidity increases when the anion of the compound is more stable. Phenol has a vert stable anion due to the resonance it has.

What is the difference between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal?

Maintenance rehearsal is just keeping info at the forefront of our consciousness to temporarily keep in working memory. Elaborative rehearsal is the association of knowledge to info already stored in long term memory- self-reference is closely tied to this.

Melatonin and Cortisol both have influences in the sleep wake cycle. What glands are these from and what do they do?

Melatonin- (mellows you out) derived from pineal gland. Decreasing light increases melatonin levels Cortisol- (helps you get up into the sol) produced in adrenal cortex. Increase of lighgt causes release of corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) which causes release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary, stimulating cortisol release (helps wakefulness)

What is a mesylate? What is a tosylate?What does they do?

Mesylate is a functional group containing -SO3CH3. Tosylate is a functional group containing -SO3C6H4CH3. They make hydroxyl groups into better leaving groups and they also protect alcohols from oxidizing agents.

What gender has higher (worse) mortality rates? Morbidity?

Mortality- men. Morbidity- women.

Rank these in terms of how oxidized they are: alcohols, carboxylic acids, aldehydes.

Most oxidized: carboxylic acids, then aldehydes, the alcohols.

Describe the structure of a glycerophospholipid.

Glycerol backbone. Esterlinkages to 2 fatty acids and a phosphodiester linkage to the polar head group.

There are two types of bacteria: mutualistic symbiotes and pathogens/parasites. What is the difference between these? Most bacteria exist in one of three shapes. Name these and describe what they look like.

Mutualistic symbiotes: both humans and bacteria benefit from the relationship Pathogens/ parasites: no advantage or benefit for the host. Disease- causing Cocci- spherical bacteria Bacilli- rod-shaped (think Rod is basic) Spirilli- spiral shaped

Which motor protein interacts with actin? What is its role?

Myosin. It acts as the thick filament in a myofibril. It can also be used in cellular transport

Can you oxidize a ketone?

No, ketones are the most oxidized that a secondary alcohol can get. If you react a ketone with an oxidizing reagent, nothing will happen.

What happens to an enzyme during its reaction with a substrate? Is it changed or consumed?

No. Enzymes are not changed or consumed in a reaction

Do prokaryotes have membrane bound organelles?

No. Eukaryotes do.

Can tertiary alcohols be oxidized?

Not easily. There is no hydrogen attached to the carbon that can be removed.

Is nucleophilic/electrophilic strength a kinetic or thermodynamic property?

Nucleophilic/electrophilic is a kinetic property. Acidic and basic are thermodynamic properties. Besides this, acids are very similar to electrophiles and bases are very similar to nucleophiles

Are nucleosomes and telomeres found in prokaryotic, eukaryotic or both?

Nucleosomes and telomeres are only found in eukaryotic

What types of bonds constitutes a double bond?

One sigma bond and one pi bond.

What does a p-orbital look like? How many different orientations can the p-orbital be in?

P-orbital is a dumbell shape with a node in the middle (no chance of electrons being here). Can be in 3 orientations (x, y or z axis). This is why ml for a p orbital can be -1,0,1

What is a group? What is a group of 2 people called? 3? Can groups be people who happen to be in the same physical space? What is the difference between an in-group, out-group and reference group? What is the difference between a primary group and a secondary group?

Group (social group)- consists of two or more people who share sense of unity 2- dyad 3- triad People who occupy same physical space are not social groups in-group: group you belong to out-group: group you are in opposition with reference group: used to compare yourself with. ex: other med school applicants. Primary group- interactions are direct and somewhat intimate secondary group- interactions are superficial (think of a school project group)

In a hemiacetal, the carbon is bonded to what 4 groups? How about for an acetal?

Hemiacetal: -OH, -OR, -H and -R. For an acetal: -OR, -OR, -H and -R.

In the elongation phase of translation, which enzyme catalyzes the formation of the peptide bond? What kind of linkage is created in this peptide bond?

Peptidyl transfer ase connects the incoming amino terminal to the previous carboxyl terminal. The peptide bonds, therefore are amide linkages

What molecules do NOT make good leaving groups? Why?

Alkanes and hydrogens because they are very reactive, strongly basic anions. In substitution reactions, we need STRONGER bases to replace WEAKER bases

how does the boiling point of an amide compare to a carboxylic acid?

Amide boiling points may be lower or on the same level. This is because amides may or may not participate in hydrogen bonding depending on the number of alkyl groups they have bonded

what 2 amino acids have a chiral carbon in the side chain? What is the only non chiral amino acid?

2 with chircal side chains are threonine and isoleucine. The only non chiral amino acid is glycine

What are conservative forces?

They are path independent forces that do not dissipate the mechanical energy of a system. * if only conservative forces are acting on an object, the total mechanical energy is conserved. * examples gravity and electrostatic forces.

To determine the configuration of a Fisher projection, does the lowest priority group need to be on a vertical or horizontal line? And is this line represented by dashes or wedges?

To determine whether it is R or S configuration, the lowest priority group needs to be on a vertical line. This is represented by a dash, meaning it is going into the page. (lowest priority needs to be in back)

for parallel circuits, the voltage drop at each resistor is the same. When all of these are added together, the equal the __________.

Total voltage of the source.

If a reaction occurs between a molecule with a stereocenter and another compound, how would the realtive and absolute configurations be retained? (look at ch.2 Q 6)

Relative retained if the stereocenter is not changed. Absolute is retained if the R/S conformation is the same between the 2 molecules

Define social structure. Define functionalism, function and dysfunction as they relate to a society. Also define the difference between manifest and latent function.

Social structure- the underlying patterns of relationships in a society. Functionalism is the study of the structure and function of each part of society. Function: the beneficial consequences of people's actions. Dysfunctions- harmful consequences of people's actions as they undermine a social system's equilibrium. Manifest: intended to help some part of a system Latent: when manifest functions have unintended positive consequences on other parts of society.

What are the 4 factors that are used to assess the completeness of assimilation into a new culture? What slows down the assimilation process?

Socioeconomic status, geographic distribution, language attainment, and intermarriage (LIGS) The assimilation process is slowed by the creation of ethnic enclaves- locations/neighborhoods with a high concentration of one specific ethnicity.

If you treated 1-propanol with methylsulfonyl chloride followed be a reaction with PCC, what would your product be?

Still 1-propanol. Methylsulfonyl chloride serves as a mesylate that protects the alcohol from being oxidized.

Which form of thyroxine (for thyroid activity) is more efficient? Also, what does the subscript next to the T mean when discussing different forms of thyroxine?

T3 is more efficient so T4 is converted to T3. The subscript means how many iodine molecules are involved with that molecule.

,What is the job of the thalamus? How about the hypothalamus- name its overall function and the functions of its 3 components

Thalamus: relay station for sensory information transmits them to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex Hypothalamus: maintains homeostasis. Also aids with the 4 F's: Feeding, flighting, fighting and fu*****g (sexual functioning) The lateral hypothalamus (LH) triggers eating or drinking *when the LH is destroyed, one LACKS HUNGER* The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) is the satiety center and signals to stop eating. *When the VentroMedial Hypothalamus is destroyed, one is Very Much Hungry. anterior hypothalamus controls sexual behavior

What is transesterification?

Treatment of an ester with an alcohol under acid catalyzed conditions (just makes a different ester based on the alkyl gruop of the alcohol).

Tubulin makes up _________, which is important for what 3 functions? Is tubulin polar? If so, which end faces the outside of the cell?

Tubulin makes up microtubules which are importnat for structure, chromosome separation in mitosis/meiosis and intracellular transport of motor proteins. Tubulin is polar with the positive end facing toward the outside.

What is turbulent flow? How does it differ from laminar flow? What is critical speed? What is the equation for critical speed

Turbulent flow is rough and disorderly, unlike laminar which is smooth and orderly. Turbulent flow causes formation of eddies which are swirls that have varying sizes Critical speed is the speed at which turbulent flow arises (think of airplane). When this speed is exceeded, laminar flow will only be found at the thin layer adjacent to the wall (the boundary layer) but the rest of it will be irregular and turbulent the reynolds number (Nr) depends on the size, shape and surface roughness of any objects within the fluid.

Do unsaturated fats contribute to fluidity? How about trans fats?

Unsaturated fats do. They decrease melting points, making them more fluid. Trans fats, however, increase melting points, so they do not make the membrane more fluid.

When cytosine degrades due to denaturation, what replaces it?

Uracil- this is why uracil is found in RNA

What is the third law of thermodynamics?

The entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero is zero.

What is a perpendicular bisector of the dipole? What is the equation to find its electric field and which way will the electric field point? What is the electric potential here?

The equipotential line that lies halfway between +q and -q. Since the angle is 90 degrees, cos 90=0 meaning that there is no electrical potential here (according to electrical potential equation (V= kqdcos⍬/ r^2). There is also not an electric potential at infinity the equation to find its electric field is pictured. The electric field will point in the opposite way of the dipole moment

Kurt Lewin coined the force field theory (humanistic perspective or personality). Define it.

The idea that the field is one's current state of mind, which is the sum of forces (influences) on the individual at that time. He does not focus on past or future, just on the human at that time

How does social capital affect social cohesion.

The less social capital a person has (reduced network equality and equality of opportunity), the more social inequality. This, in turn, decreases social cohesion.

As electrons are passed through the ETC, how will this affect the pH of the intermembrane space. How will this affect the voltage difference?

The pH of the intermembrance space, the pH will drop because a higher concentration of protons are being pumped into the space as a result of the movement of electrons. The voltage difference between the intermembrane space and the matrix will increase alsi.

Name the major positive symptoms and the major negative symptoms of schizophrenia. Name the 2 dimensions of each. How long do symptoms need to last to be considered schizophrenia?

Positive- (behaviors/thoughts ADDED to normal behaviors) There are 2 dimensions: 1. Psychotic dimension -delusions-of persecution, reference, grandeur, thought broadcasting, thought insertion -hallucinations 2. Disorganized dimension - - disorganized thought -loosening of associations, word salad, neologisms- - disorganized behavior-catatonia (motor characteristics), echolalia (repeating others words) and echopraxia (imitating another's actions). Negative- 2 dimensions: (AA- affect and avolition) 1. disturbance of affect (blunting, flat affect, inappropriate affect) 2. avolition- decrease engagement in purposeful, goal-oriented actions One symptom must be present for 6 months to be considered this.

what is the total voltage drop for resistors in series?

Vs= V1 + V2+ v3.....etc. They are additive Since V=IR, the resistances will also be additive

Define molecule. are they formed from elements of similar of different electronegativities?

a group of atoms bonded together by covalent bonds, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction. they are formed from elements of similar electronegativities because they contain covalent bonds. If they had very different electronegativities, they would contain ionic bonds, which are not considered molecules

What is inclusive fitness. How can it relate to altruistic behavior?

a measure of an organism's success in the population. Inclusive fitness promotes the idea that altruistic behavior can improve the fitness and success of the species as a whole- therefore, inclusive fitness is a possible explanation for altruism.

when a blastula undergoes gastrulation, what does it form? how does this differ for deuterostomes and protostomes?

a blastula forms a gastrula. the blastopore is the opening of this structure. In deuterostomes (humans- think of doo doo= number 2= anus), this forms an anus. In protosomes, this forms a mouth,

Describe the difference between biomedical and biopsychosocial approaches to disorders? Also, what is the difference between direct and indirect therapy?

Biomedical- assumes that disorders has roots in biomedical disturbances Biopsychosocial- disorders stem from biological (genetics/disease), psycho (feelings, emotions, thoughts) and social (environment/surroundings) Direct therapy-works with individual Indirect therapy- increase social support for patient by working with fam and friends

What do cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) do? Name the 3 major families and their differences

CAMS aid in binding the cell to the extracellular matrix or other cells. 1. cadherins- mediate calcium dependent cells. Hold similar cell types together, such as epithelial cells. 2. Integrins- has chains that bind to and communicate with the extracellular matrix. Also play role in cellular signaling, cell division, and apoptosis. Involved with WBCs. 3. Selectins- bind to carbohydrate molecules that project from other cell surfaces. Involved in WBCs.

A man, while listening to music, thinks he hears his wife laugh in the background. The man is exhibiting a. feature detection b. bottom up processing c. vestibular sense d. signal detection A man is looking for a coin in his car and sees a glint of silver. This man is exhibiting a. signal detection b. sensory adaption c. feature detection d. kinesthetic sense

D; C

What is the total ATP production after pyruvate dehydrigenase and citric acid cycle? You will need to know how many ATP's are produced for each NADH or FADH

1 NADH (PDH) and 3 NADH (TCA) x 2.5 ATP/NADH= 10 ATP + 1 FADH2 (PDH) x 1.5 = 1.5 ATP + 1 GTP= 1 ATP total: 12.5 per pyruvate= 25 ATP per glucose.

what is produced from each round of beta oxidation?

1 acetyl-CoA (uses 2 of the carbons from the fatty acid chain) (fed back into Kreb's cycle) 1 NADH- (used in electron transport) 1 FADH2 (used in electron transport)

When an antibody binds to an antigen, 1 of 3 things may occur. Name the 3 possibilities

1. neutralize the antigen to make it unable to hurt the body 2. opsonization- marks pathogen for destruction by other white blood cells 3. agglutination- clumps antigen and antibody together to be phagocytized.

What is the speed of light in a vacuum? What is the equation that realtes this to frequency and wavelength

3.00 x 10^8 m/s.

Define constancy as it relates to our perception of things.

Constancy is the idea that we perceive certain characteristics of objects to remain the same despite changes in the environment around it.

When an alpha carbon is deprotonated, it forms an carbanion. This can serve as a nucleophile to attack an elecrophile. When this carbanion attacks an alpha, beta unsaturated carbonly compound (one that has multiple bonds between the alpha and beta carbons), what is this process called?

Michael Addition

Do double and triple bonds have free rotation?

No

do prokaryotes have mitochondria

No, But their cell membrane us used for the ETC and the generation of ATP.

Do diastereomers have the same chemical properties?

No, they have different chemical properties. But, they may behave similarly since the functional groups are the same.

order these in terms of increasing electron affinity: O2, FAD, CoQ, NAD+

O2 > CoQ > FAD > NAD+

Terpenes are the precursors to __________. What are terpenes built from? Define a monoterpene, a sesquiterpenes and a diterpene.

Precursors to steroids. They are made up of isoprene. Each terpene has 2 isoprene (formula C5H8) units so a monoterpene has 2 isoprene. Sesquiterpene has 3 isoprene (1.5 terpenes) and Diterpenes have 4 isoprenes.

Define panic disorder. Which disorder can it be related to?

Recurrent panic attacks in which the onset is unpredictable and manifested by intense apprehension, fear, or terror. Often associated with fear of impending doom and accompanied by intense physical discomfort. Related to agoraphobia.

Which brain hemisphere is more active when discerning facial expressions?

Right

what is the acronym for remembering cos, sin, tan

SOH (sin⍬= O/H for ex.) CAH TOA

Why do alkenes have sp2 hybridization?

So there are 3 p orbitals. One is left unhybridized because it participates in the pi bond. One theme, for ex, the other 2 will participate in the C-H bonds.

Describe what an s orbital looks like

Sphere

Describe how to name an amide

Substituents attached to nitrogen atom are labeled with N-. These are the prefixes. The second part is the parent chain and the suffix is -amide.

Define zymogen

an inactive substance that is converted into an enzyme when activated by another enzyme. These enzymes are usually dangerous when not controlled.

Define anterograde amnesia vs retrograde amnesia

anterograde- not being able to establish new long term memories after a brain injury (think 50 first dates) retrograde- memory loss of events that happened before a brain injury

what are antibodies? define the following as they relate to antibodies: opsonization, agglutination, neutralization

antibodies (aka immunoglobulins) are produced by B-cells. opsonization: when antibodies bind to an antigen and attract other leukocytes to help phagocytize agglutination: when antibodies cause pathogens to clump together, forming insoluble complexes to be phagocytized neutralization: antibodies block the ability of the pathogen to invade tissues

bicarbonate is secreted from the pancreas. is it acidic or basic?

basic

the buffer system in blood usually uses what chemcial. also give the equation for this buffer system if the blood is too acidic, what will happen. if blood is too basic, what will happen.

bicarbonate. too acidic, increase CO2, increase heart rate, which will remove Co2 and shift buffer equation to the left so less H+. too basic: respiratoy rate slows, CO2 retained, buffer equation shits to the right and produces more H+ ions

what is the equation for determining the equilibrium constant for a reaction?

concentrations of products (raised to their stoichiometric coefficients) / concentrations of the reactants (raised to their stoichiometric coefficients. NOTE: for rates, you raise the concentrations to their order number, not the coefficients. for determining the equilibrium constant, you DO use the coefficients.

give the trends on the periodic table for the following: atomic radius ionization energy electron affinity electronegativity

electronegativity increases left to right and from bottom to top.

endochondral ossification vs intramemranous ossification

endochonral- hardening or cartilage to bone intramembranous- embryonic tissue made into bone. happens in skull.

what is the planck relation?

energy emitted as electomagnetic radiation from metter comes in bundles called quanta. the energy of a quantum is given by the planck relation

social cognition

how we think about others and how these ideas impact behavior

Fill in blank citric acid cycle. Answers are in link. Be sure to also name the enzymes that are involved. Also identify the rate limiting step, the checkpoints and what inhibitors/activators affect that checkpoint.

https://docs.google.com/document/d/1QP-fjAbDfmbkuareXcnrx_eELKn7amcQYRyb0ZfVdHY/edit

What is induction in organic chemistry?

it is the distribution of charge across sigma bonds since electrons in the bond will be more attracted to electronegative atoms. This is responsible for the dipole character of the group

What is bond order?

number of bonds between two atoms single bond= order or one double bond = order of 2

What are amacrine/horizontal cells?

receive input from multiple retinal cells in the same area, before the info is passed to the ganglion cells. They detect slight differences and are used for edge detection

what are enzyme linked receptors?

receptors that function as enzymes or are linked to enzymes- participate in extracellular ligand binding and initiation of second messanger cascades

Define shaping and how it is related to operant conditioning

the process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors. Ex: for training dog to play dead, must give a treat for laying down, then another for head on ground, then another for eyes closed.

walls of alveoli are thin or thick?

thin- only one cell. this facilitates diffusion of Co2 from blood to lungs

True of False: Conjugation and Resonance make compounds stronger

true

dissociation of strong acids and bases go to completion. true or false

true

the inactive X chromosome is one of the last to replicate. true or false

true

true or false, using adult stem cells requires treatment with various transcription factors

true

define torsional strain

when cyclic molecules must assume conformations that have eclipsed, total eclipsed or gauche interactions

What is the zeroth law of thermodynamics?

when one object is in thermal equilibrium with another (for ex a tea cup and a stirring rod) and another object is in equilibrium with the second object, then the first and third object are in thermal equilibrium. There will be no net heat flow between these objects. Heat flows between objects that are NOT in equilibrium

is work a type of energy? How about heat?

work and heat are both measures of energy transfer- they are not energy themselves

Name the 6 classifications of enzymes. Name what each one does

(LIL HOT) Oxidoreductases- catalyze redox reactions- they transfer electrons between biological molecules. Electron donor is the reductant and the acceptor is the oxidant Transferases- moves functional group from one molecule to another (kinases are a part of this group). Hydrolases- catalyze breaking of a compound into two molecules by adding water Lysase- catalyze cleavage of single molecule into 2. They do not require water as a substrate. They can also be referred to as synthases since most enzymes also catalyze the reverse of their specific reactions Isomerases- catalyze the rearrangement of bonds within a molecule (reactions between steroisomers and constitutional isomers) Ligases- catalyze addition or synthesis reactions. Think of DNA ligase

Name and describe the 4 different reinforcement schedules- describe what continuous reinforcement is. Then tell which one is the most effective and the one that is most resistant to extinction- also picture the graph associated.

****Fixed/Variable is referring to HOW OFTEN they get the reward Ratio/Interval is referring to how they go about getting the reward it by number of button presses- it is ratio. If by time- then is interval.***** *Continuous reinforcement- a fixed-ratio schedule in which behavior is rewarded each time it is performed. Fixed-Ratio: One food pellet given every 3rd time a bar is pressed. Variable-Ratio: (most effective and most resistant to extinction) Different number of button presses will give them the reward. Think VR= very rapid or very resistant- don't know which one. Fixed-Interval: The rat will get a reward only every 60 seconds Variable interval: Different lengths of time between when the rat gets the rewards

Name the Purines and how many rings they have.

1. Guamine (G) 2. Adenine (A) - Two rings

What are the products of glycolysis?

2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, 2 NADH

What is the structure of a steroid? How is the function of the steroid determined from the structure?

3 cyclohexanes, 1 cyclopentane. Oxidation status of the rings and functional groups on the rings determine the function.

What is Avogadro's number? what is it used for?

6.02 x 10^23 it is the number of particles in a mole

Define the personal construct theory. What perspective of personality does this fall into? Who coined the term?

A person is a scientist who devises and tests predictions about the behavior of significant people in his/her life. An anxious person, for ex, is not a victim of inner conflicts but is having trouble understanding variables in the environment. Coined by George Kelly.

correspondent inference theory

A theory that states that people pay closer attention to intentional behavior than accidental behavior when making attributions, especially if the behavior is unexpected. If someone intentionally hurts/helps us unexpectedly, we attribute that to their personality.

Of the adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex, which releases epi/norepi and which one releases corticosteroids/testosterone and estrogen? What is the relative location of the medulla vs the cortex?

Adrenal medulla releases api/ nor-epi. Adrenal cortex releases the others. The medulla is on the inside of the cortex of the kidney. *note: the adrenal medulla releases both testosterone and estrogen in both sexes. The gonads, however, will increase testosterone in males and estrogen in females

For a behavior to be considered aggressive is it necessary to have the intent to do harm? Does the behavior have to be physical in nature?

Aggression does not have to be the intent to do harm, it can be a behavior that increases relative social dominance. It does not have to be physical in nature- it can be physical, verbal or nonverbalfs

If aldehydes, carboxylic acids, ketones and amides are all reduced, what products will they form?

Aldehydes and carboxylic acids- primary alcohols, ketones- secondary alcohols, and amides- amines.

What occurs in the retro-aldol reaction?

Aqueous bade and heat are added to an aldol which breaks the bond between the alpha and beta carbons. This forms an aldehyde and a ketone

what is the equation for speed of sound? Define each part of the equation What is the trend to remember for determining speed of sound through a medium?

B= bulk modus, measure of the medium's resistance to compression (increses from gas to liquid to solid). p= density of the medium trend: speed will be higher with higher B. The speed is fastest in a solid with low density and slowest in a gas that is very dense think that B compresses the density meaning B is on top of p.

Color, shape and motion are detected by which respective cells? For shape and motion, comment on the spatial resolution and temporal resolution of the cells

Color- cones Shape-parvocellular cells (thing Parallelogram is parvocellular) - high spatial resolution (fine detail), but low temporal -can only work with stationary or slow moving objects Motion- magnocellular cells - low spatial resolution but high temporal.

Someone who cannot perform coordinated movements but can still walk (uncoordinatedly) probably has damage to _________.

Damage to hindbrain (cerebellum). If couldn't walk, then would have damage to spinal cord too

Parkinson's disease biological basis: (fill in balnks). Biological basis is decreased _________ production in the _____________, a layer of cells in the brain that functions that produce _________ to permit proper functioning of the _________________, which are critical for initiating and terminating movements. It can be partially managed with __________.

Dopamine Substantia nigra dopamine basal ganglia L-Dopa

In the induced fit model for enzyme-substrate binding, what part is endergonic and which is exergonic?

Endergonic- when the substrate induces a change in the shape of the enzyme. Exergonic- The release of the product from the enzyme

What is the first law of thermodynamics?

Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed.

Are waxes esters or carboxylic acids? What are the two components of waxes? Are they liquid or solid at room temp?

Esters. They have long chain fatty acids and long chain alcohols. Solid at room temp.

Define ethnocentrism. How does this relate to cultural relativism?

Ethnocentrism- evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one's own culture. Cultural relativism- perception of another culture as different from one's own but with the recognition that cultural values, mores and rules of a culture fit into that culture. Essentially, different but not inferior.

define fulcrum. Application of force at some distance from the fulcrum creates ____________. Distance between applied force and fulcrum is the________. What is the equation that relates all of these

Fulcrum: The fixed point around which a lever pivots. this is the basis for rotational motion Torque Lever arm the angle is between the lever arm and the force vectors. It will be greatest when the force is directly perpendicular (90degrees) to the lever arm.

GLUT 2 and GLUT 4 both transport glucose. How do they differ in their location, if they are stimulated by insulin and if they have high or low Km.

GLUT 2- has high Km (so low affinity) and it is found in the liver (for glucose storage) and pancreatic B-cells as part of the glucose sensor GLUT 4- found in adipose tissue in muscle. Is stimulated by insulin and has low Km (high affinity)

name the sections of the electromagnetic spectrum from highest frequency to lowest.

Gamma, X rays, UV, Visible, IR, microwave and radio

what do the german words gemeinschaft and gesellschaft refer to?

Gemeinschaft- community due to shared beliefs, ancestry, geography (think family is a gem) Gesellschaft- society due mutual self-interests working toward same goal (think s=society)

classify HCl, MGBr2, Sucrose and CH4 as electrolytes are nonelectrolyes

HCl, MgBr2 are electrolytes. the other 2 are non electrolytes

Which is better, HDL or LDL? What are the respective functions of each?

HDLs: clean up extra cholesterol from blood vessels for excretion. This is what makes them good. LDLs: Deliver cholesterol to tissues for biosynthesis

How does thyroid activity related to cholesterol in the plasma.

Higher thyroid activity= more clearance of cholesterol from plasma. (thing of dad who has low thyroid activity and therefore has high cholesterol)

If you remove 2 protons from a dicarboxylic acid, will the first one be easier or harder to remove than if you were dealing with a monocarboxylic acid? How about the second?

In a dicarboxylic acid, the first one is easy to remove. The second one would be harder than removing the first one from a monocarboxylic acid.

There are two types of conformity, internalization and identification. Define these

Internalization: changing one's behavior to fit in with a group while also privately agreeing with the ideas of the group. (Stanford prison experiment) Identification: acceptance of other's ideas without personally taking on the ideas.

What are intrusion, avoidance, negative cognitive, and arousal symptoms as they relate to PTSD? How long must these symptoms persist to be considered PTSD? If they last for less, what are they called?

Intrusion- recurrent reliving of the event (flashbacks, nightmares etc) Avoidance- attempts to avoid memories, people, and palces that are associated with the trauma negative cognitive- inability to recall things from event, negative mood, feeling distanced from others arousal symptoms- increased startle response, anxiety, self destructive behavior. PTSD is over one month. Acute stress disorder is between 3 days and 1 month.

How does a protecting group work?

It attacks the most reactive functional group, making it bulky. When this happens, the nucleophile will not attack this bulky group but instead will attack another region of the molecule.

What about the structure of ATP makes it a good energy carrier?

It has high energy phosphate bonds due to the negative charges on the phosphate groups that repel eachother.

Both kinesins and dyneins are involved with vesicle transport to the microtubule. What is each of their respective roles?

Kinesins- being vesicles toward the positive end of the microtubule, dyneins bring vesicles toward the negative end

Which side of the prefrontal cortex is involved with processing positive emotions (such as happiness)? which processes negative?

Left- postive right-negative

Why do we study lesions in animals over lesions in humans?

Lesions in human brain are rarely only in one location. It is difficult to relate an impairment to a single region. In animals, extirpation can give lesions to animals in specific locations.

Does the addition of alkyl groups to an alcohol produce more or less acidic molecules?

Less acidic. Alkyl groups donate electron density, destabilizing the negative charge.

What are molecular orbitals? Define bonding and anti bonding orbitals. Also comment on the energy and stability of these orbitals.

Molecular orbitals are formed by 2 atomic orbitals. Bonding is when the signs of the wave functions of both atomic orbitals are the same (lower energy-more stable) and anti bonding are when the signs are different (higher energy-less stable).

People such as firefighters or policeman who do not predict their daily scenarios are more or less likely to be stressed?

More likely. Unpredictability and frustration both increase stress.

How is the true electron density determined from a molecule with various resonance forms?

More stable resonance forms (ones that don't have charges or ones that form full octets on electronegative atoms) will contribute more.

In a cyclic carboxylic acid derivative, if there is more strain, are they more or less reactive to hydrolysis? Give an example of a molecule with a large amount of strain

More strain=more reactive. A beta lactam is very reactive because it has torsional strain and angle strain

Memories, over time, are moved from the _________ to the _________.

Move from hippocampus to cerebral cortex. Damage to hippocampus will not affect our long term memories like our name, our parents faces, etc.

What two compounds can be added to a carboxylic acid to form an amide? Is substitution involved?

NH2 (amine) or NH3 (ammonia). Yes, substitution is usually involved in reactions with carboxylic acids and their derivatives

negative control of transcription vs positive control

Negative: Condition where binding of a protein to a regulatory DNA sequence prevents transcription of a gene or a cluster of genes. Positive: condition where binding of a protein will encourage transcription of a gene.

Did Jung and Adler agree with Freud? Why or why not?

No, Freud believed sexual motivations were the cause of certain behavior. Adler and Jung thought social motivations were the cause.

do spontaneous reactions always go to completion?

No- they may settle into a low-energy state called equilibrium.

Are gender and sex the same thing?

No. Sex is biologically determined but gender refers to the collection of behavioral, cultural and psychological traits

Are all phospholipids also considered glycerophospholipids? Explain why.

No. There are 3 types of phospholipids. Glycerophospholipids are a subtype along with SOME sphingolipids.

magnetic fields have an impact on charged particles. are photons charged?

No. so if a photon were to be placed in an magnetic field, it would have no effect.

Define nucleotide excision repair- what enzyme does it use? Define base excision repair- what enzyme does it use? What is the key difference between the two?

Nucleotide excision repair- fixes lesions via a cut and patch process that requires excision endonuclease. Base excision repair- fixes lesions by removing the base, leaving a apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP) site. AP endonuclease removes sequence and fills it with correct bases. Nucleotide excision repair- fixes helix deforming lesions Base excision- fixes nondeforming helix lesions.

In an IR spectrum, where are the following peaks seen? Describe if they are sharp or broad.

