MCAT psychology Kaplan Chapter 6-12
Bipolar disorders
(formerly known as manic depression). Major type of mood disorder characterized by both depression and mania.
What are some biological markers associated with depression?
- Abnormally high glucose metabolism in the amygdala. - Hippocampal atrophy after a long duration of illness (think of repressing memories). - Abnormally high levels of glucocorticoids (cortisol, think of stress). - Decreased norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine (monoamine theory of depression, think of someone not being able to get up from the couch).
Biological markers of alzheimer's disease (do not need to memorize, just need to be familiar)
- Diffuse atrophy of the brain on CT or MRI - Flattened sulci in the cerebral cortex - Enlarged cerebral ventricles - Deficient blood flow in parietal lobes, which is correlated with cognitive decline - Reduction in levels of acethylcholine - Reduction in choline acetyltransferase (which produces acetylcholine) - Reduced metabolism in temporal and parietal lobes - Senile plaques of β-amyloid - neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated tau protein.
Set of biological factors and genetic corollaries that contribute to bipolar disorders
- Increased norepinephrine and serotonin (monoamine theory. - Higher risk if parent has bipolar disorder - Higher risk for persons with multiple sclerosis
Genetic component to Alzheimer's disease
- Mutations in "presenilin" genes on chromosomes 1 and 14 contribute to having the disease. - mutations in "apolipoprotein E" gene on chromosome 19 can contribute. - "β-amyloid precursor protein" gene on chromosome 21. (this is why people with down's syndrome often develop alzheimer's).
Changes in American healthcare over the past few decades:
-increased access to care -decreased cost of healthcare -prevention of disease before occurring -association of patients with primary care physician or patient centered medical home -increased education fro the public with public health outreach. -Decreased paternalism (doctor knows best mentality) -reduced economic conflicts of interest for physicians.
Preconventional morality
1st of 3 phases of morality designed by Kohlberg. Typical of adolescent thinking and places emphasis on consequences of moral choice. Focuses on obedience and self interest as primary motivation for moral behavior.
social trust
2 sources: social norms of reciprocity and social networks
Conventional morality
2nd of 3 phases of morality designed by Kohlberg. Develops in early adolescence when people begin to see themselves in terms of their relationships with others. Focuses on conformity and law and order
Class
3 major classes: upper class: wealth, recognized reputations and lifestyles, larger influence on society's political and economic systems; high concentration of prestige and power middle class: consists of upper middle (successful business and professional people), middle middle (unable to achieve the upper middle lifestyle because of educational and economic shortcomings), and lower middle (skilled and semiskilled workers iwth fewer luxuries) Lower class: reduced amount of sociopolitical power
Postconventional morality
3rd of 3 phases of morality designed by Kohlberg. Does not appear in all people, only more advanced adults. Concerned with moral rules for greater good (social contract) and universal human ethics.
Fasting growing age cohort in USA
85-or-older group (because mortality is decreasing).
3 clusters of personality disorders
A = weird (schizotypal, schizoid, paranoid) B = wild (antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic) C = worried (avoidant, dependent, OCPD)
8 factors indicative of groupthink, studied by Irving Janis
-Illusion of invulnerability -Collective rationalization -Illusion of morality -Excessive stereotyping -Pressure for conformity -Self censorship -Illusion of unanimity -Mindguards
Manic episodes
Abnormal and persistently elevated mood lasting at least one week with at least three of the following: Distractibility, Insomnia, Grandiosity, Flight of ideas (racing thoughts), Agitation, Speech (pressured), and Thoughtlessness (risky behavior). Just remember DIG FAST.
Pleasure principle
Aim is to achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent up tension
Democracy
Allows every citizen a political voice, usually through electing representatives to office.
major depressive episode
A period of at least two weeks with a least five of the following symptoms: sadness, disturbance in Sleep, decreased Interest (anhedonia), Guilt, decreased Energy, decreased Concentration, disturbance in Appetite, Psychomotor symptoms, or Suicidal thoughts. Just remember sadness + SIG E. CAPS
Self schema
A self given label that carries with it a set of qualities. For example, an athlete self schema may carry qualities of youth, physical fitness, etc.
What occurs during demographic transition? What drops first, the birth rate or the death rate?
A society goes from agricultural to industrial society. This causes death rate to drop first, which then causes birth rate to drop, until it plateaus.