O-H: broad, around 3300. But if it is in a carboxylic acid (like an amino acid) it will be closer to 3000. N-H: sharp, around 3300 C=O: sharp, around 1750

How is gene expression controlled in prokaryotes- Name the regions that are located on the gene that affect gene expression. How does this relate to the idea of inducible/repressible? Name the common example for each one.

Operons are inducible or repressible clusters of genes transcribed as a single mRNA. Inducible systems (lac operon) are bonded to a repressor in normal conditions, but can by turned on by an inducer bc the inducer will bind to the repressor, causing it to be inactive. Repressible systems (trp operon) are transcribed under normal conditions but can be turned off by a corepressor (2 repressors). THE INDUCIBLE AND REPRESSIBLE SYSTEMS OCCURS AT THE OPERON, and stops RNA polymerase from advancing.

What is the combined gas law equation?

P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2

How to name a compound with two hydroxyl groups?

Parent name, numerical location of groups, then -diol

What is a primary reinforcer, conditioned/secondary reinforcer and a discriminative stimulus?

Primary reinforcer- this is when classical and operant conditioning are used together. A primary reinforcer (like a dog treat for ex) is used to reward good behavior of the dog. However, it also utilizes the biological, natural response of the dog. A conditioned/secondary reinforcer would (continuing the last example) be something that accompanies the dog treat.. like the voice of the furbo dog camera. Classical conditioning is used to pair the furbo to the treat as a stimulus. A discriminative stimulus would be the trainer in an operant conditioning example. Ths presence of the discriminative stimulus indicates that a reward is possible.

Define the following as they relate to retrival clues for memorized information: priming context effects state-dependent memory/effect serial postion effect

Priming: being primed with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory-- this gives rise to speaking activation in a semantic network (look up picture if needed) context effects: Memory is aided by being in the physical location where the learning took place state-dependent memory/effect: memory will be better for info learned when in a similar mood serial position effect: appears when learning lists. Tendency to remember early and late items- such as primacy (first item) and recency (last item) effects.. but recency fades maybe due to those items still being in short-term memory.

what is the sulfate ion?

SO42-. since sulfur has 12 valence electrons, it can make 6 bonds with 4 oxygen atoms, giving an overall charge of 2.

What is the hybridization of a tetrahedron?

Sp3

Define symbolic interactionism. What is the central idea of it? Are symbols consistent across cultures.

Symbolic interactionism- the study of the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures and other symbols. The central idea is that symbols (the things to which we attach meaning) are the key to understanding how we view the world and communicate with one another. Symbols are not consistent across cultures.

As a learning stimulus is repeated, what happens to neurons?

The stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing their neurotransmitters and receptior sites on the other side of teh synapse increase, increasing receptor density. This is known as long-term potentiation.- this is the neurophysiological basis for long-term memory.

What is elongation in translation?

The tRNA with its complementary anticodon, brings the correct amino acids to the ribosome where they form a growing chain of amino acids bonded together with peptide bonds. The uncharge tRNA pauses in the E site before exiting the ribosome.

What are the three subclasses of the middle class?

Upper-middle: successful business and professional people Middle-middle: those who have been unable to achieve the upper-middle because of educational and economic short comings Lower-middle: skilled and semiskilled workers with fewer luxuries.

what does the acronym UV NO IR stand for when discussing single lenses or mirrors

Upright = virtual no image is formed when the object is focal length away IR= inverted is real

What are transverse waves? give some examples

Waves that move perpendicular to the direction of the wave movement (propagation). electromagnetic waves (visible light, microwaves, and x rays)

What is Pascal's Principle? Name the 3 important equations associated with it- the one for comparing pressure, the one for comparing volume and the one that incorporates both

When force is applied to a confined fluid, the change in pressure, is transmitted equally to all parts of the fluid remember that W=PdeltaV. thats why W= F1D1. If confused, look at equations on 123 of PM review.

draw the shapes of the following graphs: linear, parabolic, exponential and logarithmic

a linear b parabolic c exponential d logarithmic

Define stigma

a mark of disgrace associated with a particular circumstance, quality, or person based on perceived differences from the rest of society

what is it called when a system experiences a change in one or more of its properties? what happens to a system's internal energy during an isothermal process? what equation demonstrates this?

a process during an isothermal process, temperature stays the same so the change in internal energy (deltaU) is zero. U=Q-W so if U is zero, Q=W. heat added is equal to work done by system

What is a motif?

a repetitive organization of secondary structural elements (alpha helices and beta sheets)

what is a nuclear localization signal

a sequence of amino acids that signals for a protein to enter the nucleus. Nuclear proteins contain these, not a signal sequence.

What is edema? how does this have to do with lymph? what is the thoracic duct?

accumulation of fluid in the interstitium (too much hydrostatic pressure). some fluid can be taken up by lymphatic system and the lymph is taken to the central circulatory system by the thoracic duct

What are mutagens?

agents in the environment that can change DNA, like UV rays

define aldose and ketose

aldose: sugars with an aldehydes as their most oxidized group ketose: sugars with ketones as their most oxidized group

What is the empathy-altruism hypothesis?

an explanation that says individual helps another person when he or she feels empathy for that person regardless of the cost

What is fictional finalism? Who's theory is this a part of?

an individual is more motivated by his expectations of the future than by past experiences. Adler.

What are germinal centers?

antigen presenting cells and lymphocytes interact here--- think of when you are sick and your nodes get bigger. B-cells proliferate here in the germinal centers of the lymph nodes.

B cells mature in _________ and T cells mature in _____________.

bone marrow; thymus

what is the hormone released from the parathyroid called? what does it do

called parathyroid hormone. it is an antagonist to calcitonin.. it raises blood calcium levels by decreasing excretion of calcium by kidneys, increases absorption of calcium in the gut, and increases bone resorption, freeing up calcium. it also activates vitamin D, which is required for the absorption of calcium

define configurational isomers and name the 2 categories. These 2 categories can also be considered ___________.

can only change from one form to the other by breaking and reforming covalent bonds. The two categories are enantiomers and diastereomers and can also be considered optical isomers because the spatial arrangement of the groups affect the rotation of plane-polarized light.

define organic phosphates and give 3 examples

carbon containing compounds with phosphate groups. EX; ATP, GTP and DNA

What is Korsakoff's syndrome?

caused by thiamine deficiency. Marked by retrograde and anterograde amnesia and confabulation, coming up with vivid but false memories- maybe an attempt by the brain to fill in missing gaps. (ALCOHOL USE)

in double-slit diffraction, regions of constructive interference between 2 light waves appear as bright fringes (maxima) on the screen. Destructive interference appears as dark fringes (minima). What is the equation to determine the position of the dark fringes?

d sin(angle) = (n + 1/2) wavelength d= distance between two slits angle= angle between the line drawn from the midpoint between the two slits and to the the dark fringe and the normal n= integer indicating the number of the fringe wavelength= wavelength of the incident wave

schizophrenia and parkinsons are associated with what neurotransmitter

dopamine

what is the difference between dynamic and static equilibrium

dynamic: forward and reverse reactions are still occuring, but are going at the same rate static: the reactions have stopped

Short- term memory fades over the course of about what time? what is the 7+-2 rule? Where is short-term memory primarily stored--- what also can happen to short term memory at this location? What is working memory?

fades over the course of 30 seconds (without rehearsal). 7+-2 rule is the idea that short term memory can only hold about 7 items, give or take 2. Short term memory is housed primarily in the hippocampus- which also is responsible for consolidating short term memory to long term memory. Working memory (also located in hippocampus) allows us to keep a few things in our consciousness simultaneously and manipulate that info by integrating- short term memory, attention and executive function.

what is lactose made of? give the 2 monomers, the anomeric bond (alpha or beta) and the numbers (location) that the bond connects.

galactose- beta- 1,4,- glucose

what is equational division

happens in meiosis 2 because it resuts in the separation of sister chromatids without a change in ploidy. This is also what occurs in mitosis.

what two things does the stomach use to digest food?

hydrochloric acid and enzymes

Is sound a longitudinal or transverse wave?

longitudinal

Difference between nucleosides and nucleotides

nucleosides: 5 carbon sugar bonded to a nitrogen base. Nucleotides are nucleosides with one to 3 phosphate groups added

in capillaries, ________ diffuse out of blood and ________ diffuse into blood

oxygen nutrients diffuse OUT into tissues; CO2, H+ ions, urea and ammonia diffuse into blood to be released. though lungs or kidneys.

how does the acidity of the stomach compare to that of the duodenum?

pH stomach=2 and duodenum pH=8.5

What are the accessory organs of the digestive system?

pancreas, liver, gall bladder

all glands of the body (except sweat glands)are innervated by what ?

parasympathetic nervous system.

which stage of meiosis is a primary oocyte arrested? secondary oocyte?

primary oocyte- prophase 1- until puberty secondary oocyte- metaphase 2- until fertilization.

which part of the nephron does glucose reabsorption occur?

proximal convoluted tubule

which valve is responsible for pulmonary circulation and which is responsible for systemic circulation

pulmonary- polymounary valve systemic- aortic valve

what is released when phosphodiester bonds form? what happens to it after it is released?

pyrophosphate (PPi). It is then hydrolyzed to 2 inorganic phosphates

define meditation. What stage of sleep does it resemble?

quieting of mind for some purpose decreased heart rate and blood pressure on EEG resemble stage 1 sleep with theta and slow alpha waves

Rate of an SN2 reaction equation

rate=k[Nu][R-L]....... [R-L] is the substrate

What is the Michelangelo phenomenon?

self is made up of both intrapersonal self (what think about self) and interpersonal self (how others influence)

What does Edman Degradation do?

sequentially removes one residue at a time from the amino end of a peptide- determines amino acid sequencing

Where are fats absorbed?

small intestine

systole vs diastole

systole- contraction of ventricles and closure of AV valves. blood pumped out of ventricles. (makes sense, if ventricles are contracting, blood needs to move out, so semilunar must be open - meaning AV are closed. diastole- ventricles are relaxed, semilunar valves are closed, blood from atria fills ventricles so AV valves ioen.

what is the binding energy? How does this relate to the mass defect?

the bonded system of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus reside at a lower energy level than the unbonded constituents. The difference in these energies must be radiated away, and this is the binding energy. This binding energy accounts for the perceived loss of mass in a nucleus by the equation E=mc^2. where c^2 is a constant. E is the binding energy, or the energy radiated outward and mass is the mass that is "lost" from the nucleus. the mass is lost as binding energy

define adaptive value

the extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species

which is a better electrolyte- an ionic compound with one cation with +3 charge and three anions with -1 charge or an ionic compound with 2 cations with +1 charge and one anion with -2 charge

the first one because the best electrolytes are ionic compounds with high amounts of cations and anions

What is a half-life?

the half life of the sample is the time it takes for half of the sample to decay. In each half life, one half of the remaining sample decays so that the remaining is essentially zero.

what is a species also define how isolation, prezygotic mechanisms and postzygotic mechanisms are related to this.

the largest group of organisms capable of breeding to form fertile offspring. if two populations of the same species are separated and adapt to their changes, there would come a point in which they could no longer interbreed with each other. this is called isolation reproductive isolation can occur in two ways: prezygotic: a zygote will not form between the two species postzygotic: gametes will fuse but will form nonviable or sterile offspring

what is integration (in NMR) proportional to

the number of protons under the peak

What is the isoelectric point?

the pH at which the molecule is electrically neutral. All molecules exist in the zwitterion form at this time.

Define group polarization. Define the terms choice shift and risk shift as they relate to this idea.

the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than any member would have made alone. This can be in either direction, can be decisions made with more caution of decisions made with more risk. When shift toward caution, called choice shift. Toward risk- risk shift.

what does UV spectroscopy examine?

transitions between vibration energy levels by measuring absorption of ultraviolet light

in which do antinodes/nodes move? Traveling or standing wave

traveling. In standing, they stay at fixed points

Conjugation occurs in molecules with __________ p-orbitals

unhybridized

the reverse of an extraction is a ________. Define it

wash: small amount of solute that dissolves impurities is run over the compound of interest

what do ionic compounds dissolve best in

water and polar solvents

as light rays travel from one medium to another, their ___________ change.

wavelengths

define frequency summation and tetanus?

frequency summation- of a muscle fiber is exposed to frequent and prolonged stimulation, it has insufficient time to relax so contraction will be stronger and prolonger. tetanus- contractions are so frequent that muscle cannot relax at all.

To appear on a UV spectroscopy a molecule must have what? How is this significant when discussing the length of wavelengths it can absorb

have a small difference between its HOMO (highest occupied molecular orbital) and its LUMO (lowest unoccupied...). The smaller the difference, the longer wavelengths the molecule can absorb.

What is the Kinsey Scale?

heterosexual-homosexual rating scale 0 to 6. 0 is completely heterosexual while 6 is completely homosexual.

what affect does the frequency factor have on the rate of a reaction

high frequency factor increases rate of reaction because there are more collisions.

ionic bonds have (high/low) melting/ boiling points while covalent bonds have (high/low) melting/boiling points

high;low

if fertilization occurs, this will causes a secretion of what hormone?

human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which is an analog of LH which is very similar to LH. it maintains the corpus luteum which is important so that it maintains the progesterone and estrogen levels that keep the uterine lining in place. by second trimester these are no longer needed so hCG levels decline.

what happens in the sacrolemma to start initiation? then name the steps that occur after depolarization triggers an action potential in the sarcolemma of a myocyte. This is the initiation phase of muscle contraction

acetylcholine binds to receptors in the sarcolemma then sacrolemma passes action potential to T-tubules, then goes to the sacroplasmic reticulum where Ca2+ is released. this Ca2+ binds to troponin, triggering the confirmation of tropomyosin, to which tropinin is bound. This exposes the myosin-binding sites on the actin thin filament.

what is the neurotransmitter responsible for parasympathetic responses? is it released by the pregangionic, postganglionic or both?

acetylcholine. released by both.

what is attitude and what are the three components. What is the function attitudes theory and what 4 functions does is say that attitude serves?

attitude- expression of positive or negative feelings toward a person, thing or scenario. components (ABC): Affective- emotional component (affect) toward attitude- scared of snakes behavioral- way we act in response to something- jump away cognitive- way we think about something (usually the justification for the other two components)- snakes are dangerous Function attitudes theory: attitudes serve 4 functions (KEEA) Knowledge- attitude helps organize thoughts and experiences Ego expression- attitudes allow us to communicate and solidify identity (wearing hat of fav sports team) Ego defense- attitudes protect our self esteem or justify actions (someone who has difficulty with math will have a negative attitude toward it to protect self esteem) Adaption- we will be accepted if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed

define autocrine, paracribe, juxtacrine and endocrine

autocrine: signals act on the same cell that secreted the signal in the first place paracrine: signals act on cells in local area juxtacrine: do not involve diffusion, but involve a cell directly stimulating receptors of an adjacent cell. endocrine: travel through bloodstream to distant target tissue.

define atmospheric pressure vs absolute (hydrostatic) pressure. Give the equation to determine absolute pressure

atmospheric: changes with altitude. Pressure in denver is much lower than that of death valley absolute: total pressure that is exerted on an object that is submerged in a fluid Po= pressure at the surface... could be much higher than atmospheric pressure. Do not always assume that Po is atmospheric.

as depolarization spreads from the SA node, causes ______ to contract simultaneouly. once this happens, ventricles fill (activley/passively)

atria;once this occurs, ventricles fill passively

define atrioventricular vs semilunar valves

atrioventricular- separates atria from ventricles semilunar- separates ventricles from vasculature

what are the 4 core ethical tenants? How do these differ from the newer Belmont report? define morally relevant differences

beneficence, nonmaleficence, respect for autonomy and justice Belmont report discusses respect for persons (informed consent, autonomy), justice and a more inclusive version of beneficence morally relevant differences: difference that impact how care is conducted. For ex, age. A kidney will more preferably be given to a child than an elderly person. Not morally relevant are race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, etc. this is related with the justice portion of the belmont report

When does hydrogen bonding occur?

between polar molecules were an H atom is directly bonded to an N, O or F atom. The O is so electronegative that it pulls the negative charge, leaving a slightly positive charge on the H. This positive charge attracts other negative charges.

what are the 3 sections of the colon. also describe where the ileocecal valve, appendix, ascedning colon. transverse colon and descending colon are

between the ileum of the small intestine and the cecum is the ileocecal valve. the appendix comes off of the cecum.

after carbohydrates and amino acids are absorbed, where do they go? how about lipids? vitamins?

carbohydrates and amino acids are absorbed via capillaries and then go to the liver via the hepatic portal circulation lipids are absorbed and then reform into triglycerides and then are packaged into chylomicrons. these then enter the lymphatic circulation through lacteals. lacteals converge and enter venous circulation at the thoracic duct which enters into the subclavian vein. fat soluble vitamins dissolve into chylomicrons to enter lymphatic circulation. water soluble vitamins are taken up with amino acids, water, and carbohydrates across endothelial cells of small intestine directly to plasma.

Cartilage is made up of what? what is this made by. babies are mostly made of cartilage, true or false.

chondrin- made by chondrocytes. true

allergies and autoimmnity are classified as ______________ reactions. What happens during autoimmunity?

classified as hypersensitivity reactions. During autoimmunity, the immune system cannot differentiate between self and foreing and it may attack cells expressing self-antigens.

are torques that move in the clockwise position positive or negative?

clockwise=negative, counterclockwise= positive. Thing of radian circle. Moving counter clockwise is positive.

What are micelles?

clusters of bile salts that transport lipids across the cell membrane of the villi. They are water soluble spheres with a lipid-soluble interior.

define standard free energy

concentrations of solutions in the reaction are 1M. it is the free energy change that occurs when 1 mole of aa compound in its standard sates is produced from its respective elements in their standard states under standard state conditions

Define stereotype threat

concept of people being concerned or anxious about confirming a negative stereotype about one's social group ex: white males in sports, women driving. People may perform worse or avid performance all togehter.

Personality disorders are considered ego-____________ and not ego-_____________. this means that the individual perceives their behavior as correct.

considered ego-syntonic (thinking it is normal), not ego-dystonic (which is recognizing that the illness is bothersome)

what are the two supplemental energy reserves in muscle. what is oxygen debt?

creatine phosphate- takes phosphate groupf from ATP during rest. forming ATP and creatine phosphate. When ATP is needed, this can quickly be reversed to give phosphate back to ADP. myoglobin- as muscles run out of oxygen, they use myoglobin in reserves to keep aerobic metabolims going. Oxygen debt- difference between amount of oxygen needed and actual amount present

Define subculture. How does this relate to a counterculture

cultural patterns that set apart some segment of a society's population ex; gay population, women, black population. They have differentiating factors from rest of society. A counterculture is a subculture group that gravitates toward an identity that is at odds with the majority culture and purposely opposes the prevailing social mores.

How are peptide bonds broken? Does this need to be catalyzed? If so, how? Explain.

hydrolysis. This must be catalyzed in acidic or basic environments. Hydrolysis occurs by breaking the amide bond by adding a hydrogen atom to the amide nitrogen and an OH to the carbonyl carbon.

define sinusoidal waves

individual particles oscillate back and forth with a displacement that follow a sinusoidal pattern

What is the dramaturgical approach? Name the two stages. Who invented this?

individuals create images of themselves in the same way that actors perform a role in front of an audience- created by Goffman. Front stage: how we portray ourselves to others back stage: who we really are

How does histamine cause inflammation?

induces vasodilation and the movement of fluid and cells from the bloodstream into tissues

what does the depth of processing model say? How does this compare to the dual-store model?

information is transferred from short term memory to long term memory when it is processed at deeper levels of analysis.

hypodermis is the (outer inner or middle) layer. define it.

inner layer. connects skin to rest of body. contains fat and fibrous tissue.

Define internal/external locus of control

internal- people believe they control their own fate external- events in life are caused by luck or outside influences.

In animals, what is the difference between intraspecific communication and interspecific communication

intra- within own species inter- between species

what is intracellular digestion vs extracellular digestion?

intracellular: is a part of metabolism. it involves the oxidation of glucose and fatty acids for energy extracellular digestion: involves the alimentary canal which runs from mouth to anus

digestion involves the breakdown of the following organic molecules: starches/ carbohydrates, lipids (fats) and proteins. What is each broken in to? what is the difference between mechanical and chemical absorption? what is absorption?

digestion breaks starches carbohydrates into monosaccharides. lipids/fats are broken into free fatty acid and glycerol. proteins are broken into amino acids mechanical: physical breakdown. does not involve breaking chemical bonds chemical: enzymatic cleavage of chemical bonds absorption: transport of products of digetion from the digestive tract to the circulatory system for distribution into body cells and tissues

what is the difference between electric potential energy and electric potential. How is electric potential changed when there is a positive source charge? Negative?

electric potential is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of a charge's electric potential energy to the magnitude of the charge itself. Electric potential for a positive source charge will be positive. For a negative source charge, it will be negative Electric potential V is measured in volts (V)

what is the difference between electronic geometry and molecular geometry? which one is based on the coordination number? define coordination number

electronic: spatial arrangement of all pairs of electrons around the central atom (both bonding and lone pairs) molecular: spatial arrangement of only the bonding pairs of electrons. coordination number is relevant in molecular geometry, which is the number of atoms that surround and are bonded to the central atom. look at pg 93 in chm if confused

what is gamma decay

emission of gamma rays. they carry no charge and just simply lower the energy of the parent nucleus without changing the mass number of the atomic number. Notice how A and Z stay the same

Define the 5 types of social support: emotional esteem material/tangible informational network

emotional- listening, affirming and empathizing with someone's feelings esteem support- touches more directly on affirming the qualities and skills of the person material/tangible- financial or material contribution to someone informational support- providing information that will help someone network support- gives person a sense of belonging (phyically, group gestures, shared experiences)

how does lechatliers principle apply to temperature and enthalpy?

enthalpy: the heat in a reaction. if the reaction is endothermic, heat is needed as a reactant. if the reactant is exothermic, heat is produced as a product when heat is added and it is a reactant, the reaction will proceed toward the right. if heat is added and its a product, the reaction will proceed toward the left when heat is taken away and its a reactant, the reaction will proceed toward the left. when heat is taken away and its a product, the reaction will proceed toward the right

What are Covalently Modified Enzymes

enzymes can be activated or deactivated by phosphorylation or dephosphorylation Can also be modified by covalent attachment of sugar groups (glycosylation)

Name the carboxylic acid derivatives

esters, amides, anhydrides

Difference between nationality and ethnicity

ethnicity is an identity into which we are born- ancestry, cultural heritage and language are all factors. Nationality is based on political borders- shared history, media, cuisine, national symbols. Nationality is not tied to ethnicity or citizenship.

What is Hund's rule?

every orbital in a subshell is singly occupied with one electron before any one orbital is doubly occupied, and all electrons in singly occupied orbitals have the same spin.

the constant R applies to liquids and gases. True or false

false- only gases.

true or false: electric field lines move from lower electric potential to higher electric potential

false. electric field points in the direction that a positive charge would move. these move in a direction of lower electric potential.

natural selection is equivalent to evolution. true or false

false. it is a mechanism for evolution. it is equivalent to survival of the fittest

true of false, a lewis structure with large formal charges is preferred over a lewis structure with small formal charges

false. small charges= more stable= preferred.

when considering rate of a reaction, you only consider the concentrations of the products. true or false.

false. you only consider the concentrations of the reactants.

liquids will flow faster through __________ tubes and slower through _____________.

faster through small tubes and slower through large tubes. this is described by the equation A1V1= A2V2

kidneys filter, secrete and reabsorb. define each of these

filtration: movement of solutes from blood to filtrate at glomerulus (bowman's capsule)- must be small solutes like monosaccharides or amino acids secretion: movement of solutes from blood to filtrate anywhere besides Bowman's capsule reabsorption: movement of solutes from filtrate to blood.

how does a titration differ for a monoprotic acid compared to a diprotic acid?

for a monoprotic acid, only one equivalent of base is needed to neutralize the acid. for a diprotic acid, 2 equivalents of base are needed.

the electron configurations for copper and chromium are slightly different. name these exceptions.

for chromium, the configuration should be [Ar] 4s2 3d4 but hunds rule allows that one of the 4s electrons is moved to 3d so it is half full so the configuration is 4s1 3d5. for copper, same idea. the configuration should be [Ar] 4s2 3d9 but hunds rule allows that it can be 4s1 and 2d10

if asked to find amount of heat (q) between phases, what is the best approximation for this number?

for the first part (when the substance is not in a phase change), use q=MCAT. the heat when it is undergoing phase change is q=mL(heat of vap). so, between phases will be higher than q=MCAT but lower than q=MCAT + mL.

What structure links the endocrine and nervous systems and regulates the hormonal function of the pituitary gland?

The hypothalamus

What does hematopoiesis mean?

formation of blood cells (red and white) and platelets.

define social constructionism

how individuals put together their social reality- these depend on the society itself so they are subject to changes as social norms and opinions develop over time.

temperature is controlled by what structure

hypothalamus

is pressure higher or lower in up air? how about water?

in air: pressure is lower. in water: pressure is higher

how is the length and area of an axon related to the speed of the action potentials moving along them? which has more of an effect

increased length= higher resistance and slower conduction greater cross sectional area - faster propogation due to decreased resistance. ***area has a greater effect.

even though the primary function of the ______ is to absorb water, a lot more water is absorbed in the _______.

large intestine; small intestine

Define recrystallization

purification process used to remove impurities from organic compounds that are solid at room temp

Equation for the rate of an SN1 reaction

rate= k[R-L]. R-L is an alkyl group containing a leaving group.

for a reversible reation, the Keq is equal to what ratio?

ratio between the rate of the forward reaction (k) and the rate of the reverse reaction (k-1)

what is a ray diagram? what are the three important things it will allow you to quickly evaluate on test day?

real vs virtual inverted vs upright magnified vs reduced

what do steroids/ corticoids and mast cell stabilizers do?

reduce inflammation (remember mono)

when the first oxygen binds to a heme group, it shifts to is _______ form. after saturated, when one is removed, it shifts to a _______ form.

relaxed. this increases hemoglobins affinity for oxygen. when one leaves, shifts into tense state, decreasing the affinity for oxygen.

sensory neurons bring info from the periphery and enter the __________ (dorsal/ ventral) side of the spinal cord. the cell bodies of these neurons are found in the ______________. motor neurons exit the spinal cord on the ______ (dorsal.ventral) side.

sensory enters dorsal side. found in the dorsal root ganglia. motor neurons exit on the ventral side.

What is the pathway for a stimulus to reach conscious perception

sensory receptor --> afferent neuron --> sensory ganglion ---> spinal cord ----> brain (projection areas)

what is the tool used in the process of extraction

separatory funnel

there are three modes of selection: stabilizing selection, directional selection and disruptive selection. define each. to which one do polymorphisms, adaptive radiation and niche come from?

stabilizing: keeps phenotypes within a specific range. for example, birth weights. it is advantageous for these to be not too bid or too small directional: emergence of an extreme phenotype, like resistance to a certain bacteria disruptive: two extreme phenotypes are selected over he norm. for ex, finches had either very large beaks or very small. this type of selection is facilitated by polymorphisms which are naturally occuring differences that occur in the same population. adaptive radiation describes the rapid rise of number of species from a common ancestor. a niche is the specific environement for which a species is adapted

fundmental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition, especially in negative contexts.

what is the difference between Kp and Kc

they are essentially the same. Kc is equilibrium constant and Kp is the equilibrium constant for gases (measured in partial pressure).

Define a tertiary structure? How do they form (what bonding. interactions occur)? What are the intermediate states called when forming the tertiary structure.

it is the 3D shape of the protein. Mostly determined by hydrophilic/hydrophobic interactions (hydrophobic want to be in middle, hydrophilic on outside). Can also be detemrined by hydrogen bonding and acid-base interactions. Intermediate states are called molten globules.

define glycoside formation

it is the basis for building complex carbohydrates and requires the anomeric carbon to link to another sugar. These links can then form disaccharides and polysaccharaides

Match the phrase with the psychologist: 1. Freud 2. Jung 3. Adler 1. Person's behavior determined by archetypes 2. Motivated by superiority 3. inborn instincts.

1 and 3 2 and 1 3 and 2

What is the respiratory quotient? A respiratory quoteint of 1.0 is indicative of the metabolism of _________. 0.8-0.9 is indicative of ______. 0.7 is indicative of ________.

1.0- carbohydrates 0.8-0.9- amino acids 0.7- lipids.

how much s character does an sp3, sp2 and sp orbital have

25%, 33% and 50%

normal range of pH in blood.

7.35-7.45. if above this, alkalemia. if below, acidemic.

What is a dipole? when solving a dipole problem with a distant point in space, what is the equation used? Also what is the equation for dipole moment?

A dipole results from two equal and opposite charges being separated a small distance from each other. Looks like barbell V= kqdcos⍬/ r^2 Dipole moment (p); p= q(charge) x d (separation distance)

Define agoraphobia. What other disorder can it be related to?

A fear of being in places or situations from which escape might be difficult or in which help might not be available in the event of suddenly developing a panic attack. Uncomfortable leaving home. Related to panic disorder.

What is binary fission? Does it produce genetic variability?

A form of asexual reproduction seen in prokaryotes. Proceeds much quicker than mitosis Does not produce variability

What is the name of a molecule that has chiral centers and a line of symmetry through it?

A meso compound.

Define drive. What is a primary drive? What is homeostasis controlled by? What is a secondary drive? What is drive reduction theory

A neural state that energizes and directs behavior to acquire a particular biological need to survive or reproduce. Does not require external factors to promote it. Primary drives are need for food, water and warmth so we can maintain homeostasis- controlled by negative feedback loops. Secondary drives stem from learning- love, achievement, aggression. Drive reduction theory is that motivation is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfy states.

attribute substitution

A phenomenon observed when individuals must make judgements that are complex but instead substitute a simpler solution or perception. (look up examples pg 386 if confused)

Define gentrification

A process of converting an urban neighborhood from a predominantly low-income renter-occupied area to a predominantly middle-class owner-occupied area.

Tell the relationship between the terms: assimilation, schema, accomadation and adaption according to Piaget's theory.

A schema is how we learn to organize patterns of behavior. A schema can be a concept (what is a dog?), a behavior (what to do when asked your name?) or a sequence of events ( what do we do in a sit down restaurant?). New info is then processed through adaption. Part of a adaption is 2 concepts: assimilation (how we classify info into existing schemata) and accommodation (how existing schemata are modified to encompass this new info).

For gene expression in eukaryotes, how are signal molecules, transcription factors, response elements, enhancers and promoters related?

A signal molecule binds to its corresponding transcription factor. This transcription factor binds to the response element on the enhancer. Since the enhancer is located further upstream than the promoter, DNA must hairpin loop to bind the enhancer and the promoter together so the promoter can read the info that the enhancer has to offer.

define chiral and achiral

its mirror image cannot be superimposed on the original object. Meaning it lacks plane of symmetry. It has 4 different substituents Achiral objects' mirror images can be superimposed. ex: a fork

Cyclic esters are called what? How to name these.

lactones.

how do the following impact feeding behavior? ADH glucagon aldosterone leptin cholecystokinin ghrelin

ADH and aldosterone increase thirst glucagon (from pancreas) and ghrelin (from stomach and pancreas) increase hunger leptin and cholecystokinin increase satiety

what are the three hormones involved in water homeostasis (AAA). Name what they do and where they are from

ADH- from hypothalamus but released from posterior pituitary. increase uptake of water in kidneys, which increases blood volume and DECREASES blood osmolarity Aldosterone- from adrenal cortex. increases blood volume but no effect on osmolarity because causes reabsorption of water and salt Atrial Natriuretic peptide (ANP)- from heart,decreases blood volume. No effect on osmolarity.

Which enzyme harnesses the energy from the proton motive force?

ATP synthase.

Are acids more like nucleophiles or electrophiles. What is the acronym you created to remember this?

Acids are more like electrophiles. AEBN. An egg breaks nicely. Bases are more like nucleophiles.

Name and describe the 3 theories of dreaming

Activation-synthesis: dreams are causes by random activation of neural circuitry- consists of pieces of memories, desires, etc Problem solving dream theory- dreams are a way to solve problems when sleeping Cognitive process- dreams are a sleeping counterpart of stream of consciousness, just like when awake.

Instinct theory aims to explain ___________. What are instincts?

Aims to explain motivation based on evolutionarily programmed instincts. Instincts are innate fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli.

what happens to the axial and equitorial bonds when the cyclohexane chair flips?

All axial groups become equitorial and all equitorial become axial. But all dashes remain dashes and all wedges remain wedges.

How is an alpha helix held together? How about a beta sheet?

Alpha helix- a peptide chain coils clockwise and is held together by intermolecular hydrogen bonds between a carbonyl oxygen atom and the amide hydrogen from 4 residues down the chain. Alpha helices are found in keratin. A beta sheet forms between the carbonyl oxygen of one chain and the amide hydrogens from ANOTHER chain. Beta sheets are found in fibroin. Hint: both are formed from hydrogen bonds between amide hydrogens and the carbonyl oxygen. But Alpha is within the same chain and beta involves two chains.

describe what an E compound looks like vs a Z compound.

An E compound is one when the 2 highest priority groups are on E-posite (opposite sides). A Z compound is when the 2 highest priority groups are "zhe same side".

What is in cluster B of personality disorders?

B? NAH.

What is in cluster C of personality disorders?

C-ADO (cado)

Alkanes have what chemical formula? (carbons and hydrogens)

CnH(2n+2)

Draw the structure of 2- propanol and also give its common name.

Common: isopropyl alcohol.

What is needed when alcohols are converted to carboxylic acids or secondary alcohols converted to ketones using Jones oxidation (3 things)

CrO3, acetone and H2SO4

What is the dual-coding theory?

Created by Paivio. You can enrich encoding with both semantic and visual codes, since both could lead to recall (more likely to remember information if it's linked to several stimuli).

for a series circuit, the current through the circuit is the ________ (same/different). The voltage at each resistor is _______ (same/different). What is the equation used to calculate these?

Current through the circuit is constant. To determine this, use V=IR and use the supplied voltage and the total (additive) resistances. The voltage at EACH resistor will depend on the different resistance values x the constant current running through.

name the brush border enzymes and where they are located

located in the duodenum. they include maltase (digests maltose), isomaltase (digests isomaltase), lactase (digests lactose), sucrase (digests sucrose) aminopeptidase (removes N-terminal amino acid from a peptide) and dipeptidases (cleave the peptide bonds of dipeptides to release free amino acids).

simplify log (nX10^m)

log(n) + log (10^m) = m + log (n) = m + 0.n . (MEMORIZE- very good rule to use) also, n must be between 0 and 10 (bc in scientific notation form in problem on other side of card). If n is closer to 1, then logn is closter to 0. If n is closer to 10, the closer log n will be to 1. so log n x 10^m will be approxomately equal to m + 0.n

simplify/solve the follow equations logA1 logAA log A x B log (a/b) log A ^ B log 1/A

logA1= 0 logAA=1 log A x B= log A x log B log (a/b) = log A - log B log A ^ B= B log A log 1/A= -logA

usually the larger the animal, the ________ (longer/shorter) the gestational period.

longer

What is agnosia?

loss of ability to recognize objects, persons, sounds, shapes, or smells

what is cataplexy? in what type of disease does it occur?

loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours due to emotional trigger. Occurs in narcolepsy

do esters have higher or lower boiling points than carboxylic acids

lower because they lack hydrogen bonding

what are lysosomes? Define endosomes and autolysis as they related to lysosomes

lysosomes- membrane-bound structures that can break down substrates. Surrounded by single membrane They usually work with endosomes (which transport, package and sort cell material travelling to and from the membrane) and transport materials to the golgi, cell membrane or the lysosomal pathway for degradation autolysis is when lysosomes release their hydrolytic enzymes, resulting in apoptosis

when analyzing a resultant vector, what equation allows you to find the magnitude of the vector? What allows you to find the direction?

magnitude: pythagorean theorem to find the direction (angle ⍬), use ⍬=tan-1 (Ry/Rx)

the Rh factor is sometimes referred to as ____. does it need one or two copies for it to be expressed

D. needs only one copy.

What is the tautomer of an imine?

Enamine.

fluid vs crystallized intelligence. Define these. At what age do each peak?

Fluid- problem solving skills. Peaks in early adulthood Crystallized- use of learned skills and knowledge. Peaks in middle adulthood.

what equation is coulomb's law similar to?

Gravitational force equation

the stomach secretes 6 products. Name them.

HCl, pepsinogen (converted to pepsin by HCl), mucus (protects mucosa), bicarbonate (protects mucosa), water (dissolves and dilutes digested material) and intrinsic factor (required for B12 absorption).

how does temperature affect resistance?

Higher temperature increases resistance

What is a fisher projection? What do the horizontal and vertical lines mean in terms of the 3D representation of the compound? Are horizontal and vertical lines dashes or wedges?

Horizontal: Bonds coming out from the plane, which are wedges (HOW) Vertical: Lines that go into the plane, which are dashes (VID)

Hypnagogic ns hypnopompic hallucinations

Hypnagogic- occuring when GOing to bed Hypnopompic- occur when POpping out of bed.\

In naming organic compounds, Which of the following prefixes are ignored when alphabetizing and why: n-, iso, tert- (or t-), cyclo- and neo-.

Ignored when alphabetizing: n-, tert- (t-). Iso-, cyclo- and neo- are not ignored because they are modifiers. You can also tell because these prefixes are not hyphenated when in the name of an organic compound. N- and tert-, however, are hyphenated and are subsequently not included when alphabetizing.

describe an irreversible process in heat transfer

natural processes that occur when a hot object transfers heat to a cold object til they reach a common temperature. These are irreversible because the originally hot object would not all of a sudden be hot again.

What is the equation for specific rotation and why do we need it? Name the units for each part of the equation.

need it to standardize rotations measured at different concentrations and tube lengths

what is a negative skewed distribution vs a positive skewed distribution. draw them out. What does this mean for the placement of the median and mean?

negative skewed (left skewed)has a tail going in the negative direction. the mean is lower than the median (think about how mean is influenced by outliers-- makes sense) positive skewed (right skewed) has a tail going in the positive direction. the mean is higher than the median.

What are mirror neurons? What is modeling?

neurons that fire when an individual performs an action, or when an individual observes an action. Located in frontal and parietal lobes- play role in imitative learning Modeling; people learn behaviors by watching others perform them

What is the -SH group attached to CoA-SH (for ex) called? What is noteworthy about an -SH group?

It is a thiol. When this bond is hydrolyzed, it releases a significant amount of energy, which can drive the citric acid cycle forward.

what is the difference between electric potential called and what is the equation for it.

It is called the potential difference, known as voltage. Delta V= Vb- Va= Wab/q Wab= the work needed to move a test charge q through an electric field from point a to point b.

What are natural killer cells?

Large granular lymphocytes, target cells that lack "self" cell-surface receptors. Induce apoptosis in cancer cells and virus infected cells. Secrete potent chemicals that enhance the inflammatory response.

What is the primary component in cell membranes?

Lipids/ phospholipids

what is penetrance and expressivity

penetrance- proportion of the population with the given genotype who actually express the phenotype. High penetrance means that most of those with the allele show symptoms of the allele. expressivity- varying phenotypes despite identical genotypes. If constant expressivity, then all individuals with the genotype have same phenotype. If variable, then different phenotypes possible.

Social cognitive theory and observational learning are similar in that they both suggest____________. This tendency, along with consideration of influence of personal factors and the environment in which we observe the behavior make up what model?

people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behavior of others. These 3 factors make up the model called Bandura's triadic reciprocal causation. All of these factors influence each other (hence they are reciprocal).

Specifically in the organ or corti, swaying of hair cells (sterocilia) cause the ________ of ion channels, which cause a receptor potential.

opening

What is the difference between material and symbolic culture. How do these relate to a culture lag?

Material: meaning of objects in a given society- like artifacts, jewelry, art, food, etc. Symbolic: ideas that represent a group of people- like mottos, songs, catchphrases, themes (life, liberty, pursuit of happiness). Contains cognitive and behavioral components. A culture lag is when symbolic change is slower to change than material culture. Ex: US is becoming much more social media orietned, but we are still coined as being individualistic. This may change in near future.

most peptide and amino acid derivative hormones end in ______ while most steroid hormones end in _________.

peptide/AA derivative: -in or -ine (thyroxine, insulin, etc.) steroid: -one,-ol, -oid. (testosterone, aldosterone, cortisol, glucocorticoids).

What are the top 3 countries from which immigrants have come to america?

Mexico, Caribbean and india

Highest priority groups are the most or least oxidized?

Most oxidized

Are the E and Z forms of the same molecule enantiomers?

NO. They are diastereomers because they are NOT mirror images.

What is in cluster A of personality disorders?

PSS

Name the compound when an alcohol is attached to an aromatic ring

Phenol

What are plasmids? How do they related to virulence factors and episomes?

Plasmids are small loops of extra DNA that aren't part of the chromosome. Plasmids contain genes for things like drug resistance and can be passed between bacteria. They are not necessary for the survival of the prokaryote. They can also carry virulence factors (traits that increase pathogenicity such as toxin production, projections that allow certain attachment to certain cels or features that allow evasion of the host's immune system. Episomes are capable of integration into the genome of the bacterium.

Polycistronic vs monocistronic mRNA- what is the difference? Which is seen in prokaryotes? Eukaryotes? For the one that is monocistronic, how do they increase variability of gene products?

Polycistronic- seen in prokaaryotes. Transcription can start at difference sides within the gene to lead to different products. Monocistronic- seen in eukaryotes. To get variability, eukaryotes perform alternative splicing (combining different exons in a modular fashion to acquire different products).

How to name hydroxyquinones?

Position of hydroxyl group is indicated by a number. If there is more than one, use di-, tri-, etc. with the substituent name "hydroxy"

Define a primary structure and the technique that is used to determine it.

Primary- linear chain, sequencing technique.

A common reason for natural memory loss is interference. Describe the two kinds of interference.

Pro-active interference: old info is interfering with new info-- so used to old info is hard to remember the new one. Retrograde interference: new info causes forgetting of old info. Teachers forget students names from last year when they get new students.

describe the difference between the DNA polymerase used in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Prokaryotes- DNA polymerase 3. Eukaryotes- DNA polymerase alpha, delta, epsilon

difference between race and ethnicity. What is symbolic ethnicity?

Race = social fact based on physical difference Ethnicity = Culturally constructed differences racial identities are always on display whereas ethnicity is not. Symbolic ethnicity is .a specific connection to one's ethnicity in which ethnic symbols and identity remain importnat, even when ethnic identity does not play a significant role in everyday life. Ex: irish people may only really celebrate irishness on st.patricks day.

Define saltatory conduction.

Rapid transmission of a nerve impulse along an axon, resulting from the action potential jumping from one node of Ranvier to another, skipping the myelin-sheathed regions of membrane. This increases the conduction velocity of action potentials without needing to increase the diameter of an axon.

what is the rate law? How do you determine the overall order of a reaction? can orders of a reaction be determined by stoichiometric coefficients?

Rate = k[A]^x[B]^y (A and B are REACTANTS. concentration of products are not considered in the rate law expression, only in the equilibrium constant expression). k= rate constant x= order with respect to A y= order with respect to B the overall order of an equation is the orders of A and B added together no, they can not. They must be determined experimentaly unless they are a single-step mechanism

Gene therapy, southern blotting and DNA repair all use what kind of protein to facilitate their action?

Restriction endonucleases

What is self-concept? How about self-schema? Contrast these with identity?

Self-concept: how we answer the question who am i?. It also includes our eval of who we used to be and who we will be. Self schema: a self given label that implies certain qualities about us. Ex: athlete. Meaning you dress athletically, act in a certain way, and are probably in good shape. Identity are the individual components of our self-concept that relate to the groups we belong to. Your self-concept is broad, and is inclusive of all of your different identities. The term identity is used only a specific group. Identities may be different in different social situations.

difference between semantic memory and semantic networks

Semantic memory= long-term memory that refers to the recall of facts Semantic networks= associations of similar concepts in the mind to aid retrieval.

Is there a difference in voltage at each resistor in series circuits? How about in parallel circuits? Is there a difference in resistance at each resistor in series circuits? How about parallel circuits? Is there a difference in current at each resistance in series circuits? How about parallel circuits?

Series circuits, the voltage is different at each resistor. Calculated by V=IR where I is a constant current that runs through the circuit. Parallel circuits, the voltage is constant at each resistor because all currents start at a common point and end at a common point. V1= V2= V3, etc. Series circuits, the resistance at each resistor can be different. Same for parallel. Series circuits: the current at each resistor is the same. Parallel circuits: the current at each resistor is different.

Name good reducing agents

Sodium, magnesium, aluminum, zinc

what is differential reproduction what is inclusive fitness what is punctuated equilibrium

Some members of a species may reproduce more successfully than others in the population leading to more offspring being produced by some members of the population than by others. inclusive fitness is a measure of an organisms success in the population based on the number of offspring, success in supporting offspring and ability of offspring to support others punctuated equilibrium: changes in a species occur in bursts, not evenly over time

Define the following components of social perception: - perceiver -target - situation How does the primary effect and the recency effect play into this perception?

perceiver- influenced by experiences, motives, and emotional state target- refers to the person about which the perception is made situation- important in developing perception. A social context can help the perceiver determine what information is available. The primary effect- the idea that first impressions are often more important than subsequent impressions because the first perception of the perceiver is going to determine how they see the rest of the clues The recent effect- sometimes, the most important information for our impressions is the most recent info.

define Law of Pragnanz

perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible- governs the gestalt principles

on the periodic table, periods are ___________ and groups/ families are _________. Elements in the same __________ share similar chemical properties. why?

periods are rows, groups/families are columns. elements in same group or family have similar chemical properties due to their valence electrons. Valence electrons are at the highest energy so they determien the chemical reactivity of the element

Difference between steroid and steroid hormones?

Steroid is the structure (3 cyclohexane rings, 1 cyclopentane ring). Steroid hormone are steroids that act like hormones (secreted from endocrine glands, travel far, bind to high affinity receptors and alter gene expression levels).

Name the 2 ways to synthesize an amino acid

Strecker synthesis and Gabriel Synthesis

when an aldehyde is treated with a ___________ (strong/weak) base, a carbanion is formed.

Strong base. Must be able to deprotonate the alpha carbon.

Deprotonation of the alpha carbon is performed by _________. Give examples.

Strong bases: -OH, LDA and KH.

What is suburbanization and how does it relate to urban decay/renewal? What drives urban renewal?

Suburbanization is the migration pattern of the middle class to suburban communities as they are cleaner, have lower crime rates and have better school systems. This exposes the disadvantaged groups to remain in urban centers under poor living conditions. Urban decay is when the city deteriorates over time. Urban renewal, however, is the reverse process of this in which city land is reclaimed and renovated for public or private use. Urban renewal is driven by gentrification: when upper and middle class populations begin to purchase and renovate neighborhoods in deteriorated areas, displacing the low SES population

What functional groups will reagents tend to act on if they are not protected?

The highest priority ones (remember CAEAAKA)

What is an oxidation state? What is the most oxidized compound? Most reduced?

The hypothetical charge than an atom would have if all bonds were completely ionic. Co2 is most oxidized and with ox state of +4. CH4 is most reduced with -4.

What is the world system theory? What are core nations, peripheralnations and semi-peripheral nations?

The world system thoery categorizes countries and emphasizes the inequalities of the division of labor at the global level. core nations- focus on higher skills and higher paying products Peripheral nations- lower-skilled productions Semi-peripheral: in the middle

What are Jung's 4 dichotomies of personality? What were these later used to create

Used to create the Myers-Briggs Type Inventory. (which is a type theory)

What is LeChatelier's Principle?

When stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the system will respond in such a way to relieve the stress.

when as system is closed, the change in internal energy is the result of ______ or ________.

Work or heat. If it is a biological system however, the pressure and volume stay the same so no work can be done!

what is the equation to express the emitted decay particle that results from radioactive decay

X is the parent nucleus Y is the daughter nucleus B is the emitted decay particle (this is specifically showing beta decay)

For expressing something coming out of page vs something going into page, do you use X's or O's

X= going into page. O= coming out of page

comparing the beginning of the loop of henle to the end of it, what has happened to the volume of filtrate.

a lot of water in the filtrate has been reabsorbed, so the volume of the filtrate has been reduced (the interstitium chooses to retain more water).

if a transcript is inserted into a cell, does this mean that it is DNA or RNA?

a transcript is RNA.

What is an apoenzyme? Holoenzyme?

apoenzyme- enzyme without its cofactors. holoenzyme- enzyme with its cofactors

concave mirrors are (converging/diverging mirrors) and convex mirrors are (converging/diverging mirrors)

concave- converging. After they reflect, the light converges convex- diverging. After they reflect, the light diverges

BCA assay, Lowry reagent assay, Bradford protein assay all determinne the activity levels of a protein by analyzing protein ________________.

concentration

when amides, esters and anhydrides react with a carboxylic acid, what type of reaction is this?

condensation because 2 molecules become 1 and a small molecule is lost. It is also considered a dehydration reaction because a water is lost.

Define dipeptides, tripeptides, oligopeptides and polypeptides.

dipeptides- has two amino acid residues (resides is just another name for amino acid subunits) tripeptides- 3 amino acids oligopeptides- a few amino acids... up to 20. polypeptides- more than 20.

In the presence of water, aldehydes and ketones react to form ______________. This is called a ___________ reaction.

geminal diols; hydration reaction

Difference between personality and identity

identity is who we are, personality is how we act and react to the world around us.

what are the two types of frameshift mutation?

insertion and deletion

what is isotopic notation

mass number = A= protons and neutrons atomic number = Z = protons

what germ layer does the notochord pertain to?

mesoderm

difference between osmotic and oncotic pressure

osmotic: sucking pressure that draws water into the vasculature caused by all dissolved particles oncotic: osmotic pressure that is attibutable to dissolved proteins specifically (similar concepts).

What is theory of mind? when this is developed, we rely on our friends opinions of use to show something about ourselves back to ourselves, this term is called ___________. A related idea is the concept of reference group, which is the concept that _________________.

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict. We can recognize and react to how others think about us. This effect on how we percieve ourselves is called looking-glass self. Reference group is the concept that our self concept often depends on who we are comparing ourselves to.

our perception of the frequency of sound is called _________. What are infrasonic and ultrasonic waves?

pitch Humans can detect 20Hz- 20000 Hz infrasonic: sound waves with frequencies below 20 Hz untrasonic: sound waves with frequencies above 20000 Hz.

How is a clot broken down?

plasminogen -> plasmin -> fibrin breakdown

diatomic molecules will have a purely equal distribution of electrons because they have they same electronegativities (same element). wht are the 7 diatomic molecules

pneumonic: brinklhof Br, I, N, Cl, H, O, F

Difference between polygany, polyandry, and promiscuity.

polygany- male has relationships with many females polyandry- female has exclusive relationships with many males (thing laundry is something that a female would do) promiscuity- one member of one sex mating with member of the other sex without exclusivity.

Gestalt principles are the ways for the brain to infer missing parts of the picture- define the following principles: proximity similarity good continuation subjective countours closure

proximity- elements close to eachother are perceived as a unit similarity- similar objects tend to be grouped together. In the picture, we group the small dots and the triangle of dots. good continuation- elements that follow in the same pathway tend to be grouped together subjective contours- perceiving shapes that are not actually present in the stimulus closure- we fill in the gaps when things arent quite complete

The Na+/K+ ATPase pumps out _____Na+ for every _____ K+ in. It maintains a low concentration of Na+ and a high concentration of K+.

pumps out 3 Na for every 2 K in.

what is a mole? what is the mass of a mole of a compound?

quantity of a substance (anything) equal to the number of particles found in 12 grams of carbon-- referred to as avogadros numner (6.022 x 10^23). a mole of a compound has a mass in grams (called molar mass) equal to the molecular or formula weight in amu. ex: h2co3 has a mass of 62 amu. one mol of this compound will have a mass of 62 grams.

what does the nucleolus part of the nucleus do?

rRNA is synthesized. It takes up about 25 percent of the nucleus (darker spot in the nucleus)

what is the collision theory of chemical kinetics

rate of reaction is proportional to the number of collisions per second between the reacting molecules.

What causes vomiting (emesis)?

reverse peristalsis in the esophagus

in reduced illumiation, rods are more useful because they allow sensation of light or dark because they contain the pigment _________.

rhodopsin.

define selective transcription? how is it related to induction?

selective transcription: genes are transcribed for the genome as they relate to that specific cell type. induction: ability of one group of cells to influence the fate of nearby cells.

Name the NMR values for the Hydrogens attached to these groups: sp3 hybridized carbons sp2 sp aldehyde carboxylic acid aromatic

sp3: 0-3 sp2: 4.6-6 sp: 2-3 aldehyde: 9-10 carboxylic acid: 10.5-12 aromatic: 6-8.5

does a spontaneous reaction occur quickly or slowly

spontaneity does not have anything to do with speed

what are conformational isomers?

stereoisomers (same connectivity) that are at different points on their natural rotation of single bonds

What prevents the alveoli from collapsing?

surfactant- reduces surface tension at the alveolar surface.

immovable joints are fused together to form _______. found in head primarily

sutures.

What is the hypophyseal portal system?

system of blood vessels in the brain that connects the hypothalamus with the anterior pituitary. Hypo= hypothalamus (sleep, hunger, thirst, circadian) and phys= physical growth (anterior pituitary causes this)

what is the difference between systematic error and random error. how can a random error be fixed?

systematic error- use of an inaccurate tool that produce erroneous results random error- difficult to avoid, usually overcome by large sample size.

Define the following receptors: photoreceptors hair cells nociceptors thermoreceptors osmoreceptors olfactory receptors taste receptors

photoreceptors- respond to waves in visible spectrum hair cells- respond to movement of fluid in inner eat (hearing, rotational/linear acceleration) nociceptors- pain receptors thermoreceptors- respond to changes in temp osmoreceptors- respond to osmolarity of blood (water homeostasis) olfactory receptors- smell taste receptors- respond to taste

In elderly abuse, who is most often the abuser?

the caretaker

normative conformity

the desire to fit into a group because of fear of rejection

What is racialization? What is the racial formation theory?

the formation of a new racial identity in which new ideological boundaries of difference are drawn around a formerly unnoticed group of people. Ex: JEWISH race. Racial formation theory: racial identity is fluid and dependent on concurrent political, economic and social factors.

Define learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events. This is one possible model of clinical depression.

Define intersectionality

the interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, class, and gender as they apply to a given individual or group, regarded as creating overlapping and interdependent systems of discrimination or disadvantage.

when phosphate levels are low, what happens in the kidney?

the kidney increases serum calcium and phosphate levels

The leading and the lagging strands differ in that

the leading strand is synthesized in the same direction as the movement of the replication fork, and the lagging strand is synthesized in the opposite direction- creating Okazaki fragments

what is the normal force equal to?

the perpendicular component of gravity

What is hematocrit?

the ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the total volume of blood. normal for men is between 41 and 53% and women is 36-46.

what is the resultant vector? How is it determined?

the sum of two or more vectors Determined from the tip-to-tail method or finding the perpendicular components ( the x and y components). Pictured is the tip to tail

Alpha carbons are _________ (acidic/basic), meaning they want to ____________ (accept/donate) electrons by __________ (accepting/donating) protons. This results in a _______ (carbocation/carbanion).

they are acidic. They lose their protons (hydrogen) in order to leave two free electrons. This is a carbanion.

what is the correlation between Vmax, catalytic efficiency and kcat

they are all proportional

what embryonic germ layer does the adrenal glands come from?

this is a tricky question. the adrenal cortex is derived from the mesoderm BUT the adrenal medulla is derived from the ectoderm (contains some nervous tissue).

what does it mean when the word hydrogen- or the word bi- is added in front of the name of a compound.

this is when a single hydrogen ion is added on. ex: hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate is HCO3-.

lipase hydrolyzes

triglycerides, which have ester groups

a single diverging mirror always forms a (real/virtual), (upright/inverted) and (reduced/magnified) image

virtual, upright, reduced. It will always be these regardless of the position of the image

Heat moves from a _____ object to a _____ object. Define heat.

warmer, cooler. Heat refers to the transfer of thermal energy between these two objects.

What is the BMI formula?

weight (kg) / height (m^2)

what is impulse propagation. does an action potential move in more than one direction along the axon?

when the depolarization occurs in one part of the axon, it will cause depolarization to surrounding regions. this occurs until the action potential reaches the nerve terminal. the action potential can only move in one direction

When do you use E/Z nomenclature?

when there is a polysubstituted double bond

dendritic cells. what do macrophages and dendritic cells both have?

presents antigens (fragments of proteins from pathogens or cancer cells) to adaptive immune cells (MHC class 2) they both have special receptors called pattern recognition receptors (PRR)/ toll-like receptors (TLR). these can recognize category of the invader so the appropriate cytokines can be produced to recruit the right type of immune cells.

as the chest wall expands, the pressure in the lungs (decreases/increases) and air is (drawn into/pushed out) of the lungs

pressure will decrease and air is drawn into lungs. this is negative-pressure. Also related to boyle's law PV=nRT. at constant temp, P acts inversely to V.

during phase changes, we cannot use the equation q=MCAT because there is no change in temperature. So, what equation must be used?

q=mL (mass and latent heat). the latent heat is given by heat of vaporization (for liquid-gas boundary) and heat of fusion (for solid-liquid boundary). when transitioning from solid to liquid, the change in enthalpy will be positive because heat must be added.

in order to find where the image is for a mirror, you should draw 3 rays.... where are these rays drawn? name what will happen to the image of the object when the object is placed beyond f, at f, and between f and mirror

ray parallel to axis- reflects back through focal point ray through focal point- reflects back parallel to axis ray to center of mirror- reflects back at same angle relative to normal for objects that are placed beyond f, this point of intersection will mark the tip of the image for objects placed in the same vertical line as f, the reflected rays will be parallel for objects placed between f and mirror, the reflected lines will not intersect so you must extend them to the other side of the mirror, creating a virtual image

What is irreversible inhibition?

refers to the prolonged or permanent inactivation of an enzyme, such that it cannot be easily renatured to gain function

What is Snell's Law? how is it related to refraction?

refracted rays of light obey snell's law as they pass from one medium to another. as light enters a medium with a higher index of refraction (n2>n1), it bends more toward the normal (more toward the 0/360 line (sin⍬2> sin⍬1). opposite is also true ex: water

Differentiate between relative and absolute configuration

relative: configuration in relation to another chiral molecule (can use to determine if enantionemrs, diastereomers, or same molecule). Absolute: exact configuration is the exact spatial arrangment, independent of other molecules. Absolute configuration is given by whether the molecule is classified as R or S.

Define the idea of reliance on central traits and the implicit personality theory

reliance on central traits: People organize their perceptions of others based on the traits and personal characteristics of the target that are more relevant to the perceiver. the implict personality theory state that there are a aset of assumptions people make about how different types of people, their traits, and their behavior are related.

where is Ca2+ contained in a myocyte

sarcoplasmic reticulum

Define Signal Detection Theory. what is response bias? Explain what is a: hit, miss, correct rejection, and false alarm.

signal detection theory focuses on the changes in our perception of stimuli based on both psychological and environmental factors. For ex, if you hear your name faintly in a large crowd, will you respond to it? This allows us to explore response bias- which is the tendency of subjects to systematically respond to a stimulus in a particular way does to nonsensory factors. This is observed in trials. and there are 4 possible outcomes: hit- subject correctly perceives the signal miss- subject fails to perceive a given signal false alarms- subject perceives a signal but none was given correct negatives- subject correctly identifies that no signal was given.

liquids exhibit a (small/ large) change in volume as their temperature changes while gases exhibit a (small/large) change as their temp changes

small; large

for the doppler effect, the sound waves in front of a moving object are (compressed/ stretched) while the sound waves behind are (compressed/ stretched). How does this relate to echolocation?

sound waves in front; compressed behind; stretched out animal is source and detector of the sound. It bounces off a surface and is reflected back to animal. How long it takes and the change in frequency can determine position of the objects.

what causes fluorescence

special stepwise photon emission in which an excited electron returns to the ground state through one or more intermediate excited states. Each energy transition releases a photon of light. With smaller energy transitions than the initial energy absorbed, these materials can release photons of light in the visible range.

define the following terms: stem cells potency totipotent pluripotent multipotent which one of these categories does adult stem cells usually fall into?

stem cells- cells that are not yet differentiated or that give rise to other cells. potency- determines the tissues that a stem cell can differentiate into. this is a spectrum- not a series of strict definitions totipotent- stem cells that can differentiate into any cell type. cells are totipotent in the embryonic stage pluripotent- cells that can differentiate into any cell type except those found in placental structures. cells are pluripotent when they have the 3 germ cell layers. multipotent- can differentiate into multiple ctypes of cells within a PARTICULAR GROUP. ex: hematopoitic stem cells are capable of different blood cells adult stem cells are usually at BEST multipotent

what is the difference between stereotypes, prejudices and discrimination. Describe each of them

stereotypes- cognitive (based on little information about a person or group) prejudices- affective (attitude/emotional response) prior to an actual experience with that group- not only about people but could have a prejudice about the danger in country of mexico even tho ive never been there. discrimination- behavioral

how do you find equilibrium constant given the dissociation constant

take the reciprocal of the dissociation constant. this occurs because you are simply considering the reaction being done in the opposite direction.