Symbolic culture
AKA nonmaterial culture. Focuses on ideas that represent a group of people. Example would be "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness".
Self serving bias
AKA self serving attributional bias. Individuals view their success based on internal factors, and view their failures as being caused by external factors. People with clinical depression often have this reversed, thinking negative things that happen are their fault and positive things are situational.
Social perception
AKA social cognition. provides the tools to make judgments and impressions regarding other people.
Power
Ability of people or groups to achieve goals despite any obstacles, and their ability to control resources. Influences prejudice.
Theory of mind
Ability to sense how another's mind works - for example understanding how a friend is interpreting a story while you tell it. When this develops, we begin to recognize and react to how others think about us. Become aware of judgments from the outside world and react to these judgments.
Empathy
Ability to vicariously experience emotions of another.
Appraisal model of emotional expression
Accepts there are biologically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced, but that there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression. Similar to Darwin's basic model of emotional expression.
Defense mechanisms
According to Freud, these are the ego's methods of relieving anxiety caused by the clash of the id and the superego. All defense mechanisms deny falsify, or distort reality. They also operate unconsciously. 8 main defense mechanisms include: repression, suppression, regression, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, displacement, and sublimation.
Manifest function
Action is intended to help some part of a system.
Social action
Actions and behaviors that individuals are conscious of and performing because others are around. Studied heavily by Max Weber. Different from social interaction, as social action only considers the individual that is surrounded by others.
Inappropriate affect
Affective symptom in which the affect is inappropriate, such as laughing about the death of a parent. Common in schizophrenia.
Flat affect
Affective symptom in which there are virtually no signs of emotional expression. Common in schizophrenia.
Blunting
Affective symptom in which there is a severe reduction in intensity of affect expression. Common in schizophrenia.
Teacher expectancy
Affects performance of students in school. Idea that teachers tend to get what they expect from students. Plays part in self fulfilling prophecy if teacher believes or does not believe in a student.
Esteem support
Affirming the qualities and skills of a person
rates of illnesses for USA based on racial and ethnic profile
All relative to white americans Asian americans and pacific islanders: -best health profile -lower rate of death asociated iwth cancer, heart disease, diabetes, and infant mortality African Americans: -worse health profile -higher rates of death linked to cancer, heart disease, diabetes, drug and alcohol use, infant mortality, and HIV/AIDS -lowest life expectancy Latinos or Hispanic Americans: -lower morality attributable to cancer, HD, and infant mortality -higher mortality rates attributable to diabetes, alcohol, drug use, and HIV/AIDs -High mortality rate from influenza, pneumonia and accidents Native Americans: -higher rates of deaths from diabetes, alcohol and drug use, infant mortality -lower mortality rates due to cancer, HD, HIV and AIDS -highest suicide rates -highest diabetes rate
Strategic alternatives for socially influenced competitors
Altruism, cooperation, spite, selfishness. Remember CASS
Part of the brain responsible for associating stimuli and their respective rewards/punishments (telling us when something is a threat). When activated, aggression is increased.
Amygdala
Cues
Aspect of people's behavior used to understand it
Gestalt therapy
Common practice in humanism, in which practitioners tend to take a holistic view of the self, seeing each individual as a complete person rather than reducing him to individual behaviors or drives.
Propaganda
Common way for large organizations and political groups to attempt to create prejudices in others.
Mcdonaldization
Commonly used to refer to a shift in focus toward efficiency, predictability, calculability, and control in societies. Modeled after Mcdonald's, but seen in other efficient corporations as well.
Three categories that our access to the id, ego, and superego falls into.
Conscious access, preconscious access, and unconscious access.
Three types of cues
Consistency cues - has consistent behavior over time. Consensus cues - matches others' behavior. Distinctiveness cues - uses similar behavior in similar situations.
Anhedonia
Decreased interest, one sign of major depressive episode.
Institutional discrimination
Discrimination against a particular person or group by an entire institution. Example is racial segregation that occurred until the 60s. Different from individual discrimination, which is one person discriminating against a particular person or group.
Social movements
Either promote or resist social change
Humanistic or phenomenological theorists
Focus more on the value of individuals and take a more person-centered approach, describing ways in which healthy people strive toward self-realization. Often associated with Gestalt therapy.
Power
Form of influence over people
Monoamine or catecholamine theory of depression
Hold that too much norepinephrine and serotonin in the synapse leads to mania, while too little leads to depression.