What are telomeres and centromeres? What important thing do they have in common?

telomeres- at ends of chromosome- they prevent unraveling of the DNA. During replication, they are slightly shortened. This can be partially reversed by telomerase. centromeres- located in middle of chromosome and hold sister chromatids together until separated during anaphase. Both have high GC content for stability and maintenance of strong bonds.

what is the difference between a test charge and a source charge? What happens if these charges are the same? If they are opposite? What are field lines?What is the equation for finding the magnitude of an electric field given the location of the test charge?

test charge: the charge placed in the electric field source charge: creates the electric field If the signs are the same, then there will be repulsive forces so the field is in the direction going AWAY from the source charge. If they are opposite, they will be attractive so the field is in the direction going TOWARD the source charge. (usually, test charge is assumed to be positive) Field lines are used to indicate the electric field vectors for charge E= electric field in N/C Fe= magnitude of force felt by test charge q k= electrostatic constant (8.99 x 10^9 NxM^2/ C^2) Q= source charge magnitude r= distance between charges

atomic weight is the average of what?

the average of the masses of all the isotopes. no isotope will have mass exactly equal to the atomic weight. the influence that each mass has on the atomic weight differs by abundanceG thing atomic WEIGHT= weighted average

in the atom americium-241, what does the 241 represent?

the mass number which is the top number which is protons + neutrons.

Define electrophoresis- name the 3 types and the differences between them

the movement of charged proteins in a fluid or gel under the influence of an electric field. 3 types are Native PAGE, SDS PAGE and isoelectric focusing Native- maintains protein shape but results are difficult to compare SDS- denatures proteins and masks native charge- comparison of charge is more accurate but it cannot be recaptured from gel isoelectric focusing- separates proteins based on isoelectric point- protin migrates toward an electrode until it reaches a region of the gel where pH- pI of protein

What is self-presentation/impression management. Define the three "selves" that are related to this and the 5 strategies that are used for impression management. (pneumonic) Which of the 3 selves is most similar to the "ought" self

the process through which we try to control the impressions people form of us. the three selves are the authentic self (who we are), the ideal self (who we want to be in certain circumstances), and the tactical self (how we market ourselves to others' expectations- this is like the "ought" self). AS.I.AM.

What is mechanical advantage?

the ratio of the output force to the input force. Since it is a ratio, it is dimensionless

Define viscosity. Define the following terms as they relate: viscous drag and inviscid. What is the SI unit of viscosity?

the resistance of a liquid to flow. Increased viscosity of a fluid increase its viscous drag (nonconservative- similar to air resistance). Low viscosity fluids flow easily (gases, water, and dilute aqueous solutions). Inviscid fluids have no viscosity SI unit= Pa x seconds

what are the three primary germ layers? BRIEFLY describe what each layer does.

they form once blastulas become gastrulas ectoderm- forms skin, hair, nails, nose mouth, etc mesoderm- musculoskeletal, circlatory, gonads, digestive and respiratory system endoderm- epithelial linings, digestive and respiratory tracts, pancreas, bladder pneumonic: ectoderm= attractoderm. thins that attract us to others- features, and brain mesoderm: "meansoderm": describes out means of getting around (bones, muscles) and means of getting around the body (digestive/ respiratory). endoderm: linings of "endernal" organs.

What are alcohols with two hydroxyl groups called? What is there suffix?

Diols or glycols. The suffix is -diol.

What are shuttle mechanisms? Name the two types. Which would be more useful in cardiac muscle?

NADH formed in glycolysis cannot directly cross into the mitochondrial matrix. It must find a way to transport its electrons into the matrix. The range for 30-32 ATP per glucose is because of this. 1. glycerol-3-phosphate shuttle- gets electrons to FADH2, and which goes into complex 2. Generates 1.5 ATP for every NADH. 2. Malate-aspartate shuttle- Oxalotacetate is reduced to malate so it can go into the mitochondria. Malate dehydrogenase can then form mitchondrial NADH from NAD+ (like in the krebs cycle). It can then pass the electrons in complex 1 and generate 2.5 ATP. Malate then is transformed to aspartate which crosses back over to the cytosol and restarts cycle.

when a polarizer is held up to a first polarizer at 90 degrees, what happens?

No light will be let through. https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/61918/three-polarizers-45-apart

Isomers that have the same connectivity are called? Isomers that do not have same connectivity are called?

Same connectivity= stereoisomers. Different connectivity= structural/constitutional isomers.

When cerebral hemispheres communicate with same side of body (hearing for ex), what is this called? When cerebral hemispheres comminicate with opposite sides (motor for ex), what is this called?

Same side- ipsilaterally different sides- contralaterally

All lipids have a long carbon chain tail. What is a saturated fatty acid tail? Unsaturated? Comment on the bonds and whether they are solid or liquid at room temp.

Saturated- all single bonds. Solid at room temp. Unsaturated have some double bonds. Liquid at room temp because the double bonds cause kinks, making them harder to stack and solidify

What is the term used to describe when an enzyme cannot go any faster? What is the denotation of this on a graph, such as a michaelis menten plot?

Saturation. This is denoted by Vmax.

Which one is a vector and which is a scalar between mass and weight? How are the two related in an equation?

Scalar (only magnitude): mass (kg) Vector: (magnitude and direction) weight (N) Fg=weight of object m=mass g= acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2)

what is the social cognitive persepctive? Who is this coined by? What is reciprocal determinism?

Social cognitive perspective- not just on how our behavior influences us but on how we influence our behavior. Coined by Albert Bandura. Reciprocal Determinism- our thoughts, behaviors, feelings, environment all interact with each other to DETERMINE our action in a situation.

Stress can be measured in "life change units" in a system called the __________.

Social readjustment rating scale.

A DNA backbone is composed of what 2 things? How is it read? Are the two strands antiparallel?

Sugar (pentose) and phosphate groups. It is read 5' to 3'. Yes they are antiparallel.

origin vs insertion

The origin is the fixed attachment, while the insertion moves with contraction.

Name the 3 types of proteins found in the cell membrane

Transmembrane proteins- have one or more hydrophobic domains and usually function as receptors and channels embedded proteins- either in interior or exterior surface *both transmembrane and embedded are integral proteins bc are associated with interior of membrane membrane-associated (integral)- may be bound through electrostatic interactions with the lipid bilayer.

Name the 3 main divisions of the brain and a breif description of each. Then name the smaller components of each one. Be sure to give their basic names and the complex ones.

*divisions lower in the brain are more primitive* Lowest- hindbrain (rhombencephalon)- basic survival mechanisms - contains myencephalon (medulla oblongata- breathing, heart rate, blood pressure) and contains metencephalon (pons and cerebellum... pons- sensory and motor pathways between medulla and cerebral cortex; cerebellum- posture and balance). Middle- midbrain (mesencephalon)- responsible for the sensory and motor info that is given from the rest of the body. - superior colliculi- receives visual input -inferior colliculi- receives auditory input Top- forebrain- prosensephalon- cognitive capacity, emotion, memory. - telenchephalon- forms limbic system, cerebral cortex and basal ganglia -diencephalon- forms thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland and pineal gland.

Glucocorticoids (cortisol)

-Effect: increase blood sugar levels (esp. during stress). Also stimulated glucagon.

Why do alcohols have high melting and boiling points? If a compound has more than one hydroxyl group, does the boiling point increase more?

Capable of intermolecular hydrogen bonding . And yes, the more hydroxyl groups, the more hydrogen bonding, the greater the melting/boiling point

Amino acids are ________________ meaning that they can either accept a proton or donate a proton depending on the pH in their environment

amphoteric

Symptoms of mania (remember pneumonic)

DIG FAST D-distractible I-insomnia G- grandiosity F-fast thoughts (racing thoughts A- agitation S-Speech (pressured) T- thoughtless behavior (risky)

Define gauge pressure. Define what the components of the equation are what happens if the incident pressure is the same as atmospheric pressure?

Difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure when the pressure is above local atmospheric pressure. Imagine car tires h could also be z which is depth. density is the density of the LIQUID, not the object. if incident pressure = atmospheric pressure, then Pgauge= dgz.

Does passive transport require energy? How does this relate to the concentration gradient? Name the 3 types of passive transport

Does not require energy bc the molecule is moving down its concentration gradient. 3 types 1. simple- does not require transporter. Small, nonpolar molecules do not need transporter and can move from high conc to low conc. 2. osmosis- diffusion of water across selectively permeable membrane 3. facilitated diffusion- for larger, polar molecules. Uses transport proteins to move impermeable solutes

what are the six major social institutions? Briefly describe each. Define hidden curriculum, patterns of kinship, teacher expectancy, religiosity. Define the difference between a denomination, sect and cult. Define secularization vs fundamentalism. What is the differnce between a monarchy and a dictatorship? what is the shift that has been seen in healthcare in regards to the patient role? Define the terms beneficence, nonmaleficence, respect for patient autonomy and justice?

Hidden curriculum: in the education system, transmitting of social norms, attitudes and beliefs to students also occur. Patterns of kinship: terms for different family members are not conserved across time and culture Teacher expectancy: teachers tend to get what they expect from students. This is an example of a self-fulfilling prophesy. Teachers who put high demands on students and believes they can rise to the challenge will often see these results. Religiosity: how religious someone considers themself to be (includes strengths of beliefs, engagement in practices, and attitudes about the religion itself) Denomination: share certain beliefs but not others sect: religious group that has choser to break off from the parent religion cult: extreme or deviant philosophies Secularization: shift away from religion to more scientific/ rational thinking. Fundamentalism: maintaining strict adherence to religious code. A monarchy is a royal ruler who is limited by a constitution or parliamentary system. A dictatorship is where a single person holds power and usually includes mechanisms to defeats threats to his power. The patient role has shifted from the "sick role" (not being responsible for sickness) to a role in which they take ownership of their health through diet, exercise, etc. Beneficence: physiciian has responsibility to act in patient's best interest Nonmaleficence: do no harm- avoid things in which harm outweights benefit Respect for autonomy: physician should respect patients decisions and choices about healthcare Justice: physician has a responsibility to treat similar patients with similar care and to distribute healthcare resources fairly.

Which kinds of amino acids are most likely hydrophobic? Which are hydrophilic?

Hydrophobic- ones with long alkyl side chains, ex: A, I, L, V and F Hydrophilic- ones with charged side chains, ex: D, E, H, R, K

What is hydroxylamine? What does it form when reacted with an aldehyde/ketone. What is a hydrazine? What does it form when reacted with an aldehyde/ketone?

Hydroxylamine: H2N-OH. Forms an oxime. Hydrazine: H2N-NH2. Forms a hydrazone.

What is the incentive theory and the expectancy value theory?

Incentive theory- behavior is motivated not by need or arousal, but the desire to pursue rewards and to avoid punishments. Expectancy value theory- the amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of both the individuals expectation of success and the degree to which he or she values succeeding at the goal.

If the fertility rate is over 2, is there an increase, plateau or decrease in population.

Increase. Since 2 people are needed to make a baby.

what is the difference between an insulator and a conductor? how do they differ in their spread of charge over a surface?

Insulator: does not distribute charge over a surface very well. Most nonmetals are insulators. Electrons are tightly linker with their respective nuclei. Conductor: Charges will distribute approximately evenly on the surface of the conductor. Metals or ionic compounds are good conductors. In conductors, nuclei are surrounded by a sea of free electrons

What are the 3 hormones that control hunger and satiety?

LOG L- leptin: secreted by fat cells that decrease appetite Orexin- increases appetite and involved in alertness and sleep-wake cycle G- secreted by stomach in response to signals of food. Ex: sight, sound, taste.

What is major depressive disorder vs persistent depressive disorder. Name what is necessary for each.

Major- at least 2 weeks accompanied by at least 5 of the following: depressed mood, loss of interest in enjoyable activities (anhedonia), appetite disturbance, sleep disturbance, weight changes, guilt, suicide attempts. 1 of these must be depressed mood or anhedonia. Persistent- people who suffer from dysthymia (depressed mood but not sever enough to quality as major) for at least 2 years.

what effect does the parathyroid hormone have on serum calcium levels.

PTH increases serum calcium levels. When this level is already high, feedback would shut PTH off.

Ideal Gas Law. using this, if volume is held constant but temperature increases, what will happen to pressure?

PV=nRT. pressure will increase if volume is held constant but temperature increases R= 8.21x10^-2 L x atm/mol x K OR. J/Kxmol

Define social capital and how it relates to social integration. Describe one main form of social capital and how it can create inequality. How does this relate to priviledge. and cultural capital

Social capital: investments people make in their society in return for economic or collective rewards. The greater the investment, the greater the social integration (inclusion into mainstream society). A main form is the social network which can create situational (socioeconomic advantage) inequality or positional (based on how one is connected within a network) inequality. These inequalities reinfroce privilege, so lower social capital leads to greater social inequality. Cultural capital refers to the benefits one receives from knowledge, abilities and skills.

How is the appraisal model different from the social construction model when discussing expression of emotion?

The appraisal model accepts that there are biologically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced, but there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression. The social construction model assumes there is no biological basis for emotions- they are instead based on experiences and situational context alone.

As alkyl groups are added to alcohols, the acidity decreases. What happens to the boiling/ melting point?

The boiling and melting point will increase due to van der waals attractions.

Define OCD (Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder):

a disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions), actions (compulsions), or both. Obsessions raise stress, compulsions relieve it.

How are the stationary phase and mobile phase related

The mobile phase runs through the stationary phase, this elutes the sample through the stationary phase

What is the Lineweaver-Burk plot? What do the intercepts tell you?

a double reciprocal graph of the Michaelis-Menten equation. X-intercept gives a value of -(1/Km) and the y-intercept gives you (1/Vmax).

What is the strong nuclear force?

a force that holds nucleus particles together. it is strong enough to compensate for the repulsive electromagnetic force between the protons.

define the term "ground" as it relates to charges

a ground is a means of returning the charge to the earth. For example, if you touch a doorknob and receive a shock, your fingers are grounding that charge.

B- oxidation of fatty acids produces __________. If fatty acid has even number of carbons, B- oxidation can occur and produce two. If fatty acid is odd, it will produce one ________ and the other molecule can enter ____________.

acetyl CoA. If fatty acid has odd carbons, it will produce one acetyl CoA and another molecule that can ended the citric acid cycle to act as an intermediate to the gluconeogenic pathyway. This is noteworthy because usually fatty acids can not be converted to glucose, but in this case it can.

how are apoptotic blebs, apoptotic bodies and necrosis related?

blebs- self-contained protrustions that develop in the process of apoptosis. bodies- blebs are broken apart into bodies and digested by other cells blebs are contained in the membrane so harmful substances are not released. If they were, this would be necrosis, which is the process of cell death in which the cell dies by injury. when this happens, internal substances can be leaked causing irritation of nearby tissues.

for the photoelectric effect, whch will result in speedier electrons? Bue or red light

blue. Because the frequency for blue is higher

the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the ambient pressure is called the

boiling point

if the signs of two atomic orbitals are the same, a ________ orbital forms. if the signs of two atomic orbitals are different, an _________ orbital.

bonding; antibonding

empirical vs molecular formula

empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the elements of the compound. molecular formula gives the exact number of atoms of each element in the compound- it is a multiple of the empirical formula. example: benzene empirical: CH molecular: C6H6

What are the 4 fundamental forces of nature?

force of gravity, electromagnetic force, strong nuclear force, weak nuclear force

what are the primary cells of the epidermis

keratinocytes

define the following as they relate to myocytes: myofibrils sacroplasmic reticulum sarcoplasm sacrolemma transverse tubules myocyte muscle fiber

myofibrils- sarcomeres attached end to end sacroplasmic reticulum- contains high Ca2+ ions and surrounds myofibrils sarcoplasm- cytoplasm outside of Sacroplasmic reticulum sacrolemma- cell membrane of myocyte transverse tubules- perpendicular to myofibrils, sacrolemma sends action potential through these in order to get to myofibrils myocyte/ muscle fiber- (muscle cell)many myofibrils in parallel. many of these together form a muscle

compounds with higher affinity for stationary phase have _____________ (larger/ smaller) retardation factors and take __________ (longer or less time) to pass through

smaller, and will take longer to pass through

What are growth factors? How does it relate to the idea of reciprocal development?

these are inducing peptides that promote differentiation and mitosis in certain tissues. reciprocal development: inducers effect a receiver, but once the receiver is induced, this causes a reciprocal change in the inducer.

why can some atoms exceed the octet rule

they have d-orbitals in which extra electrons can reside

Thermal expansion equation for solids

thing "when the temperature of an object changes, its length changes ALOT" (symbols spell out ALOT). delta L= change in length alpha+ coefficient of linear expansion (for specific material)- units in K^-1 L= original length delta T= change in temp

What is the FINER method?

used to evaluate a research question: Feasible Interesting Novel Ethical Relevant

are ionic compounds good conductors

yes

fetal alcohol syndrome causes what effects on the baby?

- slowed cognitive development - distinct craniofacial features

Cell-cell junctions are comprised of cell adhesion molecules (CAM) Name the 3 categories of cell-cell junctions.

-Gap junctions- direct cell- to- cell communication. Aka connexons -tight junctions- prevent solutes from leaking. Form a watertight seal so no paracellular transport. Form a band around the cell. Usually found in epithelial cells and link the cells as they form a SINGLE layer of tissye. found in blood brain barrier -desmosomes-bind adjacent cells by anchoring to their cytoskeletons- usually found at interface between 2 LAYERS of epithelial tissue.

What is the Doppler effect? How does it differ if source and detector are moving toward each other? Away from each other? name the trend observed between when they are moving toward or awat from each other in regards to the perceived frequency

A change in sound frequency caused by motion of the sound source, motion of the listener, or both. It describes the differnce between the actual frequency of a sound and its perceived frequency when the source of the sound and the sound's detector are moving relative to one another. Toward: the perceived frequency is greater than the actual frequency Away; perceived frequency is less than actual frequency memorize this equation. On numerator, + is on top and - is on bottom. On denominator, - is on top and + is on bottom. Memorize to use TOP sign when source and detector are coming TOWARD eachother. use bottom sign for away, further description READ: if you are driving and there is an ambulace behind you, you are driving away from the ambulance (bottom sign is - so numerator is -) but the ambulance is coming toward you (toward = top, so use - sign). so it will be (v-vD/ v-vS). if the ambulance passes you, you are know driving toward it (use top sign +) and it is driving away from you (use bottom sign +). when they move toward, perceived frequency is higher. when move away, perceived frequency is lowered

halo effect. Can a persons attractiveness impact the halo effect

A cognitive bias in which judgments of an individual's character can be affected by the overall impression of the individual. Ex: i like judy so she must be a good mother, be trustworthy and she can do no wrong A person's attractiveness has been seen to produce the halo effect

An SN2 (bimolecular nucleophilic substitution) is a concerted reaction. What does this mean?

A concerted reaction is one that has only one step. It is bimolecular because this single step involves 2 molecules

What are the two types of learning? Define them. Then determine which type of the learning the following terms are related to. - Classical conditioning - mirror neurons - operant conditioning - reinforcement - modeling - punishment - reinforcement schedules.

Associative learning: creation of a pairing, or association, either between two stimuli or between a behavior and response -2 kinds of associative learning: classical and operant conditioning -also related to reinforcement, punishment and reinforcement schedules Observational learning- learning new behavior/ gaining info from watching others -related to mirror neurons and modeling

fatty acid synthesis and ___________ are opposite processes.

B-synthesis. Both involve transport across the mitochondrial membrane followed by a series of redox reactions

Define the following brain imaging techniques: CT, PET, MRI and fMRI.

CT- multiple X-rays taken at different angles to get cross-sectional slice impages PET- radioactive sugar is injected and absorbed into body- the dispersion of the sugar is observed MRI- uses a magnetic field to interact with hydrogen and determine hydrigen dense areas of the body fMRI- same as MRI but measures changes associated with blood flow.

Bipolar can be caused by ____________. In the brain, we would see an increase or decrease in which neurotransmitters?

Can be caused by parents having it, and people with MS have higher risk We would see and increase in norepinephrine and serotonin (monoamine theory of depression).

Acetyl CoA usually comes from the pyruvate produced in glycolysis. It can, however, be obtained from other molecules. Name the 4 molecules it can come from and a brief description of how they form acetyl CoA.

Can come from: Fatty acids- (called activation) CoA picks up FA in the cytosol to form CoA-FA. But carnitine is needed for the FA to move through the membrane, so FA-carntine forms. Once in the inner membrane CoA attachs to the fatty acid which undergoes Beta-oxidation to get acetyl CoA. Amino Acids- *Only KETOGENIC can form acetyl CoA. They must lose their amino group and then can form ketone bodies (see below) Ketones- acetyl CoA is usually used to produce ketones when pyruvate dehydrogenase complex is inhibited (like starvation) but the reverse can occur so that ketones form acetyl CoA. Alcohol- alcohol dehydrogenase and acetaldehyde dehydrogenase make it into acetyl CoA. But, this also produces a lot of NADH, which inhibits the citric acid cycle, so it ends up producing fatty acids..

what is a capacitor? What are the two equations that are associated with capacitance? In a parallel plate capacitor, how is the electric field found here (what equation)?

Capacitor: Hold charge at a particular voltage. C= Q/V or the equation in the picture. For the equation in the picture, e0= 8.85 x 10^-12 (permitivity free space) A= area of overlap between the two plates d= distance between plates. Electric field: E=V/d direction is always from positive plate to negative plate because you are considering how a positive particle would move. (would go toward negative)

What are the 2 most reactive centers in a carbonyl containing compound? Why?

Carbonyl carbon because it is electrophilic. And the alpha carbon because it is acidic.

Give a summary of each complex that brings electrons to oxygen for oxidative phosphorylation. Be sure to give how many protons are pumped into the intermembrane space for each complex.

Complex 1: many redox reactions occur (in FMN/FMNH2 and FeS) to eventually oxidize NADH to NAD+ and reduce Coenzyme Q (CoQ) to CoQH2. Complex 2: Succinate -> Fumarate, which makes FAD into FADH2. CoQ is again reduced to CoQH2 like in complex 1. There is no proton pumping into the intermembrane space for this complex. Complex 3: aka cytochrome reductase because it reduces cytochromes c by transferring the H's from CoQ. Each cytochrome can only hold 1 electron, so two steps are needed to transfer the 2 electrons from CoQ.. In the shuttle of these electrons (called the Q cycle), iron-sulfer helps and 4 protons are pumped to the intermembrane space. Complex 4: electrons are transferred from cytochrome c to oxugen. Includes subunits of cytochrome a, cytochrome a3, and Cu2+ ions. Cytochrome subunits a and a3 make up cytochrome oxidase, which forms water when reduced. 2 protons are moved across the membrane and

Define compliance and how it relates to the foot-in-the-door technique, door in the face technique, lowball technique, and the thats not all technique

Compliance is a change in behavior based on a direct request. Foot in the door- a small request is made. After gaining compliance, a larger request is made. Door in the face technique- a large request is made first, and if refused, a second, smaller request is made. The smaller request is usually the goal. Lowball technique- the requestor will get an initial commitment from an individual then raise the cost of commitment. Not only money but can be effort and time. That's not all technique- an individual is made an offer, but before making decision, is told that the offer is better than expected. Like tv commercial: you can get these 2 bottles for 19.99, but if you call now, youll get a third one for free.

What is a displacement vector? How does this differ from distance? How does this relate to velocity vs speed when considering both average and insantaneous.

Connects the initial and final positions of an object. The actual pathway taken between the initial and final positions is not accounted for. Distance on the other hand considers the pathway taken and is a scalar quantity. Velocity is a vector in that it only considers displacement over a period of time. Speed Is the actual distance traveled in a unit of time For instance, the world rotation example. The average VELOCITY is 0km/3.16X10^7 seconds... because the displacement is 0 since it started and ended in the same spot. Speed considers distance (pathway) so the aerageSPEED of earth rotatio is 9.4 x 10^8 km/ 3.16 x10^7s = 29.8 km/s For instantaneous, however, they are the same because it is not taking into account the fact that the initial and final locations are the same.

Describe the structure of an antibody. What are the targets of antibodies called?

Constant region made of 2 heavy polypeptide chains and 2 light polypeptide chains. Chains held together by disulfide bridges. Variable region provides a binding site to form an antigen-antibody complex. Targets are called antigens

What is the approach called in psychology when behavior is determined by an individuals personality? How about when it is determined by the environment/context?

Determined by personality- dispositional (YOU ARE AUTOMATICALLY IN A POSITION TO ACT A CERTAIN WAY) Determined by environment/context- situational approach.

What is deviance in relation to norms? The idea that deviance can be learned through interactions with others is called ________. What is strain theory and how does it relate to this? How does this relate to the concept of anomie?

Deviance- violation of norms, rules or expectations within a society. While deviance usually has negative connotation, here it simply means to go against societal norms. The idea that deviance can be learned through interactions with others is called differential association theory. Strain theory is the idea that deviance is a natural reaction to the disconnect between social structure and social goals. Anomie refers to the lack of social norms, or the breakdown of social bonds between an individual and society. Stain theory focuses on how anomic conditions can lead to deviance. Ex: Nick, my brother wants to attain the goal of finding true happiness. Instead of acquiring this happiness through hard work and advancement through school and accomplishment, he works to attain it through smoking weed, which is seen as deviant.

Both they hydroxyl oxygen and the carbonyl oxygen can participate in hydrogen bonding in carboxylic acids. With this, carboxylic acids tend to form ________. Which are defined as ________.

Dimers: pair of molecules connected by 2 hydrogen bonds.

Define epithelial tissue. Then define the following terms as they relate to epithelial tissue. basement membrane parenchyma simple epithelia stratified epithelia pseudostratified epithelia cuboidal columnar squamous

Epithelial tissues cover the body and line its cavities, protecting against pathogens. They are often polarized, meaning that one side faces the lumen or outside world while the other side interacts with the underlying blood vessels and structural cells. basement membrane: in order for epithelial cells to remain tightly joined, they are connected to the basement membrane, the underlying layer of connective tissue. parenchyma: the functional parts of the organ. Epithelial cells differ depending on the identity of the organ, so they often constitute the parenchyma * different "epithelia" are characterized by number of layers simple epithelia: have one layer of cells stratified epithelia: have multiple layers pseudostratified epithelia: SEEM to have multiple layers due to differnces in cell height but in reality only have one *also have different shapes* cuboidal: cube-shaped Columnar: long and thin squamous: flat and scalelike

Steps of Glycolysis, What is the difference between glucokinase and hexokinase? What is special about PFK-1 and what is it activated/deactivated by? What is the difference between PFK-1 and PFK-2 and how are they connected? Which step produces NADH- and what is this used for when oxygen is present? What about in the absense of oxygen? Which steps have substrate level phosphorylation to form ATP? Which steps are irreversible

Hexokinase and glucokinase both convert glucose to glucose-6-phosphate. Glucokinase, however, is found in B-islet liver cells and is responsive to insulin. PFK-1 is the rate-limiting step. Activated by AMP and fructose 2,6- bisphosphate (which comes from liver and pancreatic cells). Inhibited by ATP and citrate PFK-2 is activated by insulin and converts fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-2,6- bisphosphate which will activate PFK-1. Glucagon, on the other hand, inhibits PFK-2, which will therefore inhibit PFK-1. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase produces NADH. In oxygen environments, this can feed into the electron transport chain. In anaerobic environments, lactate dehydrogenase will turn NADH-> NAD+ and will be fed back into glycolysis. 3-phosphoglycerate kinase and pyruvate kinase have substrate level phosphorylation.

How is chromatin structure changed to increase/ decrease the accessibility to transcriptional enzymes.

Histone acetylation increases accessibility, deacetylation decreases accessibility. DNA methylation decreases accessibility and demthylation increases accessibility.

According to george mead, how is "I" different from "me"?

I- creative expression of individual Me- part of self that responds to the environment

how is intensity related to power and area? how is power related to work? If asked to find the energy given the intensity, area, and time... how would these equations be arranged to do so

I= P/A P= W/T. when you plug p into I=PA, then you will get the relationship of w=IAt and change in work is synonymous with kinetic energy

Difference between common name of an alcohol vs. IUPAC name

IUPAC: ethanol (suffix is -ol) Common: Ethyl Alcohol (followed by word alcohol)

How to name carboxylic acids in IUPAC and common naming

IUPAC: replace -e at the end of parent alkane with -oic acid Common: still -ic acid but prefixes for number of carbons change to common prefixes. 1- form, 2- acet, 3-propion

How to name ketones in IUPAC and Common naming.

IUPAC: replace -e from parent alkane with the suffix -one. Common: Name alkyl groups in alphabetical order, followed by -ketone. Ex: ethylmethylketone is common, butan-2-one is IUPAC.

How to name aldehydes in IUPAC and Common naming. For common naming, also give the prefix for aldehydes that contain 1, 2 and 3 carbons

IUPAC: suffix is -al Common: Suffix is -aldehyde Common: 1 carbon is form-, 2 carbons is acet-, 3 carbons is propion-

Define the following terms as they relate to Karen Horney's view of development Neurotic needs basic anxiety basic hostility

Neurotic needs- people with neurotic personalities have one of ten neurotic needs (everyone has them to a degree but not in large amounts) Basic anxiety- caused by inadequate parenting. Causes vulnerability and helplessness. Basic Hostility- neglect and rejection cause anger in children. Basic anxiety and hostility affects future relationships that someone will get into.

fill in the blanks: Skeletal muscle is responsible for voluntary movement and is made up of ________, which are made up of actin and myosin. They appear ________ when viewed microscopically. Skeletal muscle is (uninucleated/ multinucleated). In skeletal muscle there are red fibers, which are __________ (fast-twitch/slow twitch) fibers and have a _______ (high/low)myoglobin content, and derive the energy (aerobically/anaerobically). White fibers are __________ (fast-twitch/slow twitch) fibers and have a _______ (high/low)myoglobin content, and derive the energy (aerobically/anaerobically). which fibers have darker pigment? Why? Which fatigue quickly? What is myoglobin?