Creative self and style of life
Important aspects of Adler's theory. Creative self is the force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and establishes his personality. Style of life represents the manifestation of the creative self and describes a person's unique way of achieving superiority.
Self disclosure, managing appearances, ingratiation, aligning actions, and alter-casting are all examples of what?
Impression management strategies.
Primary group
Interactions are direct, with close bonds providing warm, personal, and intimate relationships to members. Often last a long period of time, including core group of friends, tightly knit family, or members of a team.
In the Stanford Prison experiment, what was displayed - internalization or identification conformity?
Internalization conformity. The test subjects started to believe in what they were doing.
neologisms
Invented words by a person with disorganized thought/schizophrenia
Conformity
Matching one's beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors to societal norms. AKA majority influence. No one is commanding you to do so.
Identity shift effect
Mechanism behind peer pressure. Individual's state of harmony is disrupted by a threat of social rejection, and often conforms to the norms of the group. Upon doing so, individual experiences internal conflict , and experiences identity shift to relieve this conflict.
Promiscuity
Member of one sex mates with any member of the opposite sex, without exclusivity.
Major depressive disorder
Mood disorder characterized by at least one major depressive episode, which is a period of at least two weeks with a least five of the following symptoms: sadness, disturbance in Sleep, decreased Interest (anhedonia), Guilt, decreased Energy, decreased Concentration, disturbance in Appetite, Psychomotor symptoms, or Suicidal thoughts. Just remember sadness + SIG E. CAPS
What two conditions are linked due to dopamine levels?
Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia. Too much dopamine can lead to schizophrenia symptoms and not enough can lead to Parkinson's symptoms.
Status
Positions in society used to classify individuals.
Social factors that influence prejudice
Power, prestige, and class.
Anticipatory socialization
Process by which a person prepares for future changes in occupations, living situations, or relationships.
Division of labor
Prominent in capitalist societies. specific components of a larger task are separated and assigned to skilled and trained individuals (developing, manufacturing, quality testing, marketing goods, etc.)
Population pyramids
Provide histogram of population size of various age cohorts.
Demographics
Refer to statistics of populations and are the mathematical applications of sociology.
Class
Refers to socioeconomic status. Influences prejudice.
Freud's topographical model of the mind
See image
Norms
Societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior. Means of social control.
Max Weber
Studied social action heavily.
Theocracy
System where power is held by religious leaders.
Intersectionality
The interplay between multiple demographic factors, especially when it leads to discrimination or oppression.
Cultural transmission (or culture learning).
The manner in which a society socializes its members. Different from cultural diffusion, which describes the spreading of culture.
Persona
The mask that we wear in public - the part of our personality that we present to the world. May be adaptive depending on what would improve our social standing. An example of a Jungian archetype.
Role set
The various roles associated with a status.
Socialist economies
Treats large industries as collective, shared businesses, and compensation is provided based on the work contribution of each individual into the system.
Latent functions
Unintended positive consequences of a manifest function.
social networks
can create 2 types of social inequality: situational (socioeconimic advantage) and positional (based on how connected one is within a network and one's centrality within that network) creates and reinforces privilege
Urban renewal
city land is reclaimed and renovated for public or private use often fueled by gentrification
Monogamy
exclusive mating relationship
What is causing increased diversity of US?
immigration, mobility, and intermarriage.
poverty
low socioeconomic status and a lack of possessions or financial resources can be handed down from generation to generation
Polygyny
male having exclusive relationships with multiple females
Polygamy
male having exclusive relationships with multiple females (polygyny) or female having exclusive relationships with multiple males (polyandry).
Socioeconomic status (SES)
may depend on /determined by ascribed or achieved status
Suburbanization
migration pattern of the middle classes to suburban communties Suburbs are more attractive because they are generally cleaner, less crowded, have lower crime rates, and often have better school systems explained by the overall greater concentration of poor individuals in urban centers
false consciousness
misperception of one's actual position within society
vertical mobility
movement from one social class to another
Respect for patient autonomy
must allow patient to make decisions about own healthcare (most of the time).
downward mobility
negative change in a person's status where they fall to a lower position
Mortality rates
number of deaths in a population per 1000 people per year.