Skeletal muscle is responsible for voluntary movement and is made up of sarcomeres, which are made up of actin and myosin. They appear striated when viewed microscopically. Skeletal muscle is multinucleated. In skeletal muscle there are red fibers, which are __________ slow twitch) fibers and have a _______ (high)myoglobin content, and derive the energy (aerobically- theycontain mitochonria to carry out oxidative phos.). White fibers are __________ (fast-twitch/) fibers and have a _______ (low)myoglobin content, and derive the energy (anaerobically). red fibers are darker due to their being more myoglobin. white will fatigue quicker. myoglobin is an oxygen carrier that uses iron in heme to bind oxygen.

in the S phase, the number of chromatids doubles during replication. What are the chromatids bonded by? What does this mean for the number of chromosomes present in the cell?

The number of chromosomes stays the same so the cell will still be diploid (46 chromosomes.) the only difference is that now each chromosome has 2 chromatids instead of just one. chromatids are bonded at the centromere

define zero-order reaction, first order reaction and second-order reaction?

all are referring to the rates of a reaction. zero order: rate of formation of product C is independent of changes in the concentrations of the reactants. To change these, you could either increase temperature or add a catalyst, but increasing concentration would do no good. first order: rate is directly proportional to only one reactant. ex: doubling the concentration of a reactant will double the amount of product produced. second order: rate is proportional to either the concentrations of two reactants (each individually first order) OR the square of the concentration of a single reactant

define the following abbreivations for different lung volumes: what tools are all of these measured with. TLC RV VC TV ERV IRV

all measured with spirometer TLC- total lung capacity. max air volume when one inhales completely - 6-7 liters RV- residual volume- whats left when one exhales comletely VC- vital capacity- TLC minus RV (the max-min) TV (tidal volume)- volume of air inhaled/exhaled in normal breath ERV- expiratory reserve volume- volume of the additional air that can be forcibly exhaled after normal exhale IRV- inspiratory reserve volume- same as ERV but for inhalation.fmed

define the following as they relate to the gall bladder. - bile - CCK - biliary tree what painful condition often forms here?

bile is stored here. when stimulated by CCK, the gallbladder contracts and pushes out bile into biliary tree. gallbladder is common location of cholesterol or bilirubin stone formation. may also get stuck in bile ducts or in biliary tree.

because of what forces can noble gases liquify

dispersion/london forces

which type of nuclear decay could be detected in an atomic absorption spectrum?

gamma radiation because it produces electromagnetic radiation.

what is an isomer?

molecules the same molecular formula but different structures

what are the roman numerals in iron (II) or iron (III) referring to?

oxidation state (Fe2+ or Fe3+)

aldoses are oxidized to _________ and reduced to ________________

oxidized to aldonic acids and reduced to alditols

what is the difference beween schizophrenia and parkinsons in regard to dopamine

parkinsons symptoms are seen when there is not enough dopaime. schizophrenia, on the other hand, has symptoms due to a large amount of dopamine.

interpersonal attraction is influenced by what 4 factors What is the golden ratio?

physical characteristics, similarity, self-disclosure, reciprocity and proximity (mere exposure effect- we like things we see frequently). golden ratio is the idea that humans are attracted to individuals with certain body proportions approximating the golden ratio (1.618:1)

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization

What are state functions?

pneumonic: when I am under PRESSURE and feeling DENSE, all i want to do is watch TV and get HUGS. -pressure, density, temperature, volume, enthalpy, internal intergy, gibbs free energy and entropy.

In research, what is a "population?" Sample? What is information about a sample called? what is a parameter?

population: the complete goup of every individual that satisfies the attributes of interest sample:any group taken from a population that does not include ALL individuals from the population info about a sample is called a statistic. a parameter is information that is calculated using every person in a population

Where are T cells produced? Where do they mature?

produced in bone marrow, mature in thymus

What are teratogens?

substances that cause birth defects

what is an equivalent what is the gram equivalent weight

"how many moles of the thing we are interested in (proton, hydroxide ion, electrons or ions) will one mole of a given compound produce" ex: h2co3 will give 2 equivalents of protons gram equivalent weight: amount of a compound (measured in grams) that produces one equivalent of the particle of interest. gram equivalent weight = molar mass/n (n= number of particles of interest produced or consumed per molecule of the compound in the reaction). look at pg 116 if confused.

Define synaptic pruning

'pruning' of weak or unused synaptic connections in the brain. Weak ones are broken, strong ones are bolstered.

equation to determine the magnetic force that is exerted on a charge moving in a magnetic field what is the charge is moving parallel or antiparallel to the direction of the mag field? what is the right hand rule that is applied when determining the direction of the magnetic force on a moving charge. after finding all of this, what must you do to determine the motion that the charged particle will take?

*note: sin0 and sin 180= 0. So if charge is moving parallel or antiparallel to the direction of the mag field, it will experience no force. Fb= magnetic force q= charge v= magnitude of velocity B= magnetic field vector B ⍬= the smallest angle between the velocity vector and the magnetic field vector. Right hand rule for direction of FORCE on a moving charge thumb points in direction of velocity of charge fingers curve to show direction of magnetic FIELD palm is pointing in the direction of the FORCE that will be exerted on a POSTIVE charge back of palm is pointing in the direction of the FORCE that will be exerted on a NEGATIVE To find motion of charged particle, you must set the Fb equal to centripetal force to find the radius in which the particle will move. consult pg 172 if need help

-NO2 and halides are electron __________ (withdrawing/ donating) groups. When they are near the carboxyl group of a carboxylic acid, they __________ (increase/decrease acidity). -NH2 and -OCH3 are _______ groups and they _______ acidity.

-NO2 and halides are EWG so they increase acidity. -NH2 and -OCH3 are EDG an decrease acidity.

Biological markers of Alzheimer's (don't need to know, just look over)

-atrophy of the brain on CT or MRI -flattened sulci in cerebral cortex -enlarged cerebral ventricles -deficient blood flow in parietal lobe -reduction in levels of acetylcholine -reduction in choline acetyltransferase (produces acetylcholine) -reduced metabolism in temporal and parietal lobes -senile plaques of beta-amyloid

what suffix to monoatomic anions have? How do you determine their charge?

-ide. Look at number of valence electrons needed to get complete octet. Ex: oxide is O2-, nitride is N3-, phosphide is P3-.

Freud states that the access to id, ego and superego fall into 3 main categories, what are they?

-conscious access - preconscious (not yet aware of) - unconscious (thoughts that have been repressed)

maintenance of the resting membrane potential relies on 3 things, what are they?

-differential distribution of ions across membrane -active transport processes (think of Na+/K+ pump) - selective permeability of the phospholipid bilayer

Name components of the cell membrane (5 main ones)

-phospholipid bilayer - triacylglyerols and free fatty acids are phospholipid precursors and are found at low levels -cholesterol contributes to membrane fluidity and stability -proteins acts as transporters and cell adhesion molecules - carbohydrates form protective glycoprotein coat -

viruses cause a response with MHC ____ while bacteria/fungi cause a responds with MHC ____.

1 (viral infects cell DNA so attack must be endogenous- antigens come from inside of cell) bacteria/fungi- 2 (attacking bacteria is exogenous process)-=

1 mole of an ideal gas at STP is _______. 1 mole of any substance = __________ # particles 1 mole of any substance = what mass?

1 mole= 22.4L, 6.022x 10^23 particles, and is equal to the elements' molar mass

when NAD+ -> NADH, how many protons and electrons are transferred

1 proton (the H+). when this is transferred, the total charge will then by 2+, so to neutralize to get NADH, need 2 electrons too.

Difference between bipolar 1 and bipolar 2 disorder. What is cyclothymic disorder?

1- mainly manic episodes, not many if any depressive 2- low level of manic, and at least one depressive episode. (hin that bipolar 2 has 2 emotional types associated with it- both manic and depressive). cyclothymic disorder- combo of hypomanic episodes and dysthmic episodes (not sever enough to qualify as major).

The information processing model discusses the 4 pillars that affect how we encode, store and retrieve information. Name these 4 pillars. Below are the basic premises of each one 1. thinking 2. conscious or unconscious 3. applicability 4. problem solving

1. thinking requires sensation, encoding and storage 2. stimuli must be consciously analyzed (not automatic) 3. Decisions made in one situation can be applied to other situations 4. problem solving is not just dependent on cognitive level, but also context and complexity of the problem

Describe what happens in the following situations: 1. dielectric in an isolated, charge capacitor- what happens to voltage, charge and capacitance? 2. dielectric in charged capacitor in circuit- what happens to the charge, capacitance and voltage? 3. Capacitors are added to a series circuit 4. Capacitors are added to a parallel circuit

1. voltage decreases and capacitance increases (think of the voltage being stored for later in capacitor). With no other source of voltage, voltage would obviously decrease. Charge will also stay the same 2. charge will increase because C=Q/V. since dielectric increases capacitance, Q will increase too. Capacitance will increase. Voltage is held constant (when battery is mentioned in question, assume voltage held constant) 3. Capacitors in series are opposite than resistors in series. 1/Cs= 1/C1 + 1/C2...... 4. Capacitors in parallels are opposite than resistors in parallels. Cp= C1+ C2......

What are the 5 phases of bacterial growth (remember pneuomic). Also visualize the graph associated with it.

1.Lets- lag phase (bacteria adpating to local conditions) 2.Eat/- exponential phase (exponential increase in number 3.L- log phase (another word for exponential phase) 4.S- stationary phase. As number of bacteria increase, resources are reduced so production is slowed. 5.D - Death phase- envirnment can no longer support bacteria

define enantiomers. are their physical and chemical properties the same?

2 molecules that are non superimposable mirror images of each other. Have same connectivity but opposite configurations at every chiral center in molecule. Their physical and chemical properties are the same with 2 exceptions: optical activity and reactions in chiral environments.

How do you know how many steroisomers (either enantiomers or diasteromets) are possible?

2^n... n= number of chiral centers. If only one chircal center, only 2 sterioisomers are allowed, meaning no diasteromers (needs minimum of 2 chiral centers).

how many significant figures are in 3490? How about 3490.0? how about 0.000349

3490- 3 3490.0 -5 0.000349- 3

triodothyronine has is tyrosine connected to _____ iodine atoms while thyroxine is tyrosine connected to ____ iodine atoms. deficiency in iodine may result in hypothyroidism. what are the effects of this? an excess of thyroid hormone may result in a tumor or hyperthyroidism. what are the effects of this what does calcitonin, the other product of the thyroid, do?

3;4. hypothyroidism: lethargy, slowed respiration, cold intolerance, weight gain hyper: opposite. calcitonin decreases plasma calcium levels by increasing excretion from kidneys, decreasing calcium absorption from gut, or increasing storage of calcium in bine.

dissociative identity disorder

A rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Also called multiple personality disorder.

the peripheral component of the autonomic nervous system contains _______ neuron(s) while a motor nueron in the somatic nervous system has ________ neuron (s) going from the spinal cord to the muscle.

ANS has 2 neurons (first is preganglionic, whose soma is in the CNS and the second is post ganglionic). while SNS only has one (no synpase).

Our detection of a stimulus can change over time through _________.

Adaption

How does sensory adaption affect a difference threshold?

Adaption raises difference threshold bc we become used to small fluctuations. Therefore, the difference in stimulation must be larger for us to notice.

Catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) are secreted by __________. and increase____________ to increase blood sugar levels.

Adrenal medulla; lipolysis- in order to increase blood sugar levels.

How is alzheimers related to the following terms acetylcholine dementia neurofibrillary tangles beta-amyloid plaques sundowning

Alzheimers is thought to be caused by a loss of acetylcholine in neurons that link to the hippocampus It is marked by progressive dementia, which is a loss of cognitive function and memory loss Neurofibrillary tangles and beta-amyloid plaques were found at the microscopic level when studying alzheimers A commen phenomenon of alzheimers is sundowning, which is an increase of DYSfunction in the late afternoon and evening.

When an enol tautomer (nucleophile) attacks a keto tautomer (electrohpile) in the presence of base (-OH), what is formed?

An aldol group. Has an aldehydr characteristic (ald-) and an alcohol characterisitc (-ol)

Define acquisition. Use and define the following terms when doing so: Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response neutral stimuli signaling stimuli conditioned stimulus conditioned response

An unconditioned stimulus (brings out a reflex response) causes an unconditioned response (salivation for ex). A neutral stimulus is not produce a reflex response, but it can- and then the neutral stimulus is termed "signaling stimuli". Pairing a neutral stimulus to an unconditioned stimulus can make it so the neutral stimulus now causes a response. When this occurs, the neutral stimulus is now a conditioned stimulus that now causes a reflex response: a conditioned response. This process is referred to as acquisition Note: the actual response it the same throughout- it is just termed different things. ANother note: the neutral (signaling) stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus when it elicits the previous unconditioned response.

What protein are producted by B-cells and neutralize targets in the body? They are the most porominent type of protein found in the immune system.

Antibodies, aka immunoglobulins

What is the difference between approach-approach conflicts, approach-avoidance conflicts and avoidance-avoidance conflicts?

Approach-approach: choice between two favorable options avoidance-avoidance: choice between two negative options approach-avoidance: deals with only one choice, but can have both pos and neg elements

what elements are metalloids? what are their characteristics?

B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po, At (found alone staircase on periodic table) their characteristics vary. some have properties similar to metal while others have properties similar to nonmetals. If they are on the right side of the line, they are more similar to nonmetals. left side of line, more similar to metals

WHich is more common B-DNA or Z-DNA? When is Z-DNA seen?

B-DNA is most common (right handed). Z-DNA has zigzag shape and is seen when there is high GC content or high salt concentration.

what role does the spleen play in the immune system

B-cells are activated here (not produced here as all WBCs are produced in bone marrow) They turn into plasma cells to produce antibodies as part of adaptive immunity

Does the concentration of substrate AND the concentration of enzyme have an affect on the rate of the reaction? Or only the concentration of the substrate?

Both concentration of enzyme and substrate have an effect.

What 2 features of ubiquinone are important for its biological functions?

Capacity for oxidation reduction. It's reduced form is ubiquenol and it's oxidized form is uniquinone. This allows it to transport electrons. Also, it's long alkyl chain allows it to be lipid soluble.. allowing it to be an electron carrier within the phospholipid bilayer.

Gordon Allport is a _________ theorist. He came up with three types of traits: cardinal, central and secondary. Describe these 3 types. He also coins the term of functional anatomy, describe this.

Cardinal- traits around which a person organizes their life ex: mother theresa would be self sacrafice. Central- characteristics that are easy to infer- ex honestly or charisma Secondary- don't occur as often- only appear in certain situations Functional anatomy- a behavior continues despite the satisfaction of the needs that caused the behavior. Ex: fishing for fun even though you already got the fish you need for dinner. THINK FUNCTIONAL=FUN.

Operant and classical conditioning are both types of associative learning. How do they differ though? Also name the key scientist related with each.

Classical: utilizes instincts and biological responses- Pavlov Operant: links voluntary behaviors with consequences in order to hopefully alter the frequency of those behaviors. - Skinner

Which isomers have same connectivity: conformational or configurational?

Conformational

what is the equation for density? What are the SI units?

D=m/v SI units= kg/m3 but may see g/cm3 or g/mLon the MCAT- could be more convenient. Remember that a mL and a cm# are the same unit BUT a liter is not equal to m3.

What is recombinant DNA?

DNA produced by combining DNA from two different sources

How does the ego relieve anxiety caused by clash of id and superego?

Defense mechanisms

Who coined psychosocial development theory? What is it? Name and descibribe the 8 stages and at what ages they occur. During which stage does the "physiological revolution" occur?

Developed by Erik Erickson. Psychosocial theory emphasizes emotional development and interaction with the social environment. Physiological revolution occurs in the identity vs role confusion stage

What are transgenic mice? What are organisms with this characteristic called?

Developed by integrating a gene of interest into the germ line or embryonic cells of a developing mouse. Organisms that have two difference lineages are called chimeras.

how does the energy of a photon relate to its frequency? What equation describes this?

E= hf. As frequency increases, so does energy. Blue/ violet lights have higher frequency so therefore higher energy. h= plancks constant (6.626 x 10^-34)

Define enthalpy and entropy and give the equation that relates them. From this equation, name the trends that occur in regards to being an exothermic or endothermic reaction- be sure to consider temperature.

Enthalpy- measures overall heat of system Entropy- measures the degree of disorder/ dispersion. delta G= deltaH-TdeltaS: This equation is used for reactions occuring at any concentration of products and reactions, unlike the standard free energy equation.

What occurs first when a body enters a prolonged fast state? Which hormone does this?

Enzyme phosphorylation and dephosphorylation will occur first. This action is carried out by glucagon. Enzymes must be halted in order to halt glycogen storage (since we don't want to store glucose anymore, we need to use it).2

What are eros and thanatos according to Freud?

Eros- basic life insticts (thirst, hunger, etc) ; Thanatos- death instinct

Where is elastin found? What is its function

Extracellular matrix of connective tissue. It stretches and recoils like a spring, restores original shape of tissue

if the pressure outside changes from 1 atm to 0.99 atm, what will be the subsequent change of the force on a rectangular window?

F=P/V. If there is a 1 percent decrease in pressure, there will be a 1% decrease in force.

name all products of the anterior pituitary and which are tropic and which are direct. (pneumonic)

FLAT PEG tropic: FSH LH ACTH TSH direct: prolactin- stimulate milk production in mammary glands endorphins- decrease perception of pain growth hormone- promotes growth of bone and muscle

what are the roles of FSH and LH for males and females

FSH- in females- stimulate follicle maturation. in males- spermatogenesis LH- in males- stimulate ovulation in females. testosterone synthesis in males.

Define the following terms as they related to bacteria and their use/ lack of use of oxygen. Facultative anaerobes: Aerotolerant anaerobes: Obligate aerobes: Obligate anaerobes:

Facultative anaerobes: use O2 when present, but can also switch to anaerobic if not Aerotolerant: unable to use O2 but are not harmed by its presence Obligate aerobes: Need oxygen for metabolism Obligate anaerobes: cannot survive in O2 environments

what is the equation that gives the weight of a volume of a given substance with a known density? Hint: this equation is often used in buoyancy problems. Also define specific gravity

Fg= DVg specific gravity: when the density of a fluid is compared to that of pure water at 1 atm. SG= density/ 1g/cm3 (water- so if the density of the fluid is given in g/cm3, the SG will be a dimensionless number. If the density of the fluid is given in kg/m3, then change the bottom number to be 1000kg/m3 which is the density of water expressed differently). usually expressed as a decimal

the mitchondrial matrix is located within the innter mitochondrial membrane. The inner membrane has folds called _________. Also, what occurs in the matrix? Does the inner mitochondrial membrane contain cholesterol?

Folds called cristae. In the matrix, the citric acid cycle produces electron carriers used in the ETC. The inner mitochondrial membrane does not contain cholesterol, unlike other membranes that do.

look over an inclined place problem. What are the two things to note when considering the force of gravity as it applies to the force perpendicular to the surface of the inclined plane and the force parallel to the plane.

For the force of gravity perpendicular to the plane (Fg⍊)= mgcos⍬. For the force of gravity parallel to the plane (Fg⌰)= mgsin⍬. Think parallel train tracks need SIGNS.

Acetyl CoA forms fatty acids via __________. Fatty acids catabolize to acetyl CoA via________.

Formation of fatty acids: FA synthesis. Degradation of FA: B-oxidation.

What are the 8 endocrine glands? (pneumonic)

G HAT PPPP

cAMP mediated protein kinase activity is increased when what is bound to it?

G-protein coupled receptors

What is a semicarbazide?When reacted with aldehyde/ketone, what is formed?

H2N-NH-C(O)NH2. Forms a semicarbazone.

Difference between ATP hydrolysis and ATP cleavage.

HYdrolysis- used in the context of coupled reactions to use ATP as an energy source. cleavage- a high energy phosphate group is transferred to another molecule.

In hyperglycemic state- which will act: glucagon or insulin? How about hypoglycemic?

HYperglycemic (like after a meal)- insulin will act. Hypoglycemic (starvation perhaps)- glucagon.They act in opposition to each other.

Define habituation and dishabituation.

Habituation: repeated exposure to the same stimulus, which causes a decrease in response Dishabituation: a response is recovered because a second stimulus causes you to notice it again (instead of being used to it)

how can you determine if a force is conservative? What does this mean regarding the equation: deltaE= delta U + delta K?

If the change in energy in the round-trip path is zero. Or if not considering a round trip, any path between two points has equal energy change. You would set this equation equal to zero since there is no change in energy.

When calcuating a direction of magnetic force using velocity direction and direction of magnetic force, if you hand points into page and fingers point of of page, what does this mean?

It means the velocity is parallel/ antiparallel to the magnetic field. In this case, the force is ZERO.

What is the VSEPR theory? give the geometric arrangment, the name of the arrangment and the angle between the electron pairs for the following compounds: BeCl2, BH3, CH4, PCL5, and SF6

It predicts the shapes of molecules based on the idea that electrons repel each other. it gives the ELECTRONIC geometry, not the molecular geometry. it says that electron pairs will be arranged around the central atom so that they are as far apart as possible.

Name the 4 phases of the menstrual cycle. identify chracteristics. identify trends of the following hormones: LH, FSH, estrogen, progesterone

LH: peaks at ovulation FSH: also peaks at ovulation.. level is not ever as high as LH estrogen: increases in follicular and luteal phase progesteroneL increases in luteal phase. follicular phase begins when menstrual flow begins.fsh is increasing, LH stays same, estrogen ovulation: LH surge causes ovulation, the release of ovum from the ovary into the peritoneal cavity luteal: ruptured follicle forms corpus luteum which secretes progesterone, which causes negative feedback on the other 3 hormones. menstruation: occurs if ovum is not fertilized. all levels of hormones decrease again and restart cycle.

Do carboxylic acids usually have a higher or lower pKa compared to other ORGANIC compounds? Do they have high levels of hydrogen bonding? What affect does this have on melting/boiling points? How does this compare to alcohols.

Lower pKa. Around 3-6. They have high levels of hydrogen bonding, meaning they have high boiling/melting points, even higher than that of alcohols.

lenses are often described in terms of its power. What is this measured in and what is the equation to find it?

Measured in diopters. P= 1/f. P will have same sign as f so if f is positive, then it is a converging lens. If f is negative, it is a diverging lens

Name the 3 types of RNA and their functions

Messenger mRNA- carries message from DNA in the nucleus by performing transcription. Is translated in cytoplasm Transfer tRNA- brings amino acids and recognizes the codon on the mRNA using an anticodon Ribosomal rRNA- makes up ribosome and is enzymatically active

For SN2 reactions, which reactive sites are preferred? ( methyl, primary, secondary, or tertiary)

Methyl and primary because STERIC HINDRANCE poses a barrier to SN2 reactions

What are knockout mice?

Mice with genes deleted.

Do catalysts impact the thermodynamics of a biological reaction? Why or why not? Do they alter the equilibrium constant? Why or why not? Do catalysts impact the kinetics of a reaction? Why or why not?

No, it does not affect the thermodynamics because the overall free energy is not impacted. It also does not alter the equilibrium constant. It does impact the kinetics of the reaction because it affects the rate. It allows the reaction to get to equilibrium quicker.

What types of bonds constitute a triple bond?

One sigma bond and 2 pi bonds

Increase in oxidation state is usually accompanied by the increase of bonds to __________. Reductio refers to a decrease in oxidation state of a gain in ___________. A decrease in oxidation state (reduction) is accompanied by an increase of bonds to ________

Oxygen or other heteroatoms. Electrons. Hydrogens or other atoms with low electronegativity.

Primary alcohols ---> aldehydes with what reagent?

PCC (pyrindinium chlorochromate)

Name and describe the 3 point mutations. What is a frameshift mutation?

Point mutations change a single base: silent- no effect missense- produce a codon that codes for a different amino acid than intended nonsense- produces a premature stop codon. Frameshift result from base addition or deletion and shifts the reading frame.

Which direction do positive and negative charges move when considering potential voltage. What is kept the same in both cases?

Positive charges move from higher electric potential to lower electric potential. this is opposite for negative. In this case, when considering potential voltage, for a positive test charge, the voltage will be negative because the final place (Vb) has a lower electric potential that does the initial place (Va) The oppostie is true for negative charges. Their final voltage will be postive because they are moving from low electric potential to high. BUT in both cases, Wab is negative and electic potential energy is decreasing. Just when you divide this by a negative charge (-q) it makes the quotient postive. When you divide it by a postive charge (+q), it makes the quotient negative. Bottom of pg 161 if confused.

Define primary socialization, secondary socializationm anticipatory socialization and resocialization.

Primary- socialization that occurs during childhood, learn acceptable behaviors from parents and other adults. Provides foundation for forming personal opinions Secondary- learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of larger society. Ex; behavior necessary to thrive in school, in sports, at church. Can also occur when changing school or profession Anticipation- process by which a person prepares for future changes in occupations living situations or relationships (ex: couple living together before marriage). Resocialization: discarding old behaviors in favor of new ones to make a life change

What ultimately produces ATP, flow of electrons or proton gradient? How are these connected.

Proton gradient. the ETC produces the proton motive force that is able to give energy to ATP synthase.

Define punishment-and positive and negative punishment

Punishment- uses conditioning to reduce the occurrence of a behavior Positive punishment- adds an unpleasant consequence in order to reduce that behavior (by a child misbehaving, they now have an extra chore) negative punishment- taking something away in order to reduce a behavior. (by a child misbehaving, they now can't play outside).

Give a breif description of Gabriel Synthesis of amino acids. Name reactants and types of reactions.

Reagents: potassium phthalimide, diethyl bromomalonate, an alkyl halide, and water Type of rxns: Sn2, hydrolysis, decarboxylation The phthalamide attacks the diethyl bromomalonate and forms a phthalimidomalonic ester which attacks an alkyl halide. This is then hydrolyzed and the esters are converted to carboxylic acids. One carboxylic acid is removed by decarboxylation.

Define the following terms as they relate to retrieval of memorized information: Recognition Recall Relearning/ spacing effect

Recognition: merely identifying a piece of info previously learned Recall: retrieval and statement of previously learned info Relearning/ spacing effect: Able to rememorize something if its the second time you've seen if. Spacing effect refers to the amount of time between learning and relearning-- it is better if wait longer periods of time between the two. This is why cramming doesn't work

Aldehydes and ketones can be reduced to form ___________. This is done by what reagents?

Reduced to form alcohols. Performed by hydride reagents: LiAlH4 and NaBH4

Define sensory memory and the three main types that may be discussed on the MCAT. is it long term or short term? Where are these memories maintained in the brain? What is the difference between whole report and half report

Sensory memory consists of iconic (visual), echoic (auditory) and haptic (touch) memory. It lasts a very short time- unless they are attended to. These memories are temporarily maintained by the projection of areas of each sensory system. When looking at the picture, if this was flashed before someone, if they were asked to list all the letters, they could only name 3 or 4 (called whole report.) when asked to identify one row, however, this is called partial report and they can do it with 100 percent accuracy- showing that all the letters do make it to iconic memory.

What is gluconeogenesis and where does it occur? The three irreversible steps of glycolysis (name them) must be surpassed by what 3 enzymes/

Synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate substrates. Primarily in the liver. It is the reverse of glycolysis. 1. Pyruvate carboxylase converts pyruvate to oxaloacetate, which is then converted to phosphoenolpyruvate by phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase. These bypass pyruvate kinase. The activators/inhibitors are the opposite- PEPCK is activated by glucagon and cortisol. 2. fructose 1,6 bisphosphatase converts fructose 1-6 bisphosphate to fructose 6 phosphate, bypassing PFK-1. This is the rate limiting step of gluconeogenesis. Activated by ATP and glucagon. Inhibited by AMP and insulin. 3. glucose 6 phosphatase converts glucose 6-phosphate to free glucose (like the last step in glycogenolysis). It is found in the endoplasmic reticulum of the liver.

Define tautomerization and explain the idea of alpha racemization.

Tautomerization is interconverting from the keto to the enol tautomer. An aldehyde or ketone with a chiral alpha carbon will rapidly become a racemic mixture as the forms interconvert, this is alpha racemization.

Activity of an enzyme is influenced bu its environment in 3 ways. Name them and the effects they have on the enzyme.

Temperature- some heat will increase rate, but too much will denature the enzyme. pH- need accurate pH because of the effects if has on the ionization of the active site. Changes in pH can also lead to denaturation of the enzyme. Ideal pH for most enzymes: 7.4. Gastric enzymes: 2. Pancreatic: 8.5 Salinity-altering concentration of salt can disrupt hydrogen and ionic bonds. Could cause denaturation

What is the cocktail party phenomenon?

The ability to pick a personally relevant stimulus (e.g., your name) out of a complex environment. For example: you're a fencer, and you're at a party and you hear someone mentioning the sport. Even though there are lots of other conversations going on, because it's something you're interested in, you'll be able to "tune in" to that conversation and listen in.

What is neuroplasticity?

The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. Better when younger.

What is the photoelectric effect?

The emission of electrons from a metal when light shines on the metal

In organic chemistry, do more oxidized carbons have priority? Also define what an oxidized carbon is.

The more oxidized the carbon is, the higher its priority. Oxidation state increases with more bonds to heteroatoms (atoms besides carbon like oxygen, nitrogen, halogens, phosphorus.

Are dicarboxylic acids more or less acidic than monocarboxylic acids? Why?

They are more acidic because carboxylic acid groups are EWG, so having two of them would make the compound more acidic.

Are the hydroxyl hydrogens of phenols more or less acidic than those of other alcohols. What does this mean for the pKa of phenols?

They are more acidic because the aromatic nature of the ring allows for resonance stabilization on the anion. Since they are more acidic, the pKa is lower

Name the preferred fuels for the well-fed and fasting state for each of these organs. liver, resting skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, adipose tissue, brain, red blood cells.