Incidence
number of new cases of an illness per population at risk in a given amount of time * New cases/population at risk/time relative to the POPULATION AT RISK
ego dystonic
patient wishes that they could get rid of symptoms ~ ex. OCD
Beneficience
physician has a responsibility to act in the patient's best interest.
ego syntonic
referring to behaviors or feelings that are perceived as natural parts of the self Personality disorders are considered ego systonic because they believe their behavior is normal
class consciousness
the organization of the working class around shared goals and recognition of a need for collective political action
Agoraphobia
Anxiety disorder characterized by fear of being in places or in situations where it might be hard for an individual to escape.
Most common type of psychiatric disorder in women? in men?
Anxiety disorders, substance abuse disorders.
Ghettos
Areas where specific racial, ethnic, or religious minorities are concentrate, usually due to social or economic inequities.
Karen Horney
Argued that personality is a result of interpersonal relationships, adamantly disagreed with Freud about penis envy. Postulated that neurotic individuals are governed by one of ten neurotic needs. Postulated basic anxiety and basic hostility due to inadequate parenting in early development.
Types of statuses
Ascribed (given involuntarily, based on race, ethnicity, gender, family, background, etc.) Achieved (gained as a result of one's efforts or choices) Master (status by which one is most identified; is pervasive in that person's life).
Fixation
Associated with freud's psychosexual stages of developement. Occurs when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development. Causes personality pattern to develop secondary to this anxiety, which persists into adulthood. This is called neurosis.
Biopsychosocial approach to psychological disorders
Assumes that there are biological, psychological, and social components to an individual's disorder.
Social construction model
Assumes there is no biological basis for emotions. Instead, emotions are based on experiences and the situational context alone. Also suggests that certain emotions can only be experienced in social encounters, and suggests emotions are expressed differently and pay different roles across cultures. One must be familiar with social norms for an emotion before displaying them according to this.
Psychoanalytic (pscyhodynamic) theories of personality
Assumption of unconscious internal states that motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality. Biggest proponent of this was Freud.
Stereotype content model
Attempts to classify stereotypes with respect to a hypothetical in-group using two dimensions: warmth and competence.
Game theory
Attempts to explain decision making behavior. Based on strategy, winning and losing, rewards and punishments, profits and costs. Can be used to explain evolutionary strategies. Take the hawk-dove game for example, where the object of the game is to be more fit than the competitor.
Strain theory
Attempts to explain deviance as a natural reaction to the disconnect between social goals and social structure. For example, American dream is that if you work hard, you will become wealthy. However, this is not always the case, so someone may commit theft (deviance) to compensate.
Feminist theory
Attempts to explain social inequalities that exist on the basis of gender, specifically the subordination of women through social structures and institutional discrimination.
Ego-expressive function of attitude
Attitudes allow us to communicate and solidify our self-identity. For instance, a person may wear a hat to show they identify with a sports team.
Golden ratio
Attractive body proportions (1.68:1)
Most common form of hallucination?
Auditory
Three selves of impression management
Authentic self - describes who person actually is, including positive and negative attributes. ideal self - refers to who we would like to be under optimal circumstances. tactical self - Refers to who we market ourselves to be when we adhere to others' expectations of us.
Fertility rate
Average number of children born to a woman during her lifetime in a population.
System for multiple level observation of groups (SYMLOG)
Based on the belief that there are three fundamental dimensions of interaction: dominance vs. submission, friendliness vs. unfriendliness, and instrumentally controlled vs. emotionally expressive.
Conflict theory
Based on work of Karl Marx. Focuses on how power differentials are created and how these differentials contribute to the maintenance of social order.
Reference group
Basing one's self concept based around who they are comparing themselves to.
Antinormative behavior
Behavior against the norm. Deindividuation (dramatic behavior change in social environments) can lead to this.
Animal communication
Behavior of one animal that affects the behavior of another.
Aggression
Behavior that intends to cause harm or increase social dominance.
Proximity
Being physically close to someone. Strengthens attraction
4 tenets of medical ethics that physicians are expected to adhere to:
Beneficience: physician has a responsibility to act in the patient's best interest. Nonmaleficence: do no harm; the physican has a responsibilty to avoid treatments or interventions in which potential for harm is greater than potential for benefit. Respect for patient autonomy: must allow patient to make decisions about own healthcare (most of the time). Justice: Must treat similar patients with similar care, and distribute healthcare resources fairly.
What characterizes bipolar 1 vs bipolar 2 disorders?
Bipolar 1 entails mania, and possibly major depressive episodes Bipolar 2 entails depression and hypomania. Mnemonic: 1 is mania, 2 is depression Mania is a shorter word so it is first
Difference between bipolar I and bipolar II disorders
Bipolar I involves manic episodes with or without major depressive episodes. Bipolar II involves hypomania with at least one major depressive episode. (hypomania does not significantly impair functioning like mania, and there are not typically psychotic features).
Spite
Both donor and recipient are negatively impacted.
Cooperation
Both donor and recipient benefit
Ambivalent attachment (AKA axious-ambivalent attachment)
Caregiver has an inconsistent response to child's distress, sometimes appropriately and sometimes neglectfully. Child is very distressed on separation from caregiver but mixed response when the caregiver returns (often displaying ambivalence).
Role performance
Carrying out of behaviors associated with a given role. For example, part of a doctor's role is to translate medical info into language their patients can understand.
Compliance
Change in behavior based on a direct request. The request is not usually from someone of power. Several techniques for getting someone to comply, including foot-in-the-door technique, door-in-the-face technique, lowball technique, and that's-not-all technique. Remember that they all have hyphens except lowball.
Demographic shifts
Changes in makeup of a population over time.
Obedience
Changing one's behavior in respone to direct order from an authority figure. Different from compliance because compliance does not deal with authority figures. people are more likely to obey than comply.
Dissociative amnesia
Characterized by inability to recall past experiences, but not due to a neurological disorder. Often linked to trauma. May experience dissociative fugue (think of walter white's fugue state).
Disorganized thought
Characterized by loosening of associations. May be exhibited as speech in which ideas shift from one subject to another in such a way that listener cannot follow train of thought. Speech may be disorganized entirely, seeming incomprehensible (word salad). Words may be invented (neologisms). These symptoms are all common in schizophrenia.
OCD
Characterized by obsessions (persistent, intrusive thoughts and impulses), which produce tension, and compulsions (repetitive tasks), which provide relief but can cause significant impairment in person's life.
Secure attachment
Child has consistent caregiver. upset at departure of caregiver and comforted by return.
Albert Bandura
Claimed that observational learning contributes greatly to our future behavior. Concept of reciprocal determinism, which refers to idea that our thoughts feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation.
Halo effect
Cognitive bias in which judgments about a specific aspect of an individual can be affected by one's overall impression of someone. For example, "i like Judy", therefore "judy is a good mother". Basically thinking someone can do no wrong. Affected by attractiveness.
Just-world hypothesis
Cognitive bias in which people believe good things happen to good people, and bad things happen to the bad. Similar to karma.
Conscience
Collection of improper actions for which a child is punished. Makes up part of superego, along with the ego-ideal.
Thought broadcasting
Common delusion in which person thinks thoughts are being broadcast to external world.
Delusions of grandeur
Common in bipolar I, involve belief that person is remarkable in some significant way, such as being an inventor, historical figure, or religious icon.
Intraspecific vs. interspecific communication
Communication between members of the same species vs. members of different species.
Competence (in terms of stereotype content model)
Competent groups have high status in society.
Type A personality vs. Type B personality.
Competitive and compulsive personality vs. laid back and relaxed personality.
Culture lag
Concept by which symbolic culture typically changes more slowly than material culture. For example, we have smartphones and increase in changing technology that strips us of our privacy, although a lot of people still tend to hold onto the idea (symbolic element) of privacy.
Zone of proximal development
Concept of Lev Vygotsky. refers to the skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development. Requires help from a more knowledgeable other. Such a skill is within the zone of proximal development (within close reach).
Unconditional positive regard
Concept pioneered by Carl Rogers in which therapist accepts client completely and expresses empathy
Cyclothymic disorders
Consists of combination of hypomanic episodes and periods of dysthymia that are not severe enough to qualify as major depressive episodes. Basically a mild case of bipolar.
thematic apperception test
Consists of series of pictures presented to client, which they are told to make up a story about. May elucidate client's own unconscious thoughts and feelings. Tests projection defense mechanism.
Secondary process
Control and guidance of the id's primary process (initial response to frustration). This guidance process is done by the ego.
Carl Jung
Created psychoanalytic theories with more emphasis to interpersonal, sociological, and cultural influences. Divided unconscious into two parts - the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious. Believed in archetypes based on the collective unconscious
ways of recording birth and mortality rates
Crude rate (the total rate for a population) and age-specific rates.