Things to note - while liver cannot use ketone bodies, it is the location where ketone bodies are produced. - cardiac muscle prefers fatty acids over glucose ALWAYS - brain will first use glucose (ingested), then it will turn to the glucose from glycogen strores, then in prolonged fasting it will turn to ketones. - red blood cells must always use glucose because do not have mitochondia to process fatty acids

Define saponification. How is this related to soap?

When long chain carboxylic acids react with sodium or potassium hydroxide. A salt is formed. In the case of soap formation, mixing fatty acids with Na or K forms the salt known as soap.

Are the R and S forms of the same molecule enantiomers?

Yes

when adding, subtractingn multiypling and dividing with exponents, do the bases have to be the same? when multiplying, what is done with the exponents? How about dividing? what about (X^A) ^A? what about (X/Y) ^ A X^-A X^A/B

Yes if multiplying (and have same base) the add exponents if dividing (and have same base) then subtract exponents what about (X^A) ^A? then you would do X ^ AxA what about (X/Y) ^ A then it is X^A/ Y^A X^-A= 1/X^A B (square root of X^A)

Are both purines and pyrimidines aromatic? What qualifications does something need for it to be aromatic? What are heterocycles?

Yes they both are. 1. cyclic 2. planar 3. conjugated (alternating single/ double or triple bonds) 4. contain 4n+2 pi electrons (n is any integer)- Huckel's rule Heterocycles are ring structures that contain at least 2 different elements in the ring

Is the creation of an aldol a condensation reaction? Why or why not?

Yes, because water is released in the end. This also makes it a dehydration reaction.

For cross products and the right hand rule, does the order of the numbers matter? How about for addition and subtraction of vectors? Does the order matter?

Yes. For determining magnitude, it does not because 3x4=4x3 but when determining the direction of resulting vectors, order must be considered. For ex, if C=-3x4 and D=4x-3, the thumb points in the direction of the first number listen, the fingers point in the direction of the second number and the direction the palm is facing will be the direction of the resultant vector.... one will be into page, the other will be out of page. Look at bottom of pg 11 in PM review if confused..... I wrote out a nice summary for you. For addition, it is communicative meaning that the order doesn't matter- magnitude and direction will be the same regardless. For subtraction, magnitude will be the same but direction will be oppostie. For explanation, look at top of pg 12 in PM review.

Do conjugate bases of strong acids make good leaving groups? Why? Give some examples of conjugate bases.

Yes. The conjugate bases of strong acids are always weak bases, which make great leaving groups. Some examples are I-, Br- and Cl-

when finding the gauge pressure of an object in one liquid then submerge it to a deeper liquid, what must you consider when considering the gauge pressure at the lower liquid.

You must account for both pressures above it too since gauge pressure= pressure- atmospheric pressure. For atmospheric pressure, must account for the liquid above AND the atmospheric pressure that is compressing both liquids

how can work be determined from a pressure-volume curve. is work negative or positive in the following scenarios - when a gas expands -when a gas compresses what would the work be if volume stay constant while pressure changes? What is this called? What would happen if the colume shifted while the pressue remained constant? Using a PV graph, how do you know if work is positive or negative?

a pressure volume curve shows the relationship between pressure and volume. The area within these curves is work when a gas expands, work was fone BY the gas and is therefore positive when gas is compressed, work was done ON the gas and the work is negative. (think that work is giving of itself...so as a result, it is negative). if volume stays constant as pressure changes, then no work is done because there is no area to calculate (isovolumetric/isochoric process) if pressure remains constant while volume increases, then the work can be determine by the area of of the graph (W=P x delta V)- this is called isobaric process If the arrows on a PV graph are going clockwise, then they do positive work on environment. If arrows are counter clockwise, they are negative.

Sigmund Freuds approach to personality is considered a _____________ theory. Arragne and define the following terms as they relate to his theory on personality: -superego -secondary process - pleasure principle - id -primary process - reality principle - conscience -ego-ideal - instinct - wish fulfillment - ego

a psychoanalytic/psychodynamic theory of personality. The id is the basic, inborn urge to survive and reproduce. - pleasure principle: id functions in a way to achieve immediate gratification and relieve tension - primary process: id response to frustration is "get satisfaction now, not later" - wish fulfillment occurs through mental imagery that fulfills the need for satisfaction. Because mental imagery cannot reduce tension, must turn to ego ego: organizer of the mind, but will always be influenced by the id. - reality principle controls operation of ego (takes objective reality into account) - secondary process: the process of the reality principle guiding or inhibiting the id's pleasure principle. Superego= perfectionist of personality - contains two parts: - the conscience: collection bad actions for which a child is punished - the ego-ideal: proper actions, child is rewarded

what is a metallic bond? How does this make sense if looking at the periodic table?

a sea of electrons flowing over metal cations- equal distribution. By looking at the periodic table, we can see that metals are all the way to the left, showing that they easily lose electrons. These loose electrons are the ones that make up the sea

what are the units of k for a second order reaction?

a second order rxn is rate = k[A]^2 L/(mol x s) ^2. this is because rate= k[A]^2. rate is M/s and [A]= (mol/L) ^2.

how does relaxation of a muscle happen?

acetylcholine degraded in the synapse by acetlycholinesterases. sacrolemma repolarizes, calcium release ceases, ATP binds to myosin heads, freeing them from actin.

in single-slit diffraction with a lens, what is the equation to determine where the dark fringes are

a sin(angle) = n (wavelength) a= width of slit angle= between the line drawn from the center of the lens to the dark fringe and the axis of the lens n= integer indicating the number of the fringe wavelength= wavelength of the incident wave

what is the difference between single slit and slit-lens system and double slit system?

a single slit will see light waves diffract outward after going through slit but will not see fringes. Slit- lens will see fringes.

Define surfactant. Soaps act as sufactants and form ________.

a substance that tends to reduce the surface tension of a liquid in which it is dissolved. They form micelles (which are composed of the fatty acid tail parts of the triacylglyceride with a salt on it)

Define mental set and functional fixedness

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past. Functional fixedness is the inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner.

Define Conflict Theory

a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of groups that are competing for scarce resources- such as money or power.

gel filtration chromatography

a type of column chromatography that separates proteins based on their size using size-exclusion beads; also called size-exclusion chromatography

What is Hill's coefficient?

a value that indicates the nature of binding by the molecule in cooperative enzymes. if greater than 1, positive binding is occuring (one ligand binding increases other ligand binding). If =1, does not exhibit cooperative binding. If less than one, negative binding is occuring (one ligant binds and it decreases other binding).

what are the two refractory periods that occur after hyperpolarization

absolute- no amount of stimulation can cause another action potential to occur relative- a greater than normal stimulation is needed to cause an action potential

What does IR spectroscopy measure?

absorption of infrared light, which causes molecular vibration

what is the difference between accuracy and precision. What are the other names used for these terms?

accuracy (validity)- ability of the instrument to measure a true value precision (reliability)- ability of the instrument to read consistently/ within a narrow range

define the following as they relate to the pancreas: acinar cells endocrine functions pancreatic amylase pancreatic lipase trypsinogen chymotrypsinogen carboxypeptidase A and B major and minor papillae

acinar cells: exocrine cells responsible for release of pancreatic juices, which are bicarbonate-rich, alkaline solutions. endocrine functions: release of insulin, glucagon and somatostatin- all maintain blood sugar levels. pancreatic amylase: breaks down large polysaccharides into small disaccharides pancreatic lipase: breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol trypsinogen, chymotrypsin and carboxypeptidases: released from pancreas in zymogen form but are activated by enteropeptidase in duodenum major and minor papillae: ducts bring these pancreaic juices to the duodenum

difference between active and passive immunity

active immunity is when a foreign body is injected so antibodies are generated by B-cells and are ready to attack when the body gets it again passive immunity- antibodies are transferred to an individual

What is Ecstasy (MDMA)?

acts as hallucinogen and amphetamine. Acts like amphetamines, increases heart rate, increased blood pressure, blurry vision

how to find the oxidation number of an atom in a compound, for example, find the oxidation number in the carbon of (NH2)-(NH2)-(C)-(O)

add up oxidation numbers of all other atoms. then, you will know that carbon must have an oxidation number to neutralize it. oxygen has oxidation number of 2-, N has 3-, and H has 1+. when adding these together (accounting for multiple nitrogen and hydrogen atoms, we will get -2 + -3 + -3 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1= -4. so carbon has an oxidation number of 4

After neurotransmitters are used, what happens to them?

after a neurotransmitter reaches a postsynaptic cell, it must be removed from the synaptic cleft. 1. it can be broken down by enzymes 2. they can be brought back into the presynaptic neuron using reuptake carriers. seratonin, dopamine and norepinephrine use reuptake carriers. 3. they can diffuse out of the synaptic cleft (NO for ex).

what is the major histocompatability complex (MHC). Is it part of the innate or specific immune response? What is the difference between MHC class 1 and MHC class 2? Which is endogenus and which is exogenous?

after macrophages phagocytize an invader (through endocytosis) it presents little pieces of the invader using MHC. when it is presented, it can be recognized by the adaptive (specific) immune system MHC class 1 is in all cells that have a nucleus. It is endogenous because it binds to antigens that come from the inside of the cell. Allows immune system to monitor whether these cells have been infected with a virus. If so, killed by T-cells. MHC class 2- displayed by antigen-presenting cells like macrophages or dendritic cells. Because these antigens orinigated from outside the cell, the MHC 2 pathways is often called an exogenous pathway.

Which stages of protein synthesis require energy?

all of them- initiation, elongation and termination

define allantois and amnion

allantois: involved in fluid exchange between embryo and yolk sac (where blood cells are developed early on). amnion: surrounds allantois. it is a thin, tough membrane filled with amniotic fluid (shock absorber during pregnancy).

What do ion channels do?Name and define the 3 types

allow the passage of ions across the cell membrane - ungated: always open - voltage gated: open within a range of membrane potentials ligand gated: open in the presence od specific binding substance, usually a hormone or neurotransmitter

how does beta decay differ from alpha decay?

alpha decay is the loss of an alpha particle which has 2 protons and 2 neutrons. In beta - decay, a neutron is converted to a proton an a B- particle (Z= -1 and A=0). in beta + decay (positron emission), a PROTON is converted to a neutron and a B+ particle (Z= +1 and A=0). Look at page 317 equations if confused.

what is the equation for magnification what does it mean if m is less than 1? greater than 1? what if m is negative? positive?

also gives ratio of size of image to the size of the object m less than one= image is smaller than object (reduced) m more than one= image is larger than the object m negative means inverted image m positive means upright imge

epinephrine, norepinephrine, triiodothyronine and thyroxine are all what kind of hormone? this type of hormone is unpredictable so name how these hormones act in the body- comment on their onset (fast or slow) and whether they are short or long lived.

amino-acid derivative hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine have fast onset but are short lived (adrenaline). they are like peptide hormones. thyroxine and triiodothyronine- slower onset but longer duration- similar to steroid hormones. they regulate metabolic rate over a long period of time

Define dissociative amnesia and dissociative fugue

amnesia- inability to recall past experience, but is not due to a neurological disorder. It is usually linked to trauma. fugue- sudden travel to new location

in the endocrine system, the anterior pituitary is controlled by what brain structure? How does the structure control the anterior pituitary? Name the 4 tropic hormones that are released from the hypothalamus and what they cause the anterior pituitary to release- pneumonic. what kind of feedback will the ones released from the anterior pituitary have on the hypothalamus?

anterior pituitary is controlled by the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus secretes compounds into the hypophyseal portal system, which connects it to the anterior pituitary. 1. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) which later stimulates the follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and the luteinizing hormone (LH). 2. Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) releases growth hormone 3. thyroid-releasing hormone (TRH) releases thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) 4. Corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) pneumonic: hypothalamus: GGTC (gonads grow thy court) anterior pituitary: FLGTA- Follice stim, Luteinizing hormone and GTA (grand theft auto) GH, TSH and ACTH the ones released from the anterior pituitary (FLGTA) will produce another hormone (cortisol for ex) that will have negative feedback on the production of CRF and ACTH.

In extraction, what are the names of the 2 layers that are formed

aqueous phase and organic phase

comment on the thickness of walls, elasticity, valve presence, high or low in muscle and muscle compositition of arteries and veins.

arteries- thick walls, elastic, no valves, high muscle smooth muscle veins- thin, inelastic, valves, skeletal muscle (a little smooth),

Difference between assimilation and multiculturalism

assimilation (uneven) merging of cultures, melting pot- different elements are incorporated to get an overall singular culture. multiculturalism- celebration of coexisting cultures, a cultural mosaic.

Define the following terms as they relate to the encoding stage of memory: automatic processing controlled processing visual encoding acoustic encoding semantic encoding *of visual, acoustic and semantic, tell which one is the strongest and which is the weakest self-reference effect maintenance rehearsal method of loci peg-word chunking

automatic processing- info gained without effort controlled processing- info gained with effort *controlled can eventually become automatic- think learning a language* visual encoding- encoding info by seeing it (weakest) acoustic encoding- encoding info by hearing it semantic encoding- encoding info by putting it in a meaningful context (strongest) self-reference effect- we recall info best when we put it into the context of our own lives maintenance rehearsal- repetition of a piece of info method of loci- associating items in leist with a location along a route we already know (think loci= location) peg-word: associates numbers with items that rhyme (one= buns, two= stew, three= tea) (think if pegging work with number) chunking: memory trick that involves taking a large list and chucking things together to make a memorable list with related meaning. chunking

axial vs appendicular skeleton

axial: midline structures: skull, vertebral column, ribcage, hyoid bone( bone in neck used for swallowing) vs. appendicular: limb bones, pectoral girdle, pelvis

when approaching radioactive decay problems, what is the first thing you must do?

balance the number of protons (atomic numbers).

why will the second ionization energy for Na+ be disproportionately larger than the first?

because after the first ionization, it becomes a noble gas. to take another electron away would be extremely difficult

define the following as they relate to the liver: bile ducts bile hepatic portal vein glycogen triacylglycerol glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis lipoprotiens detoxification bilirubin and conjugation jaundice albumin clotting factors

bile ducts connect liver with the gall bladder and small intestine. bile is produced in the liver but is stored in the gall bladder. the hepatic portal vein brings all blood that drains from the abdominal portion of the digestive tract to the liver before it goes to the inferior vena cava. from this blood, it can soak up glycogen and triacylglycerols to be stored in the liver. glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis can be performed by the liver to create glucose for the rest of the body. it can also mobilize fats using lipoproteins (carries IDLs, HDLs and LDLs). the liver detoxifies endogenous (ammonia) and exogenous compounds (alcohols and medications). bilirubin is located in bile and is a byproduct of hemoglobin breakdown. it travels to the liver to be conjugated so that it can be secreted into bile for excretion. If liver cannot process bilirubin due to liver damage, then jaundice occurs. liver also produces albumin, a protein that maintains plasma oncotic pressure and serves as a carrier for many drugs and hormones. the liver also produces clotting factors.

what are the antigens produced by blood type A? antibodies? what are the antigens produced by bloot dype B? antibodies?

blood type A- produces A antigens and anti-B antibodies blood type B is opposite.

Define spherical aberration define dispersion define chromatic aberration

blurring of the periphery of an image as a result of inadequate reflection of parallel beams at the endge of a mirror or inadequate refraction of parallel beams at the edge of a lens dispersion: when varius wavelengths of light seperate from each other (ex: prism). red is on top bc it has least amount of refraction while violet is always at the bottom chromatic aberration: dispersive effect in a spherical lens with significant splitting of white light which results in rainbow halos around images

is the pancreas an endocrine or exocrine gland? name how it functions as each for the hormons released, give their functions

both. exocrine- secrete substances (digestive enzymes) into ducts. endocrine- clusters of hormone producing cells called the islets of langerhans with alpha, beta and delta cells. alpha secretes glucagon- utilizes glycogen stores using gluconeogenesis (fasting) beta secretes insulin- stores glucose when there is excess. if there is too much insulin, it will cause hypoglycemia. If too little, hyperglycemia. delta secretes somatostatin- inhibits both insulin and glucagon secretion

fill in the blanks with terms relating to the small intestine. The presence of chyme in the duodenum causes release of _________ which breaks down dimers and trimers into monomers that can be __________ (absorbed/digested). Undigested disaccharides have an osmotic effect pulling ________ into the stool and causing diarrhea.

brush-border enzymes. absorbed water

when the pH of a solution is near to the pKa, the solution will act as a ____________. How is this shown on a titration curve?

buffer. The titration curve will be relatively flat near the 2 pKa's of an amino acid- one around 2 and one 9-10. At these points, pH stays relatively constant, allowing them to act as a buffer.

How are cyclic anhydrides formed?

by heating carboxylic acids

what is it called when both + and - enantiomers are present in equal concentrations. Is optical activity observed here?

called a racemic mixture. Optica activity is not observed.

when cyclic compounds shift from the a-anomer to the b-anomer (or vice versa), what is this called? what is the intermediate?

called mutarotation. Intermediate is the straight-chain form

what is the biological perspective of personality

can be explained by genetic expression in the brain

What are prosthetic groups? Proteins with lipid, carbohydrate of nucleic acid prosthetic groups each have their own name. Name them

can be organic molecultes or inorganic (such as metal ions). They covalently attach to proteins to form conjugated proteins. Names are lipoproteins, glycoproteins and nucleoproteins.

what are secondary batteries

can be recharged.While being recharged, an external voltage is applied so that the current is driven towards the positive end of the secondary battery. When it discharges- the cell is called galvanic (or voltaic) When it recharges- called electrolytic

define equipoise

cannot approach a research study knowing that one treatment is superior. If you are made aware that one treatment is working, you must stop the trial because providing inferior treatment when another is available is harmful.

fatty acids are ___________________ with a long chain. Describe how fatty acids are named and what palmitic acid looks like.

carboxylic acids. (18:2 cis, cis-9-12) would mean that there are 18 carbons, 9 and 12 have cis-double bonds. It is a w-6 fatty acid because there are 6 bonds between the last carbon and the last double bond( 18-12). Palmitic acid is (18:0) meaning that is completely saturated and has an 18 carbon chain.

what are intercalated discs and gap junctions? which type of muscle to they belong to?

cardiac muscle cells are connected by intercalated discs, which contain gap junctions which allow for rapid coordinated depolarization of muscle cells throughout the heard muscle (SA node, AV node, etc)

adrenal medulla hormones

catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine). causes sympathetic response, increase heart rate, increased blood flow to muscle, heart, brain.

define the following terms as they relate to the structure of a neuron cell body/soma location of action potentials axon myelin/myelin sheath axon hillock location of endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes dendrites oligodendrocytes- what do they produce? Schwann cells- what do they produce? nodes of ranvier nerve terminal/synaptic bouton synapse (what are the three things that make this up) nerve tracts nuclei

cell body/soma- nucleus location location of action potentials- axon hillock (sums up exhitatory and inhibitoyr signals.. if excitatory enough, then a action potential is initiated. axon- long part that terminates close to target structure (another neuron, muscle, gland) myelin/myelin sheath- fatty membrane that maintains the electrical signal within a neuron. axon hillock- see above location of ER and ribosomes- cell body/soma dendrites- receive incoming message from other cells oligodendrites- produce myelin in CNS schwann cells- produce myelin in PNS nodes of ranvier- breaks in myelin sheath- these are critical for rapid signal conduction nerve terminal/synaptic bouton- large and flat to maximize transmission of signal to next neuron and ensure proper release of neurotransmitters synapse- amde up of nerve terminal, synaptic cleft and post synaptic membrance nerve- multiple neurons bonded together tracts- axons that are bundled together- they carry only one type of info (motor or sensory) nuclei- cell bodies of the neurons in the same tract are grouped into nuclei.

for a spherical mirror, what is the center of curvature and the radius of curvature.

center (if sphere were completed, this is where the centerwould be): point on the optical axis located at a distance equal to the radius of curvature from the vertex of the mirror.

how do the structures of centrioles and flagella differ.

centrioles: have 9 triplets of microtubules with hollow center. Flagella have 9 doublet microtubules in outer ring with two in center (9+2 structure)

Equation for acceleration. How would you determine instantaneous acceleration?

change in velocity/time. Instantaneous acceleration is finding the line tangent to the curve at any time t. If slope is positive, acceleration is positive. If negative, then deceleration is occuring

define cohort, cross-sectional and case-control studies. Are these observational or experimental? which is a longitudinal study?

cohort- sorted into groups based on EXPOSURE and are analyzed in future to see if develop certain outcome. ex: 100 smokers and 100 nonsmokers followed to see if develop lung cancer . - cohort is longitudinal because it follows them for a long period of time. cross-sectional: categroize patients at certain point in time. Prevalence of lung cancer in smokers and nonsmokers at a given point in time case- control: start at organizing groups based on OUTCOME and look back to see how subjects in each group had exposure to a risk factor. 100 patients with lung cancer and 100 without are assessed for smoking history.

define the following and give an example: combination reaction decomposition reaction combustion reaction single displacement reaction/ oxidation reduction double displacement reactions/ metathesis reactions neutralizationn reactions

combination reaction: two or more reactants combine to form one - ex: 2H2 + O2 -> 2H2O decomposition: one reactant breaks down to two. ex: 2HgO -> 2Hg + O2 combustion: involves a hydrocarbon and an oxidant (usually oxygen). Usually forms carbon dioxide and water single displacement: when an atom or ion in a compound is replaced by an atom or ion of another element. these are usually oxidation-reduction reactions double replacement/ metathesis reactions: elements from two compounds swap places with eachother. Usually, a solid and an aqueous solution are formed neutralization: specific type of double replacement reaction in which an acid reacts with a base to produce a salt and water. For example, HCl + NaOH -> NaCl + H2O

what is the complement system? is this a specific or nonspecific response? what is a classical vs alternative pathway

complement- proteins in the blood that act as a nonspecific defense classical- activation requires bonding of antibody to pathogen alternative- activation does not require antibodies.

what is connective tissue? How does it relate to epithelial cells?

connective tissue: supports body and provides a framework for the epithelial cells to carry out their function *while epithelial contribute to parenchyma, connective tissue contributes to the stroma (support structure). some examples: bone, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, adipose tissue and blood (CT LAB). NOT MUSCLES!!! most cells in connective tissues produce and secrete materials such as collagen and elastin.

What does the basal ganglia do? What disease is associated with it?

control of movement- makes it smooth. Parkinson's disease is associated with damage in the basal ganglia

the adrenal cortex releases these 3 hormones: glucocorticouds, mineralcorticoids and cortical sex hormones (think the 3 S's Sugar, salt, sex). describe each one and be sure to describe the angiotensin-aldosterone system.

cortex releases 3 types of corticosteroids: glucocorticoids- regulate glucose levels. 2 types: cortisol and cortisone- they both raise blood glucose b increasing gluconeogenesis. release is stimulated by ACTH from the anterior pituitary, which is stimulated by CRF from the hypothalamus mineralocoricoids- ex: aldosterone which increases sodium reabsoption. water follows this sodium reabsorption and increases blood volume and pressure. this is controlled by the angiotensin-aldosterone system. decreased blood pressure causes juxtaglomerular cells of the kidney to secrete renin, which secretes angiotensin 1 which converts to angiotensin 2 which stimulate cortex to secrete aldosterone. Once blood pressure is restored, negative feedback will stop this process. cortical sex hormones: androgens and estrogens. more common in women since men produce androgens in the testes on their own.

Crossing two heterozygotes for a trait with complete dominance results in what ratios for genotype and phenotype

crossing Pp x Pp. genotype ratio 1:2:1- PP: 2 Pp: 1pp. phenotype ratio is 3:1 because all 2 PP and Pp products are dominant phenotype, while pp will give recessive phenotype

What is gene therapy?

cures genetic deficiencies by introducing a functional gene with a viral vector

electrons liberated from the metal by the photoelectric effect will produce a net charge flow per unit time which is a _________. Higher intensity of the light beam will mean a ________ (greater/lesser) number of electrons liberated from the metal.

current - higher intensity of beam = greater number of electrons liberated

what trend does atomic radius have on the periodic table. How does this differ from ionic radius?

decreases from left to right. becayse the positive charge of the nucleus pulls electrons tightly inwards. increases down a group ionic radius is the radius of an atom when in its ionic form. for example, nonmetals close to the metalloid line possess a larger ionic radius because they gain electrons while their nuclei maintain the same charge. for metals close to the metalloid line, they have to lose more electron, so their ionic radius will be smaller than other metals.

define the following chromosome mutations - deletion - duplication - inversion - insertion - translocation

deletion: large segment of DNA is lost from a chromosome.. if small segment, then considered a frameshift duplication: segment of DNA is. copied multiple times in genome inversion: segment of DNA is reversed in chromosome insertion: segment of DNA is moved from one chromosome to another. small inserts are considered framshift translocation: segment of one chromosome is swapped with a segment of DNA from another chromosome (ex: robertsonian).

how do you find the change in enthalpy of a reaction. if it is positive, what does this mean? negative?

delta H of prodcuts- delta H of reactants. if positive, this means that the process is endothermic, if negative, it is exothermics

how does the first law of thermodynamics relate internal energy, heat and work? Define what a negative and positive value would mean for these items?

delta U= Q-W delta U is the systmes internal energy Q is the energy transferred into the system as heat W is the work done by the system Think of an increase of work in an increase of transferring energy (including heat) elsewhere. It work value is high, then the internal energy change will be negative. If the work value is low (system is getting worked on) then temp will increase.

What is the thermal expansion equation that can be used for liquids and solids? What is the coefficient of volumetric expansion and how does it compare to the coefficient of linear expansion

delta V= change in volume B= coefficient of volumetric expansion V= volume delta T= change in temp B=3a. Both alpha and beta are coefficients that characterize a coefficient for a specific material.

what is depolarizaion vs hyperpolarization of a membrane. what is the action of the axon hillock during this? What is the threshold value?

depolarization- raises membrane potential from its resting (70mV). makes it likely to fire action potential polarization- lowers membrance potential- less likely to fire action potential. the axon hillock, if it receives enough excitatory input, it will be depolarized to the threshold value (-55 to -40 mv).

What is the fluid mosaic model?

describes the arrangement of the molecules that make up a cell membrane- lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates

Define epimers and anomers

diastereomers that differ at exactly one chiral carbon- not identical or mirror images. Anomers are epimers that differ at the anomeric carbon. The anomeric carbon is the carbon next to the -O- in a ring formation. It is also the carbon around which a hemiacetal will form It is the carbonyl carbon when there is =O attached to it.

What are direct benefits and indirect benefits as they relate to mate choice Explain the 5 mechanisms of mate choice- phenotypic, sensory bias, fisherian/runaway, indicator traits, genetic compatibility

direct benefits- material advantages, protection, emotional support indirect benefits- promote better survival in offspring 1. phenotypic benefits- increased production and survival of offspring ( a man who looks more nurturing is more attractive) 2. sensory bias- development of a trait to match a preexisting preference that occurs in the population 3. fisherian/runaway selction- a particular trait that has no effect on survival becomes more exaggerated over time, it is deemed sexually desirable which increases the attractiveness of the trait. (ex: bright feathers on peacock) 4. indicator traits- signify overall good health and well being 5. when mates pair, they have complementary genetics (meaning they are not necessarily the same, could be different)- results in reduced frequency of recessive genetic disorders.- kind of opposites attract suggestion

what is the difference between direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC)? (alternative current will probably not be on MCAT)

direct current: charge flows in one direction only alternating current: flow changes direction periodically

difference between a direct hormone and a tropic hormone.

direct: secreted then act on a target tissue tropic; require and intermediate (another hormone) in order to act

what is the difference between dispersion and diffraction

dispersion: when varius wavelengths of light seperate from each other (ex: prism). red is on top bc it has least amount of refraction while violet is always at the bottom diffraction: spreading out of light as it passes through a narrow opening or around an obstacle

visualize the state of ATP or ADP/Pi during muscle contration. What is responsible for the power stroke, the hydrolysis of ATP of the dissociation of ADP/Pi? What does the binding of ATP do?

dissociation of ADP and Pi cause powerstroke (when actin filament slides over myosin). binding of ATP causes myosin to release from actin. when ATP is hydrolyzed again, it recocks the myosin to initiate another cross-bridge cycle

draw the structure of an antibody. label and define the following parts: heavy chains, light chains, disulfide linkages, antigen binding region, constant region , variable region(domain)

disulfide linkages: hold heavy and light chains together variable region: at tips of Y. this is where antigens bind antigen binding region: undergoes hypermutation to find the best match for the antigen. constant region: remaining part of antibody that does not change. Natural killer cells, macrophages, monocytes and eosinphils are here that initiate complement system.

define divergent, parallel and convergent evolution

divergent- independent development of dissimilar characterstics in lineages that started with a common ancestor. parallel- related species evolve in similar conditions for a long period of time due to similar environment convergent- independent development of similar characteristics in two or more lineages not sharing a common ancestor (like fish and dolphins)

erythrocytes are anaerobic. why?

do not contain mitochonria for oxidative phosphorylation so do not need oxygen. solely rely on glycolysis.

the more electron density that is pulled awat from the proton, the more deshielded it will be and the further ______________ (downfield/upfield) the proton will appear.

downfield

how do you find where in image is for a LENS (not mirror- make sure you recognize which one you are dealing with).

draw 3 rays - ray parallel to axis, refracts through the focal point of the front face of the lens - ray through or toward focal point before reaching lens- refracts parallel to axis - ray to center of lens- continues straight through with no refraction

Name the 3 meninges from superficial to deep. Also, what produces cerebral spinal fluid?

dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater. CSF produced by cells that line the ventricles of the brain.

what is the SI unit of charge and how is this related to the fundamental unit of charge? How is this different for an electron and a proton

e=1.6x10^-19C. An electron has a charge of -e while a proton has a charge of +e

Define endocytosis, exocytosis, pinocytosis, and phagocytosis.

endocytosis- engulfing material into cell via cell membrane exocytosis- releasing material out of cells via cell membrane pinocytosis- ingestion of liquid into the cells in vesicle formed in the cell membrane phagocytosis- ingestion of large, solid molecules

blood vessels are lined wth _______ to release chemicals that aid in vasodilation and vasoconstriction.

endothelial cells.

removing an electron is ___________ (exothermic/endothermic) while adding an electron is (exothermic/endothermic) what is the energy called when a gaseous species gains an electron?

endothermic (requires heat); exothermic electron affinity is the energy dissipated by a gaseous species when it gains an electron. electron affinity is expressed as a positive number even though the deltaHrxn will be negative (exothermic)

what are the three parts of the pharynx? what does the epiglottis in the pharynx do? where is swallowing initiated?

epiglottis- prevents food from entering larynx swallowing initiated in the oropharyx

Which is more universal (conserved), facial expressions or body language? Why?

facial expressions are more conserved (universal) as they are also seen in animals.

what are the 5 components of Darwin's basic model of emotional expression

facial expressions, behaviors, postures, vocal changes and physiological changes

the amount of time it takes an object to reach its max height is the same time it takes for the object to ___________.

fall back to its starting height.

true or false: shorter sarcomeres are stronger.

false, there is a certain preference for sarcomere length for optimal strength, but too small is not it.

bond dissociation is exothermic. true or false

false. it is endothermic, energy is required to break bonds. bond formation is exothermic. think: atoms usually like to form bonds to become more stable

all oxidation states of the same element will absorb the same frequency of light, true or false?

false. the same element of different oxidation states can undergo different electron transitions and therefore absorb different frequencies of light.

enzymes are only able to speed up a reaction only if the reaction is exergonic, true or false.

false. they are able to speed up a reaction by lowering its activation energy. this can be for endergonic and exergonic reactions

true or false: when an electron goes from a lower energy level to a higher energy level, photon of light is emitted with an energy equal to the energy difference between the two orbits.

false. this happens when an electron falls from a higher energy level to a lower energy level

how to determine the electron configuration for cations. for ex, Fe3+ how about for anions, like f-

find electron configuration for iron itself. then, you must subtract 3 electrons. BUT these do not come out of the d orbital. they must come out of the orbital with the highest n FIRST. so you would take 2 out of the 4s2 orbital first, then take one from the 3d orbital to give you [Ar] 4s0, 3d5 anions are much easier. just add an electron into the next available orbital. f- would be [He] 2s2 2p6

define mendels first and second law. what are the exceptions of each of these rules?

first law: law of segregation. essentially says that each gamete carries one allele to give the zygote two total alleles. also says that only one will be fully expressed and the other will be silent. codominance and incomplete dominance are exceptions to this. second: law of independent assortment says that the inheritance of one genes does not affect inheritance of another. this is due to the recombination that occurs in prophase 1. this law has been complicated by the discovery of lnked genes

when a metal atom emits electrons, how is the max kinetic energy of the ejected electron determined?

first note: kinectic energy of the ejected electron is only present if the threshold frequency is met by the frequency of the incoming photon. Also, this is the hypothetical K MAX, the actual kinetic energy emitted can be between 0 and Kmax depending on the interactions between the photon and the meta W= the work function of the metal in question. note that h= planks constant 6.626 x 10^-34

briefly describe the three trimesters and birth. for birth, define the following terms: parturition, prostaglandins, oxytocin, afterbirth what are the 3 phases of birth

first- major organs develop, bones form, brain develops, considered a fetus second- moves within amniotic fluid, human appearance. about 30-36 cm long third- rapid growth, brain development, antibodies given to baby from mother. at the end, growth slows and baby is less active as it has less room to move. birth: - parturition: vaginal childbirth - prostaglandins: coordinates rhythmic contractions - oxytocin: hormone that also coordinates rhythmic contractions - afterbirth: placenta and umbilical cord are expelled. 3 phases of birth: amniotic sac breaks (water breaks), uterine contractions, placenta and umbilical cord expelled (after birth).

the macula contains a high concentration of cones and its centermost point, the _______, contains only cones, so visual acuity is best at this sport.

fovea

Give some examples of nonconservative forces and how does this effect the equation of deltaE= delta U + delta K? Are conservative or nonconservaticve forces independent of path?

friction, air resistance, or viscous drag. When these are present, total mechanical energy is not conserved. These nonconservatice forces will be equal to the amount if energy "lost" from the system. Conservative forces are independent of path as there will be no energy lost either way. Nonconservative forces ARE path dependent. The longer the distance traveled, the larger the amount of energy dissipated. The Wnonconservative will be a negative number when energy is lost from the original system.

What is the sensitive/ critical period for acquiring language

from 2 years til puberty.

define the following as they relate to the stomach: fundus body antrum pylorus lesser curvature greater curvature rugae gastric glands (what innervates it) and define the 3 types (mucous cells, chief cells and parietal cells) gastric juice intrinsic factor pyloric glands G-cells gastrin chyme

fundus- look at picture body - " antrum- " pylorus- " lesser curvature- smaller inner curve greater curvature- larger outer curve rugae- folded lining of stomach gastric glands (what innervates it) and define the 3 types (mucous cells, chief cells and parietal cells)- located in fundus and body. Innervated by vagus nerve. muscous cells: produce mucus rich in bicarbonate to protect against acidic conditions. Chief cells: secrete pepsinogen (inactive zymogen form of pepsin). parietal cells: secrete HCL and B12 and convert pepsinogen to pepsin. pepsin: digests proteins by cleaving peptide bonds to form short peptide fragments gastric juice: combination of pepsin and HCl intrinsic factor (B12): secreted by parietal cells pyloric glands: located in antrum and pyloris. contain G-cells G-cells: secrete gastrin (a peptide hormone) gastrin: induces parietal cells to secrete more HCL and signals stomach to contract, mixing its contents. chyme: digested food that results in an acidic semifluid mixture.

what is fusion? What is fission?

fusion occurs when small nuclei combine to form a larger nucleus fission is when the large nucleus splits into smaller nuclei. fission reactions that release more neutrons will cause a chain reaction, to release more and more neutrons. This is present in commercial nuclear power plants.

what do genetic drift, founder effect and inbreeding all have in common. also define each one what is inbreeding depression and outbreeding

genetic drift- A change in the gene pool of a population due to chance founder effect- small population cannot reproduce with other populations due to natural barriers, so inbreeding occurs. in common: all reduce genetic diversity. this is why a small population may have increased prevalence of certain traits and diseases inbreeding depressin: loss of genetic variation may reduce fitness of a population outbreeding: causes variation in gene pool and increase in fitness of population

where is the center of mass of a uniform (symmetrical shape and uniform density) object?

geometric center of the object

Define ghetto and slum

ghetto: defined areas where specific racial, ethnic or religious minorities are concetrated usually due to social or socioeconomic qualities Slum: extremely densely populated area of a city with low-quality, informal housing and poor sanitation

excess of GH in childhood results in _____. Deficit in childhood results in ______. When an excess of deficiency occurs in adults, its called ________.

gigantism; dwarfism; acromegaly

what is the transformation principle that was found in the griffith experiment

gives evidence that the DNA from the dead virulent bacteria must have transferred to the live nonvirulent bacteria to give it the ability to make a smooth capsule and therefore live and cause the mouse to die

what hormone starts being produced when puberty begins? what does this hormone stimulate consequentially?

gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). this triggers anterior pituitary to relese follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).

what is the difference between endergonic/endothermic and exergonic/exothermic

gonic refers to gibbs free energy thermic refers to heat (enthalpy)

In bacteria, there are two types of cell wall, gram-positive and gram negative. What are the differences between the two? How is each detected? To which one is there a greater inflammatory response?

gram-positive: have thick layer of peptidoglycan and lipoteichoic acid. Detected if the envelope absorbs a crystal violet stain Gram-negative: - thin walls, some peptidoglycan but in smaller amounts. -these walls are separated from the membrane by the periplasmic space. -outer membranes containing phospholipids and lipopolysaccharides Greater inflammatory response to lipopolysaccharides (gram-negative) than there is to lipoteichoic acid (gram-positive)

the cerebral cortex has bumps and folds called. Also know where the lobes of the cerebral cortex are located

gyri (bumps) and sulci (folds)

Name the seven universal emotions and their related traits.

happy sad contempt disgust fear surprise anger

oxygen is nonpolar, therefore it can not travel through aqueous environments. in order to travel, it attaches onto _______ which are located on ________ cells.

hemoglobin on red blood cells

Envision the equation for calculating resistance. Why is it that as area increases, Resistance decreases. Also does electrical current follow the continuity equation (A1v1=A2v2)

higher cross- sectional area provides an increase in the number of pathways through the resistor, called conduction pathways, No does not follow continuity equation

anhydrides have a ____________ boiling point than their related carboxylic acids. Why is this?

higher due to their much greater weight

for a fluid, what is the relationship between speed and pressure

higher speed= lower pressure. This is why airplane wings are angled so there is higher speed on top of the wings, lowering the pressure so that the airplane can take flight.

exhalation occurs when pressure inside lung is (higher/lower) than pressure outside lung

higher.

what is the difference between humoral immunity, cell-mediated immunity and innate immunity? What stage of rejection is each one associated with?

humoral immunity- antibodies are secreted by B-cells into blood. This is the "hyperacute" rejection that occurs minutes after transplantation cell-mediated immunity- due to T-cell mediated response. This occurs days to weeks after transplantation. *humoral and cell-mediated are part of specific immune response innate immunity- general, nonspecific protection the body provides (tears, skin, complement system).

What is the law of mass action?

if a system is at equilibrium at a constant temp, then this equation applies: Keq= (C)^c (D)^d / (A)^a (B)^b

when an action potential occurs, what happens to the Na / K ions? after this happens, what does the Na/ K ATPpump do?

if more excitatoy signals then inhibitory after summation by axon hillock, threshold is met and action potential occurs. this causes depolarization. an electrochemical gradient will cause Na to to influx rapidly into the cell, causing a high increase in the Vm of the cell. This postiviity in the cell eventually will cause K to leave cell during repolarization. the K will overshoot the resting membrane potential causing hyperpolarization. the Na/K ATP pump will act to restore the resting potential where K is high on inside and Na is high on outside.

define statistically significant

if results are stat significant, then they do not result by random chance

if there is a polar bond in a molecule, does that automatically make it a polar molecule? how about nonpolar bond, does that make it a nonpolar molecule

if there a polar bond in a molecule, it may or may not be a polar molecule based on the positioning of the bonds. consider CCl4 for ex. each of these bonds are polar, but they are oriented in a way so that they are nonpolar. H2O on the other hand has polar bonds and a bent configuration so it is polar. if there is a nonpolar bond in a molecule, however, the structure must be nonpolar.

a racemic mixture is a mix of both + and - enantiomers. How would you go about separating these?

if you react the mixture with (lets say) and + single enantiomer of another molecule, you would get 2 products: (+,+) and (-,+). Since these will differ at some (not all) chiral centers, they are diastereomers, which have different physical properties. They can now be separated by crystallization, filtration, etc. Once separated, they can be reacted to regenerate the original enantiomers.

what will flow rate do in the following circumstances? increase in tube radius increase in pressure gradient increase in viscosity increase in length of tube

increase in radius- flow rate increases increase in pressure gradient- flow rate increases increase in viscosity- flow rate decreases increase in length of tube- flow rate decreases.

what is the trend of acidity on the periodic table? Why

increase to the left then DOWN the periodic table. This is because as the size of X increases, the electrostatic force between H and X decreases, making dissociation more likely- a factor related to increasing acidity.

how does concentration of the reactants affect the rate of the reaction?

increased concentration = increased rate of reaction

give the trend for electronegativity

increases across a period from left to right and decreases from top to bottom

Why do hydrophobic residues tend to occupy the interior of a protein while hydrophilic residues tend to accumulate on the exterior portions?

increases the entropy (disorder), which is favorable.

entropy in the universe is always ________.

increasing

describe the following terms as they relate to the cell cycle: interphase G0 stage restriction point G1 phase S phase G2 stage p53 M phase- just name the stages of mitosis and what cells it occurs in cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) transcription factors

interphase- made up of g1, S and g2 phases. Longest phase of cell cycle. Individual chromosomes are in less condensed form (chromatin) so they are not visibe in light microscopy. G0- cells that are not ready to divide do not go to G1 yet so they remain in G0 phase where they simply live and carry out function preparing for division Restriction point- between G1 and S phase. Cell must meet certain criteria such as containing the proper complement DNA in order to replicate in S phase. The protein that performs this is called p53. G1 phase- cells create organelles for energy and protein production and increase size S phase= cells replicate genetic material. number of chromosomes stays the same but now each chromosome has 2 sister chromatid bonded at centromere. G2 phase- quality control checkpoint. also ensures that DNA was replicated correctly to avoid passing on an error. p53 is also present here p53- produced by TP53. when mutated, cell cycle is not stopped to repair DNA damage so a cancerous cell results cyclins and CDKs- responsible for cell cycle. cyclins bind to CDKs and create cyclin-CDK complex. This stimulates transcription factors which transcribe genes required for the next stage of the cell cycle mitosis: only occurs in somatic cells, not germline cells

Define intragenerational mobility vs intergenerational mobility.

intragenerational: the movement between social classes that occurs during the course of an individual's lifetime intergenerational: from parents to children.

What is DNA cloning and how do you do it?

introduces a DNA fragment into a vector plasmid- a restriction enzyme (restriction endonuclease) cuts plasmid and fragment so it has sticky ends. Then it can be put in a bacterial cell to replicate

What is preparedness? How does this relate with instinctive drift?

involves species-specific predispositions to be conditioned in certain ways and not others. Reward bird pecking with food... bc this is what they would do naturally- peck for food. Instinctive drift is the difficulty in overcoming instinctual behaviors. For ex, study tried to get raccoons to rub coins together and put them in piggy bank. This is against their instincts because they naturally rub seeds together before eating. They could however, put basketballs in a basketball net bc this was did not trigger the food washing instinct.

what is ionization energy? what is its trend on the periodic table? How does it change for the second and third ionization energy.

ionization energy: energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous species. It requires heat, so it is an endothermic process. Increases from left to right across a period and from bottom to top. This is because more ionization energy is needed when the Zeff is stronger. second and third ionization energies will be higher

Define an amphipathic molecule. Is a phospholipid an amphipathic molecule? Why or why not.

is a molecule with both hydrophobic and hydrophobic and hydrophilic elements. Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails

what happens to a traveling wave when it reaches a fixed boundary? What is a stationary wave and where are it's nodes and antinodes? will every frequency of a traveling wave result in a standing wave formation? Name the two types of boundaries as they relate

it is reflected and inverted stationary wave: when a traveling and its reflected wave have fixed end points and the only apparent movement of the string is the fluctuation of amplitude. Points that remain at rest (amplitude is constantly zero) are nodes. Points that fluctuate amplitude (highest point between nodes) are antinodes. no, not every traveling wave forms a standing wae. Objects that support standing waves have boundaries at both ends. Closed boundaries: do not allow oscillation and correspond to nodes. (end of pipe and secured end of string) Open boundries: allow maximal oscillation and correspond to antinodes (open end of pipe and free end of a flag).

what is recombination frequency? what is it proportional to? what is the recombination frequency for the relationships between X and Y, Y and Z, and X and Z if X and Y are 8mu apart, and X and Z are 12 mu apart

likelihood of two alleles being separated during crossing over in meiosis. proportional to the distance between the genes on the chromosome. tightly linked genes have recombination frequencies close to zero. wekly linked have frequencies close to 50 percent. X and Y= 8 percent X and Z= 12 percent Y and Z= 4%

difference between linear and projectile motion. Which component will usually remain at a constant velocity? Why?

linear is in one direction, either along x component or y component. projectile motion considers both of these components. To answer the second part of this question, remember that acceleration is involved with changing velocity. For the y component, this acceleration is gravity. For the x component, however, air resistance could have an effect, but usually air resistance is negligible meaning that the x component will most likely have a constant velocity.

for conductivity, which is better? ionic compounds in solid state or in liquid state.

liquid state. when in solid state, they are held in place by rigid lattice structure.

Hormonal controls are coordinated to resulate the metabolic activity of the entire organism while allosteric controls can be ___________ or _____________. Do they both use covalent bonding?

local or systemic. Only hormonal controls use covalent bonding. Allosteric uses noncovalent

what is the approximate relationship between log x and ln x?

log x is approximately ln x/ 2.303

define the following as they relate to the respiratory systems ability to fight invaders: lysozyme mucociliary escalator marcophages mast cells

lysozyme: attacks gram-postive bacteria. located in nasal cavity. this is the first line of defense mucociliary escalator: when mucus traps invaders, this escalator propells it up to be spit out or swallowed macrophages: engult and digest pathogens in lungs mast cells: in lungs. have antibodies on surfaces. releases inflammatory chemicals into surrounding area to promote immune response.

Equation for gravitational potential energy. What is the datum and how is it impact potential energy if the questions asks about a point under the datum?

m= mass in kg g= gravitational acceleration h=height datum is the ground/zero potential energy position. If the quesiton discusses a point under the datum, then the value for height will be negative, making the gravitational potential energy negative

any moving charge creates __________ and _________ fields. One is only created when the charge is in motion, not when stationary. Which one is it and what is the SI unit that corresponds to it? What is another unit it is sometimes measured in?

magnetic field. The SI unit is the tesla (T). Size of tesla is quite large, so it is sometimes measured in gauss where 1T= 10^4 gauss

What are flippases?

maintain the biderectional transport of lipids between the layers of the phospholipid bilayer in the cells

what is the difference between myofibrils, myocytes/muscle fibers, and msucles

many myofibrils arranged in parallel make up a myocyte/ muscle fiber. These myocytes/ muscle cells in parallel together form a muscle

mass number vs atomic mass. which one identifies the element and which one can be varied and still be the same element? how will isotopes differ in their mass?

mass number (A)= sum of protons and neutrons. this can be varied due to different number of neutrons, which would then be called an isotope (all isotopes have same number of protons but differing neutrons). atomic number (Z)= number of protons only. this is symbolic of the element. all atoms of gadolinium have 64 protons.

What is the golgi apparatus? How does it release its contents?

materials from the ER are transferred to the Golgi, where they are modified by the addition of groups like carbohydrates, phosphates and sulfates. It may also attach signal sequences which directs the delivery of products to specific locations. cellular products are repackaged in vesicles and are send to the right cellular location If the product is destined for secretion, it is released via exocytosis.

Leading cause of abnormal fetal development?

maternal malnutrition

what are sphygmomanometers

medical devices to measure blood pressure

differnece between medicare and medicaid

medicare covers patients over the age of 65, those with end stage renal disease and those with ALS. Medicaid covers patients in significant financial need.

medulla oblongata has chemoreceptors that detect what? what does it do in response?

medulla oblongata controls ventilation. receptors are sensitive to CO2. As he partial pressure of CO2 rises, the respiratory rate increases so that more CO2 is released.

Where do platelets come from?

megakaryocytes in bone marrow

which goes through two rounds of division? mitosis or meiosis

meiosis

what hormone does the pineal gland secrete

melatonin (induces sleep). involved in circadian rhythms.

what is the nuclear membrane and nuclear pores

membrane- a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus that keeps the nuclear environment separate from the cytoplasm pores-allow selective two-way exchange of material between cytoplasm and nucleus.

ionic bonds are usually between a _______ and a ________.

metal and a nonmetal

what is the difference between metallic and electrolytic conductivity? define conductance and what the SI unit is. Also how does concentration affect conductivity.

metallic conductivity: seen in solid metals and molten form of some salts electrolytic: in solutions. higher concentration OF IONS usually means higher conductivity. Higher concentration of other nonionic things is not as important to conductivity. Conductance: reciprocal of resistance SI unit: siemens (S)

metals are (lustrous/dull), (good /poor conductors), (malleable/ brittle). do they have high or low electronegativity? will they take or gave up electrons? nonmetals are (lustrous/dull), (good /poor conductors), (malleable/ brittle). what are metalloids?

metals are lustrous (shiny), good conductors and malleable. They have low electronegativity so they easily give up electrons nonmetals in dull, poor conductors, brittle metalloids are have characteristics of both

what are active metals? give examples

metals that have such low ionization energies that they are highly reactive. they do not exist naturally in their neutral forms. examples are lithium and beryllium

if a mirror is convex, it is (converging/diverging) and it has a (negative/positive) focal point and radius If a lens is convex, it is (converging/diverging) and it has a (negative/positve focal point and radius) If a mirror is concave, it is (converging/diverging) and it has a (negative/positive) focal point and radius If a lens is concave, it is (converging/diverging) and it has a (negative/positive) focal point and radius

mirror-convex- diverging- negative lens- convex- converging- positive mirror- concave- converging- positive lens- concave- diverging- negative

define mixed-order reactions and broken-order reactions

mixed order: rate orders vary over the course of a reaction broken-order: orders that are fractions instead of integers like zero, first and second.

What are leaving groups? What are the best leaving groups?

molecular fragments that retain the electrons after heterolysis. The best leaving groups are weak bases because they are more stable with an extra set of electrons.

What are interferons?

molecules secreted by cells invaded by viruses that stimulate other cells to help defend against viruses. they are why we experience flu like symtoms (tiredness, muscle soreness, fever).

before determining the limiting reactant, you must convert all values from grams to _______. also, look over example on CHM review page 131

moles

what is the relationship between moles, mass of sample (g) and molar mass (g/mol)?

moles = mass of sample/ molar mass

what is the monosynaptic vs polysnaptic reflex arc.

monosynaptic- single synapse between the sensory neuron that receives the stimulus and the motor neuron that responds to it. (knee jerk) polysynaptic- at least one interneuron between the sensory and motor neurons. this is because it involves many limps. for example, reacting to a nail on the ground, you must lift one foot but also ensure that the muscle is tight in the other leg to support you.

in nucleophilic substitution, the rate of reaction increases when the nucleophile is (more/less) negative

more negative= better rxn

what ratio of NAD+ electron carriers to FAD electron carriers does the cell need to harvest ATP from fatty acids?

more than twice the amount of FAD.

moveable joints are strengthened by ____________. define synovial capsule, synovium, synovial fluid and articular cartilage how does osteoarthritis contribute to this?

moveable joints strengthened by ligaments (connect bone to bone). synovial capsule- encloses joint cavity synovium- layer of tissue that secretes synovial fluid to lubricate movement articular cartilage- coats surfaces on bones osteoarthritis: degradation of articular cartilage

After a blastula is formed, where does it go? what are trophoblasts and how do they play a role in the next step?

moves from the fallopian tube to the uterus, buries itself in endometrium. after this, trophoblasts surround the blastula and they give rise to the chorion (an extraembryonic membrane that develops into the placenta). They also help with the maternal- fetal gas exchange.

what myogenic activity? which type of muscle does it belong to?

myogenic activity- ability for smooth and cardiac muscle to contract without nervous system input

what is the shortening of the sacromere phase of muscle contraction starting with the action of myosin molecules

myosin molecules move toward and bind with the exposed sites on the actin. myosin pulls on actin which draws filaments toward M-line, resulting in the shortening of the sacromere

define the following terms as they relate to B-cells: naive B cells plasma cells memory B-cells primary response secondary response vaccination

naive B cells: have not been exposed to an antigen yet and wait in lymph nodes for a particular antigen to come along. When it does, then B-cells will produce 2 types of daughter cells: plasma and memory plasma cells: produce antibodies. these will eventually die memory B-cells: stay in lymph bode and wait for exposure to same antigen. last the lifetime of the cell primary response: initial activation of the B-cells to produce these two types of cells- takes a while secondary response: when exposure to this antigen happens again, the response is much more robust and rapid vaccination: causes the development of these lasting memory cells.

how is a transition state different from an intermediate

need to reach activation energy to get to transition state...the reaction can then proceed forward or go back to reactants. transition state exist at the point of maximum energy, not like intermediates that have finite lifetimes.

What is the difference between negative and positive electric potential energy? Which one is more satisfactory lol

negative electric potential energy: (satisfying) - opposite charges are closer together - same charges are further apart - more stable positive electric potential energy - opposite charges ae further apart - same charges are closer together - less stable

define neurulation and the following terms as they relate to it: - notochord - neural folds - neural groove - neural tube - neural crest cells. after these are formed, what do ectodermal cells do to protect it?

neurulation: development of the nervous system notochord: a rod of mesodermal cells form along axis of organism (like spinal cord) and induces a group of overlying ectodermal cells to slide inward to form neural folds. neural folds: look at pic, surround neural groove neural groove: between neural folds. they grow toward each other until they fuse into a neural tube neural tube: gives rise to the CNS neural crest cells: at the tip of each neural fold. they migrate outwards to form the PNS. ectodermal cells will then migrate over the neural tube and crest to protect the rudimentary nervous system.

Does the frequency of light change when it enters a different medium and refracts?

no

from a reaction, how can we easily determine if the following reactions have taken place - nucleophilic addition - saponification - dehydration - oxidation

nucleophilic addition: pi bond becomes two new sigma bonds saponificantion: hydrolysis of ester bonds dehydration: release of h20 oxidation: increase bonds to oxygen

a collection of cell bodies in the CNS is called _________ while a collection in the PNS is called a ___________.

nucleus; ganglion

Degree of saturation is determined by?

number of double bonds + number of rings. for ex, if in a rxn, then number of double bonds increases by one but the number of rings decreases by one, then the degree of unsaturation is unchanged.

What is Kcat? How does it relate to Vmax?

number of substrate molecules turned over or converted into product per enzyme molecule per second. vmax= [E] x kcat.

source monitoring error

occurs when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source. A story of something that happened to someone else you might think happened to you.

for a closed pipe, there can only be odd harmonics. Why? Wat is the equation for wavelength of a closed pipe. how do you determine the number of harmonics.

one side is an antinode and the other is a node. For an even number of quarter-wavelenths, there would need to be either 2 nodes or 2 antinodes at each end. Look at picture. Go to page 245 if confused. wavelength= 4L/n to determine harmonic, be sure to cound number of 1/4 wavelengths

do gametes carry one or two alleles

one. zygote gets one from each parent to have a total of two alleles for a gene. this separation occurs in anaphase 1 of meiosis.

which contain nuclei: RBCs, WBCs and platelets.

only wbcs.

Biological systems are _________ systems while the cellular level is a ______________.

open; closed

What are hybrid orbitals?

orbitals of equal energy produced by the combination of two or more orbitals on the same atom

name some components of the bone matrix. are minerals stored in bone?

organic: collagen, glycoproteins and peptides inorganic: calcium, phosphate, hydroxide ions. these clump together to form hydroxyapatite crystals minerals are stored in bone.

difference between osteoblasts, osteoclasts and osteocytes. Which works with parathyroid hormone to help carry out the PTH function? What is the role of vitamin D? What does calcitonin do?

osteoblasts- build bone (B= built) osteocytes- mature osteoblasts osteoclasts- macrophages of bone, resorb it (C=chew) when osteoclasts resorb bone, they release nutrients back into bloodstream. PTH is released in response to low BLOOD calcium, so PTH uses osteoclasts to promote resorption and therefore increase blood calcium levels. Vitamin D also helps this. Vitamin D promotes resorption, which encourages the growth of new, stronger bone. calcitonin on the other hand, released by thyroid, is released in response to high blood calcium levels. it promotes bone formation, lowering blood calcium levels.

how are the following organized in the mitochondria: (and name functions of each) outer membrane intermembrane space mitochondrial matrix inner membrane cristae what makes mitochondria different from other parts of the cell (2 reasons)? define cytoplasmic or extranuclear inheritance

outer: barrier between the cytosol and the inner environment intermembrane space: space between inner and outer inner membrane: has folds called cristae, contains the molecules and enzymes of the ETC mitochondrial matrix: inside the inner membrane. Protons are pumped from this matrix to the intermembrane space to establish proton motive force Mitochondria is different because they are semi-autonomous in that they contain some of their own genes and replicate independently of nucleus. Mitochondrial DNA is circular and self replicating but is still double stranded. they are examples of cytoplasmic/ extranuclear inheritance because of the transmission of genetic material independent of nucleus they also kick start apoptosis

define the hormone differences that occur in menopause.

ovaries atrophy and therefore become less sensitive to FSH and LH, so estrogen and progesterone levels frop. because negative feedback for FSH and LH stops (since no more prog and est), the blood levels of FSH and LH rise.

what is p as in pKa short for?

p= -log so pKa= -logKa

give the equation for dipole moment of a polar bond. what units isthis mesued in

p=qd measured in Debye units (coulomb-meters).

where is blood filtered in the kidney? How do oncotic and hydrostatic pressures play a role here? what is the overall net movement between the blood and bowman's space? what would happen if these is a buildup of urine behind a stone for example? consult pg 371 if confused

passes through glomerulus and is filtered as fluid into Bowman's space. hydrostatic pressure in blood is higher here, so fluid has a tendency to move out into Bowmans space (the nephron). but it is resisted because blood has a higher osmolarity than that of bowmans space, so oncotic pressure will oppose this movement. But, the hydrostatic pressure is much larger so these is a net movement of fluid from blood (in the glomerulus) into bowmans space (nephron). if there was buildup of urine, the hydrostatic pressure of Bowman's space would increase to the point that filtration could no longer occur because there would be excessive pressure opposing movement of fluid from the blood to the nephron (bowman's space)

what are supercritical fluids? what is the heat of vaporization for these?

past the critical point. they have liquid and gas properties. past this critical point, heat of vaporization is zero.

what is positive and negative selection of T-cells?

positive selection: only allows for maturation of T-cells that respond to the presentation of antigens on MHC in cells negative selection: causes apoptosis in cells that are self- reactive

What is the difference between positive sense and negative sense RNA viruses? What are retroviruses? Can viruses infect any cell? ANd Once they do enter the cell, what do they do next.? Explain extrusion and productive cycle.

positive sense: ssRNA viruses that can be directly translated to functional proteins by the ribosomes of the host cell. negative sense: ssRNA viruses that are stands that act as the template for synthesis of a complementary strand which can then be ysed as a template for protein synthesis. they must carry an RNA replicate to ensure the complementary strand is synthesized. Retroviruses: ssRNA viruses that carry reverse transcriptase which synthesizes DNA from this ssRNA. The DNA is then integrated into the host cell's genome. HIV is an example- hard to treat. Viruses can only infect a specific set of cells, ones that have the proper receptor. After they enter the cell (or inject infromation like bacteriophages), then they go to the nucleus for the DNA info can be transcribed and translated. Then, proteins are made that create virions that can infect other cells, which are released in a process called extrusion- in which the host cell stays alive so the virus can continue using it. A virus in this state is called the productive cycle.

what is the difference between a positive and negative control? which would be used for testing a group of samples known to contain the HIV virus

positive- ensure a change in the dependent variable when expected. Gives a point of reference for the experimental group negative- ensure no change in the dependent variable when no change is expected. (usually used to measure placebo effect) if you know the samples contain the HIV virus, you would use a positive control

what is the partial pressure of O2 in the lungs, tissues, and tissues during exercise.

pp O2 in lungs - 100. tissues- 40 tissues during exercise- 20.

What are the two regions of the frontal lobe? What do they do? What is the difference between an association area and a projection area? What is the other part of the frontal lobe that is only located in one hemisphere and is involved in speech production.

prefrontal cortex and motor cortex Prefrontal- perception,memory, emotion, impulse control, planning. It integrates info from many regions so it is an ASSOCIATION area, not a PROJECTION area (which performs rudimentary taskes. motor- responsible for voluntary movements. Organized systematically based on the region it controlls; this is represented in the pictured motor homonculus. Broca's area.

what is the equation for pressure. What is the SI unit for pressure? Other units for pressure are commonly used as well - mmHg - torr - atm how do we convert between these? Is pressure a scalar or vector quantity? Review problem on page 118

pressure = force/area. SI unit= Pa (pascal) which is equal to N/m2. If pressure is given in atm, must be converted to Pa first. 1.013x10^5 Pa= 760 mmHg= 760 torr= 1 atm It is a scalar quantity (has magnitude but no direction) because pressure is the same at all points in a container

what are the 4 modalities of somatosensation?

pressure, vibration, pain, and temperature

define prions and viroids

prions: nonliving, infectious proteins that cause disease by causing the misfolding of other proteins (converts a helices to b sheets). viroids: small pathogens that have short circular ssRNA strands and infect plants. Can silence genes in plant genome.

how do you calculate the propagation speed of a wave? Give the equation and define what the variables mean on a picture of a wave. What is the inverse of frequency

propagation speed (v) v= f(lambda)= frequency x wavelength. frequency= number of wavelengths passing a fixed point per second (Hz) Wavelength= distance from one crest to the next crest the inverse of frequency is the period (T) which gives number of seconds/ cycle.

define the following terms as they relate to meiosis 1 and 2: prophase 1 anaphase 1 meiosis 1 crossing over (what structures does it occur on) synapsis metaphase 1 tetrad telophase 2 (diploid or haploid after this?) telophase 1 (diploid or haploid after this?) disjunction/ segregation linkage prophase 2 metaphase 2 anaphase 2 meiosis 2 homologous pairs

prophase 1: chromatin condenses into chromosomes, spindle forms, and two homologues match up and crossing over occurs. anaphase 1: homologous pairs separate and go toward opposite poles. disjunction segregation occurs meiosis 1: homologous pairs cross over and split into 4 daughter cells, each with a mixed up chromosome. at the end, these are haploid crossing over: occurs between homologous pairs (not sister chromatids because these are identical and would not produce any change). equal pieces of DNA are exchanged synapsis: when homologous chromosomes come together and intertwine during prophase 1 metaphase 1: homologous pairs align across fro eachother and are held by ONE spindle fiber *different from mitosis bc in mitosis, there is 2, one from each pole. tetrad: synaptic pair between 2 homologous chromosomes (ther are 4 sister chromatids involved so thats why tetra-) telophase 2: distinct haploid daughter cells are formed telophase 1: haploid cells are formed, each with one full chromosome in it with two sister chromatids. chromatids may or may not de-condense. disjunction/ segregation: occurs i anaphase 1 and is the separation of two homologous chromosomes linkage: tendency for genes to be inherited together. if they are further apart from eachother are less likely to be inherited together and are more likely to undergo crossing over relative to each other prophase 2: same as mitosis prophase metaphase 2: same as mitosis anaphase 2: same as mitosis. chromosomes are split so each sister chromatid is pulled to an opposite side of the cell meiosis 2: sister chromatids are separated from each other instead of the homologues that are separated in meiosis 1 homologous pairs: human genome has 46 chromosomes and 23 homologous pairs. in each pair, one chrom is from mom and the other is from dad. these homologues cross over and then are separated in meiosis 1.

Define temperature at a molecular level

proportional to the average kinetic energy of the particles that make up the substance.

gate theory of pain

proposes that there is a special "gating" mechanism that can turn pain signals on or off, affecting whether or not we perceive pain - spinal cord can preferentially forward signals from other modalities (pressure, temp) causing us not to feel pain

What are conjugated proteins?

proteins that derive part of their function from prosthetic groups.

what is the link between prothrombn and fibrin formation?

prothrombin forms thrombin which convers fibrinogen to fibrin. this forms small fibers that create a woven structure that captures rbcs and other platelets forming a stable clot.

What enzymes regulate the pyruvate dehydrigenase complex? What are they activated by?

pyruvate dehydrogenase KINASE stops PDH production of acetyl CoA. It is activated by high levels of ATP, meaning that the cell has enough energy and no more acetyl CoA needs to be made. To reverse this, pyruvated dehydrogenase PHOSPHATASE must remove the phosphate from the PDH (this was given by the kinase listed above). It is activated by ADP, meaning that the cell needs more energy

Define prospective memory. Name situations in which it remains mostly intact throughout age and other situations in which it declines with age.

remembering to do something at some future time. Remembering to buy milk when at grocery store remains mostly intact (event-based). Remembering to take a pill at 7am (time-based) declines with age.

a portal system consists of two capillary beds through which blood must travel before returning to the heart. How does blood travel through the real portal system starting with the renal artery? be sure to mention the loop of henle, vasa recta, bowman's capsule

renal artery branches out -> passes through medulla -> enters cortex as afferent arterioles -> capillaries known as glomeruli (surrounded bu bowman's capsule) -> efferent arterioles form a second capillary bed. these capillaries surround the loop of henle and are known as the vasa recta. after vasa recta, goes to vein.

define representative elements. are these a or B elements? What subshells are their valence electrons in? define nonrepresentative elements. are these a or b elements? What subshells are their valence electrons in? define transition elements. are these a or b?What subshells are their valence electrons in? define lanthanide and actinide series. are these A or B elements and what subshells are their electrons in?

representative elements are A elements and include groups 1A through 8A (denoted by roman numnerals). their valence electrons are in s or p. nonrepresentative elements are b elements. nonrepresentative include both the transition elements (subshells s and d) and the lanthanide and actinide series (subshells s and f).

how does the respiratory system control temperature.

respiratory system is vascular. vasoconstriction will decrease the blood passed to the body, so thermal energy is conserved. vasodilation will increase blood passed to the body, large amount of thermal energy dissipated.

What are the roles of cholesterol? How is cholesterol usually transported to a cell? Are the other ways a cell can acquire cholesterol?

roles: synthesis of: cell membrance, steroid hormones, bile acid and vitamin D. Usually LDL and HDL lipoproteins transport cholesterol to cells. But, it can also be synthesized in the cytoplasm- don't really need to know how.

rows of the periodic table are called ______ while columns are called ________. What is similar about all the elements in a certain column or row?

rows are periods and columns are groups. rows are based on same principal energy level and columns have same valence shell electron cofiguration.

what do salivary amylase and lipase do in the mouth? tongue forms food into a _______.

salivary amylase- breaks down starch lipase- breaks down lipids tongue forms food into a bolus

salts are _______ (polar/nonpolar), making them (hydrophilic/ hydrophobic)

salts are polar making them hydrophilic.

What is self-discrepancy theory? How is it related to self esteem? How does self esteem contrast with self efficacy?

says that we have three selves. Actual self (our self concept)- the way we currently are. Ideal self- person we want to be. Ought self- the way others think we should be. The closer these three selves are to one another, the higher our self esteem is. Self efficacy is our belief in our ability to succeed.

define senescence and its relation to telomeres

senescence: biological aging, can occur at the cellular and organismal level as these changes accumulate. results in cells inability to divide telomeres: shortening of telomeres (end of chromosomes) throughout a lifetime is thought to cause senescence.

Distillation separates liquids based on their _______________. Which will vaporize first- lower or higher boiling points? name the 3 types and when each type is used.

separate liquids according to differences in their BOILING point. Lower boiling points will vaporize first- this is collected as the distillate. 3 types: - simple: used if boiling points are under 150 degrees C and are at least 25 degrees C apart. - vacuum: used if boiling points are over 150 degrees C- using this method prevents degradation - fractional: used if boiling points are less that 25 degrees C apart- more refined separation

Cultural syndrome

shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors among members of the same culture that are organized around a central theme- ex: happiness in the united states is usually centered around individualistic achievements, unlike japan.

what is a shock wave and how does it relate to a sonic boom

shock wave: amplitude for sound waves is related to the degree of compression of the medium. This creates a large pressure differential. The highly condensed wave front is called a shock wave. Passing of a shock waves creates a sonic boom.

proximal vs distal stimulus

shoe on the floor (proximal= image of retina) (distal= shoe itself). Distal is prior to reaching the body, they are part of the outside world. Proximal directly interact with and affect sensory receptors and notify the person about the presence of distal stimuli.

what are fetal shunts used for? name the three shunts and their functions

since lungs and liver are still developing in a fetus, the are sensitive to high blood pressures, the fetus constructs shunts to direct blood away fro these organs while the develop foramen ovale: one way valve that connects right atrium to left atrium. this reroutes blood from the lungs. right side of heart in fetus is higher pressure unlike in adults where left side is higher pressure. ductus arteriosus: shunts leftover blood from the pulmonary artery to the aorta ductus venosus: shunts blood returning from the placenta directly to the inferior vena cava. this bypasses the liver.

organize these in the order of excitation in the heart: purkinje fibers sinoatrial node atrioventricular node bundle of his and its branches

sinoatrial node (SA) atrioventricular node (AV)- where atria and ventricles meet Bundle of HIS and branches (AV bundle)- in the interventricular septum purkinje fibers- distribute throughout ventricles

answer the following questions as they pertain to the diaphragm- is it skeletal or smooth? what are its effector neurotransmitters? what is it innervated by? what parts of the brain does it receive signals from?

skeletal, effector neurotransmitters are acetylcholine, innervated by phrenic nerve, and it receives signals from cerebral cortex (voluntary breathing) and brain stem (involuntary control).

comment on whether cardiac, smooth, and skeletal muscle types are striated or not, whether they are multinucleated or not and if they are voluntary or involuntary

skeletal: striated, multinucleated and voluntary smooth: not striated, uninucleated and involuntary cardiac: striated, uninucleated, and involuntary

what is blood pressure measured by. what exactly are they measuring? where does the largest drop in blood pressure occur?

sphygmomanometer. ,measuing tthe force per unit area exerted on the wall of the blood vessels. largest drop in blood pressure occurs across the arterioles.

define steroid hormones long lived or short lived water or fat soluble- what does this mean in terms of their transportation

steroid hormones: derived from cholesterol. nonpolar so can easily cross cell membrane. participate in gene regulation and cause alterations on DNA. **think: since they can cross cell membrance, they can penetrate and impact DNA. they are long lasting. (think of estrogen and testosterone promote sexual maturation- these are slower but longer lasting effects). dimerization can also occur with steroid hormones (pairing of 2 receptor-hormone complexes) fat soluble- need carrier to carry through bloodstream

What did alfred adler believe drives the personality? He developed the concept of __________.

striving for superiority. He developed the inferiority concept- an individuals sense on incompleteness, imperfection and inferiority also developed the notions of the creative self and style of life as a person's unique was of achieving superiority.

a strong lewis acid will be electron _________ (poor/rich) meaning it will be strongest when bonded to a (EWG/EDG). a strong lewis base will be electron (poor/rich) meaning it will be strongest when bonded to a (EDG/EDG). If an acid and base are bonded together, the bond between them is strongest when each individual group is in its (strongest/weakest) state.

strong lewis acid will be electron poor; EWG. Strong lewis based will be electron rich, EDG. if an acid and base are bonded together, the bond between them is strongest when each individual group is in its strongest state.

Primary alcohols --> carboxylic acids with what reagent?

strong oxidizing reagents (CrO3, K2Cr2O7, Na2Cr2O7)

What are family studies?

studies that try to determine the degree of genetic influence on the nature vs nurture debate. They rely on the idea that genetically related individuals are more genotypically related.

what are deoxy sugars

sugars that have an -OH group replaced with an -H group

what is Lorentz force?

sum of the electrostatic and magnetic forces acting on a body

define surface tension and how it relates to cohesion. What is adhesion? how does this relate to a mensicus

surface tension: causes a liquid to form a thin but strong layer like a "skin" at the liquids surfece. It results from cohesion (the attractive force that a molecule of liquid feels toward other molecules of the same liquid). Adhesion is another force that liquid molecules experience. It is the attractive force that a molecule of the liquid feels toward the molecules of some other substance. A meniscus forms when the liquid adheres to the side of the container. This adhesion is a little bit stronger than the cohesion between the molecules of the liquid. A backwards meniscus can also form in mercury because the cohesive forces are stronger than the adhesive forces.

define the following terms: system surroundings isolated systems closed systems open systems state functions process functions

system: portion of universe we intend to observe/manipulate surroundings: the rest of the universe besides the system isolated system: no energy or matter exchanged with surroundings. Total change in internal energy is zero (ex: bomb calorimeter) closed system: capable of exchanging energy, but not matter, with surroundings (ex: gases in vessels) open system: exchange matter and energy with environment. Energy can be transferred in the form of heat or work state functions: thermodynamic properties that are a function of only the current equilibrium state of a system. (pressure, density, temp, volume, enthalpy, internal energy, free energy, entropy process functions: describe path to get from one state to another (ex: work or heat)

What are proteinogenic amino acids

the 20 amino acids encoded by the human genetic code

In a peptide bond, one of the bonds is rigid (there can be no rotation around it). Which bond is this and why does this occur?

the C-N bond is rigid because the electrons can delocalize from the carbonyl group to the C-N group giving it partial double bond character. No rotation can occur around this bond.

Give the equation for standard free energyHow does this differ from the modified standard state?

the [C][D]/ [A][B] can be abbreviated as Q (expressed in moles). the second G is the energy change that occurs at standard concentrations of 1M, pressure of 1 atm and a temp of 25C. R is the gas constant (8.31) and T is the temperature. The modified standard state is used for biochemical reactions. The second G would then be adjusted for having a pH of 7 and is marked by G(degreesign)' (with apostrophe)

what is social mobility. What is horizontal mobility?

the ability to move up or down within the social stratification system. Top is often considered the american dream. Horizontal mobility: change in the occupation of lifestyle that remains within the same social class.

Define specific heat of a substance. What is the specific heat of water (give value and units)? What is the equation for specific heat?

the amount of heat energy needed to raise one gram of a substance by one degree Celsius or one unit kelvin. Specific heat of water is 1cal/ g X K. (KNOW THIS FOR TEST DAY) pneumonic for specific heat: q=mcdeltat which is q= MCAT)

what is the root mean square speed? How does this relate to temperature? How does this relate to molecule size

the approximate speed of a gas particle. As temperature increases, so does speed. As molecule size increases, speed decreases.

where are mass number and atomic number on a periodic table. Which will identify the element?

the atomic number identifies the element, and the mass number gives the isotope number.

define the effective nuclear charge (Zeff). what trend does this have on the periodic table?

the attraction between the valence shell electrons and the nucleus. the effective nuclear charge stays constant as you move down a group and increases from left to right in a period.

What is Archimedes' Principle? Name the equation associated with it What will happen if the object is more dense than the fluid? Less dense? How can we determine the percent of the object's volume that is submerged?

the buoyant force on an object is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. Be sure to use density of the FLUID not of the object if object more dense than the fluid, the buoyant force will not equal the weight of the object, so the object will sink to the bottom if object is less dense than the fluid, the object will submerge enough of their volume to displace a volume of water eqaul to the object's weight. %object volume that is submerged is the specific gravity of the object expressed in a percent. This is only the case with pure water though. If higher than 100 percent, it will sink, if lower than 100 percent, it will float. If exactly at 100 percent, it will be submerged but not sink or, if not pure water, but you know the percentage of submerged volume and are asked to find the density, you can take the density of the liquid and times it by the percent submerged to get the new density. For ex, if a liqid has a density of 1025 and the wood is 50 percent submerged an you are asked to find the density of the wood, you would simply take 50 percent of 1025 to get a wood density of 512.

when determine if something is in the D or L form, what center should you look at?

the carbon directly to the right of the -O- . in the linear form, this is the last stereocenter on the molecule. if this is in the R form(order of highest priority is clockwise when H is in back), then it is D- glucose. if in S form (counterclockwise when H in back) then it is L-glucose. if H is not in back, and priority groups are clockwise, then simply reverse and it will end up being a L-form

What is the critical angle? How can you use snell's law to find this? What will happen if the angles increase above the critical angle level? What phenomenon can then occur?

the critical angle occurs when the refracted angle reaches 90 degrees. when light travels from a medium with higher index of refraction to one with a lower index of refraction, the incident angle will be smaller than the refracted angle. using snell's law, you can plug 90 in for the refrected angle which will equal 1. then you would be left with sin⍬ (incident) x n1= n2. as you go past the critical angle level and keep increasing,the light will be reflected back into the original material

define cognitive development. The stages of cognitive development were created by ___________.

the development of thinking and problem solving. Created by Piaget

a translated polypeptide is cleaved into mature form in what part of the cell?

the endomembrane system. they are translated in the rough ER, but become mature in the endomembrane system.

what is the object relations theory

the individual's relationships with others are based on early parent (object) child interactions and the internalized self images that are the result of these interactions. These are part of psychodynamic theories.

What is alpha decay?

the loss of an alpha particle (a helium nucleus containing 2 protons and 2 neutrons). The atomic number will be two less (because this represents number of protons) while the mass number will be 4 less (because this represents number of protons and neutrons). alpha particles do not have any electrons so they have a charge of plus 2

Define deindividuation. This can result in what kind of behavior?

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. Can result in antinormative behavior- which is going against the norm since you are kind of anonymous.

what is a formula unit? formula weight? what is the unit used for molecular weight and formula weight? what is the difference between these two weights? how are these found

the lowest whole-number ratio of ions in an ionic compound. this is different from a molecule because you cannot clearly define a sodium chloride molecule because it has ionic bonds. since in ionic compounds, no true molecule exists, formula weight is used for ionic compounds instead of molecular weight. units are amu (atomic mass units). molecular and formula weight are found by adding up the atomic weights of all the atoms (for molecules) or ions (for ionic compounds).

what is the standard state of a substance?

the most stable form of a substance. ex: h20 (l), H2 (g) and NaCl (s). changes in enthalpy, entropy and free energy that occur here are called standard enthalpy, standard entropy and standard free energy changes.

define anomeric carbon. what are the two anomers for the anomeric carbon?

the new chircal center formed in ring closure- it was the carbon containing carbonyl in the straight chain form. alpha anomers have the -OH on the anomeric carbon trans to the -CH2OH group. Beta anomers have the -OH cis to the -CH2OH group

Define osmolarity

the solute concentration of a solution

what is total mechanical energy

the sum of the potential energy and kinetic energy of an object

What is the place theory of hearing?

the theory that different areas of the basilar membrane (organ of corti) respond differently to cell vibrations. High-frequency pitches cause vibrations of the basilar membrane close to the oval window, whereas low-frequency pitches are further away from the window. Pitch perception is based directly on the frequency of a sound

what is attribution theory? What are the two types of attributions?

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition. How we judge the causes of other people's behavior 1. dispositional (internal) attribution: attributions that relate to the person whose behavior is being considered, including his or her beliefs, attitudes, and personality characteristics. 2. situational (external): relate features of the surroundings (threats,money, peer pressure) to determining the cause of someone's behavior

what is a quaternary structure? Do all proteins have one? Do they undergo cooperativity and allosteric effects?

they exist for proteins that contain more than one polypeptide chain. Made up of multiple subunits. Not all proteins have one. And they do undergo cooperativity and allosteric effects.

What do vectors contain that allow for isolation of the recombinant DNA

they have one gene for antibiotic resistance. This way, it can be isolated from other impurities.

There are 3 types of sphingolipds. 2 types of sphingolipids have a glycosidic linkages to sugars. Are these considerd phospholipids? Why or why not? What is the other type of sphingolipid? Are these considered phospholipids? Describe all 3 types of sphingolipids in detail

the three types are 1. sphingomyelins - these are phospholipids because they contain a phosphodiester bond. They can have one of two head groups: phosphotidylcholine or phosphotidylethanolamine. Part of myelin sheath 2. Glycoshingolipids. These are not phospholipids because they do not have phosphodiester bonds to a head, but rather have glycosidic bonds to sugars (so they are glycolipids). They can be classified as cerebrosides (1 sugar) or globosides (2+ sugars). Found on outer surface of plasma membrane 3. Gangliosides- not phospholipics because no phosphodiester bonds. Instead they are glycolipids because they contain glycosidic linkages. They are composed of oligosaccharides with one or more NANA acid molecules at the terminus. Play role in cell interaction, recognition and tranduction of signals.

what is the latent period in muscle contraction?

the time between reaching threshold and onset of contraction

Describe the process of extraction to separate a product. Describe the term "immiscible" and how it applies to this process/

the transfer of a dissolved compound (the desired product) from a starting solvent to a solvent in which the product is more soluble. To perform the extractions, we need to solvents that are immiscible, meaning that they do not mix and will therefore form 2 layers.

define theoretical yield, actual yield and percent yield

theoretical- maximum amount of product predicted from a balanced equation and assuming all limiting reactant is used and no side reactions occur, actual- amount of product one actually obtains during the reaction percent yield= actual yield/ theoretical yield

For the following types of chromatography, tell what the stationary phase is, the mobile phase, what characteristics it separates: thin layer/ paper (and the reverse phase), column (ion-exchange, size eclusion and affinity), gas, and high performance liquid (HPLC)

thin layer/ paper: S: polar material (silica, alumina, paper) M: non polar solvent (moves up card through capillary action) C: separate based on polarity- used to identify samples. polar will be lower on paper, non polar travels higher up Column (in general); S: silica or alumina beads M: nonpolar solvent (travels down by gravity) C: ion-exchange (uses charged beads- separates by charge); size exclusion (uses beads with small holes- larger come out first because smaller take longer- separates by size- the solvent in SEC shouldn't matter since separating by size, not polarity); affinity (beads have high affinity for protein by containing receptors or antibodies that bind to protein- separates by differing affinities) Gas: S: coil of crushed metal or polymer M: nonreactive gas C: discriminates based on how well they adhere to the adsorbent (stationary phase) in column. Measures using a computed HPLC: same as column except is more sophisticated and uses more defined solvent and temperature gradients using a computed

how does free energy relate to change in heat, temperature and change in entropy

think Golfish (G) are (=) Horrible (H) without (-) tartar (T) Sauce (S)

most vessels that carry lymph join to form the _______ which then deliver fluid to the _________. what are lymph nodes?

thoracic duct; left subclavian vein. lymph nodes are small, bean-shaped structures along the subclavian vessels

the maturation of T-cells is facilitated by what hormone

thymosin

in the esophagus, the top third is regulated by ______ muscle, the middle third is regulated by _______ muscle and the bottom thirds are regulated by _________ muscle.

top third- skeletal muscle middle- both skeletal and smooth bottom- smooth

Symptoms of Parkinson's Disease

tremors, muscle rigidity, bradykinesia, postural instability, affective flattening, fingers in rolling motion (think uncle dick)

Which lipoproteins are involved in triacylglycerol transport? Which are involved in HDL and LDL transport?

triacylglycerol transport: VLDL and chylomicron HDL and LDL: cholesterol transport

which are better in professional situations, diadic or triadic groups? why?

triadic- more social ties mean there is a less possibility of hurting all of them.

Describe the 4 different approaches to problem solving: Trial and error algorithms deductive reasoning inductive reasoning

trial and error: solutions tried until one works algorithm: formula/procedure deductive reasoning (top-down): starts from original set of rules and draws conclusions (THINK LOGIC PUZZLE)- info deduced based on info given inductive reasoning (bottom up): creates theory through generalizations. Starts with specific instances, then tries to draw conclusions.

true or false: the flow rate is constant in a closed system and is independent of changes in the cross-sectional area. What implications does this have on linear speed? What is the continuity equation?

true When flow rate is held constant, the linear speed (a measure of the linear displacement of fluid particles in a given amount of time) times the cross sectional area is equal to the flow rate and it must be constant throughout a closed system the continuity equation is the one expressed in the picture. It tells us that fluids will flow more quickly through narrow passages and slower through wider ones.

larger gases diffuse and effuse slower. true or false. also describe the difference between diffusion and effusion

true. diffusion is when gases mix with one another. effusion is when gas moves through a small hole under pressure. both are slower for larger molecules and faster for smaller molecules

phosphorylation occurs on a -OH group. true or false

true. Any amino acid that does not have an -OH group cannot be phosphorylated.

true or false: nuclear fission and nuclear fusion both release energy

true. Fission is one large particle breaking to small, fusion is small particles forming a big one.

To reduce fatty acids to acetyl CoA, the process for digesting monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids are different- true or false.

true. Monounsaturated only needs one enzyme (enoyl CoA isomerase). Polysaturated needs both enoyl coA isomerase and 2,4 dienoyl coA reductase.

when determining resonance structures for lewis structures, the most stable one will be the one that has a negative charge on the most electronegative atom. true or false

true. for ex, in NCO-, the negative charge will be on the O because it is the most electronegative. this resonance structure will contribute most to they hybrid

proteins can be broken down to di and tri peptides and still be absorbed across small intestine wall. true or false

true. however, carbohydrates must be broken down into monosaccharides before being absorbed

true or false: as an embryo grows, cells must migrate from adjacent structures to their correct location. Which cells undergo extensive migration?

true. neural crest cells undergo extensive migration and migrate throughout the body to fown sensory ganglia, autonomic ganglia, adrenal medulla and schwann cells.

true or false: plane mirrors are spherical mirrors with infinitely large focal distances

true. r=f=infinity

during exercise, lactate is produced. true or false

true. since the muscles are in anaerobic conditions, some lactate will form. when this gets into the bloodstream, it will increase osmolarity because osmolarity is a measure of the number of solutes in the blood.

equation to find the magnetic field produced by an indefinitely long, straight, current-carrying wire. then give the equation to find the mag field produced by a circular loop of wire. Demonstrate how the right hand rule is used in this

u0= permeability of free space (4pi x 10^-7) t x m / A I= current B= mag field r= perpendicular distance from the wire at which the mag field is felt for a circular loop of wire, equation is almost the same. Just take out the pi symbol in the denominator and the definition of "r" changes too r for circular loop= radius of the circle of wire for the circular loop, the magnetic field expressed is mag field experienced by the CENTER of the loop thumb points in direction of current, fingers wrap around in direction of mag field

Fetus is attached to the uterine wall and placenta by the ______, while the __________ transmits food, oxygen, wand water to the fetus, returning water and waste to the mother.

umbilical cord; placenta.

how does the hypothalamus communicate with the posterior pituitary? what hormones can then be released from the posterior pituitary?

unlike the anterior pituitary, the hypothalamus communicates with the posterior pituitary because there are neurons that go from the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary. the hormones are made in the hypothalmaus, but the hypothalamus signals to the posterior pituitary when to release them oxytocin (which stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown) and Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH aka vasopressin) which increases reabsorption of water in the collecting ducts of the kidneys. This happens when blood volume level is low, so increasing reabsorption results in greater retention, which means higher blood volume and blood pressure.

difference between vectors and scalars

vectors: magnitude and direction (displacement, velocity, acceleration, force) scalars: only magnitude (distance, speed, energy, pressure, mass) For vectors, since displacement is measured.... the earth roating 940million kilometers in a year would have a displacement of zero.

what are villi/microvilli? how do they differ from lacteals?

villi/microvilli: fingerlike projections in the small intestine increase surface area available for absorption. lacteals are a lymphatic channel that takes up fats for transport into the lymphatic system

When an action potential arrives at the axon terminal, which ion channels open? after a neurotransitter is released into the synpase and reaches the other thing, if a receptor is a ligand-gated ion channel what will happen? how does this contrast with what will happen if it a G protein coupled receptor.

voltage-gated calcium channels. this cause the membrance bound vesicles to release a neurotransmitter. if receptor is ligand gated ion channel, it will be depolarized or hyperpolarized if it is a g protein coupled receptor, it will cause either changes in cAMP or influx of calcium

what is electron capture?

when a redionuclide captures an inner elecron that combines with a proton to fowm a neutron. The atomic number will be one less but the mass number remains the same. it is the opposite of B- decay

Define forced oscillation/ force frequency how does this relate to the terms resonating or damping/attenuation

when a system will be driven at a frequency equal to the frequency of the force. If thatforce frequency is closed to that of the natural frequencym the amplitude of the oscillation becomes much larger. For ex: think of parent pushing child on a swing. If the parent pushes at a similar frequency to the one the child is swinging at, the amplitude is increasing because the force frequency is nearly identical to the swings natural frequency. Resonating: frequency of the force is equal to a natural frequency- amplitude of oscillation is at maximum- may cause wine glass to break if singing loudly. Don't want frequency to be above- you want the frequency to be directly in line with the one of the object. damping/attenutation: decrease in amplitude of the wave caused by an applied or nonconservative force (swinging slows down when child stops pumping/ pusher stops pushing)

define angle strain

when bond angles deviate from their ideal values by being stretched or compressed

name some of hills criteria

while only first (temporality) is needed for the relationship to be causal, it is not sufficient

the brain consists of white and grey matter. what do each of these contain? which lies deeper?

white- axons encased by myelin sheath (think myelin sheets-- white sheets) grey- consists of unmyelinated cell bodies and dendrites. in brain, white lies deeper than grey matter, in spinal cord, white lies on the outside and grey is within it.

light that contails all colors in equal intensity is ________. the color of an object depends on the light it _________. what will an object that is red under green illumination appear as?

white; depends on light it reflects; it will appear as black because it absorbs the green light and has no light to reflect.

define second sickness

worsening of health problems due to social injustice.

is gravity a type of acceleration

yes. In problems concerning a falling ball, equations will need an acceleration value. Gravity (g) is a type of acceleration.

define phase difference. What does a phase difference of zero mean? What does a phase difference of lambda/2 or 180degrees mean?

zero means they are IN PHASE bc crests and troughs coincide 180 degrees when trough/crest line up and the opposite. anything besides zero means out of phase

the resting membrane potential is least likely to be:

zero- signaling molecules and channels would not be useful at zero