Display rules
Cultural expectations of emotions. For example, some cultures rarely express anger. Govern which emotions can be expressed and to what degree. Depends on roles, genders, status, etc.
What is biological basis for parkinson's?
Decreased dopamine production in the substantia nigra, which usually supplies the basal ganglia with dopamine.
Avoidance symptoms
Deliberate attempts to avoid memories, people, places, activities, or objects associated with trauma. Very common in PTSD.
Thought insertion
Delusion that thoughts are being placed in one's head
Immediate networks
Dense networks with strong ties. May include close friends.
Persistent depressive disorder
Depressed mood or dysthymia that occurs for at least 2 years. Often much less severe than major depressive disorder.
Erving Goffman
Described impression management through dramaturgical approach, using metaphor of theatrical performance to the way individuals act in various situations.
George Kelly
Described personal construct psychology. This model thinks of an individual as a scientist, one who devises and tests predictions about the behavior of significant people in his or her life. Pscyhotherapy would include providing insight as to how to successfully predict troublesome events.
Mating system
Describes organization of a group's sexual behavior, including monogamy, polygamy, and promiscuity
Symbolic ethnicity
Describes specific connection to one's ethnicity in which ethnic symbols and identity remain important, even when ethnic identity does not play a significant role in every day life. For example, irish americans celebrating st. patrick's day, although they typically do not care about irish american heritage.
What is DSM-5 based on?
Description of symptoms of database of psychological disorders. Has 20 diagnostic classes of psychological disorders.
Family group
Determined at birth, adoption, and marriage. Not self selected. Joins members of various ages, sexes, and generations through emotional ties.
Force field theory
Developed by Kurt Lewin. Focuses on situations in the present, focusing on one's current state of mind. Does not put much stock in constraints in personalities, such as fixed traits, habits, or structures. Also does not focus much on past or future.
Lawrence Kohlberg
Developed theory of personality development which focuses not on resolving conflicts or urges, but rather the development of moral thinking. Organized moral reasoning into six distinct stages ranging from the concrete to the abstract. (preconventional morality, conventional morality, postconventional morality etc.)
Sensory bias:
Development of a trait to match a preexisting preference that exists in a population. For example, some crabs build structures to attract crabs of opp sex because structures such as those usually indicate a food source.
Looking glass self
Development of one's self through interpersonal interactions. Seeing how you appear through another person's eyes. Notice in the image how the girl is picturing what everyone else views her as.
PEN model
Devised by the Eysencks. Stands for psychoticism (measure of nonconformity or social deviance), extraversion (measure of tolerance for social interaction and stimulation), and neuroticism (measure of emotional arousal in stressful situations). Eysencks believed people could be distinguished from each other based on where they fell in these categories. Has more recently been updated to Big 5 personality traits (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (OCEAN)).
Cultural barriers
Differences in culture that impedes interaction with others.
Cultural attribution
Different cultures may exhibit different attributional biases. For example, individualistic culture would be more likely to attribute behavior to dispositional factors, while collectivist culture would be more likely to attribute behavior to situational factors.
Role strain
Difficulty in satisfying multiple requirements of the same role. Different from role conflict, which is difficulty in satisfying the requirements or expectations of multiple roles.
Role conflict
Difficulty in satisfying the requirements or expectations of multiple roles. Good example is a single parent who also has a full time job. Roles are often at odds with each other. Different from role strain, which is difficulty in satisfying multiple requirements of the same role.
Direct vs. indirect benefits of mating
Direct benefits provide advantages to the mate, while indirect benefits provide advantages to the offspring.
Neurotic needs
Discussed by Karen Horney. Needs of people with neurotic tendencies directed toward making life and interactions bearable. Example is need for affection and approval. According to Horney, these needs become problematic if they are disproportionate in intensity, they are indiscriminate in application, they partially disregard reality, or the have a tendency to provoke intense anxiety.
Psychotic disorder
Disorder in which a person suffers from one of the following conditions: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought, disorganized behavior, catatonia, and negative symptoms.
Disturbance of affect
Disturbance in the expression of emotion. Often a negative symptom in schizophrenia. May include blunting, flat affect, or inappropriate affect. Common in schizophrenia.
Sects of religion
Divisions of large umbrella religions that share similar beliefs and practices, but are not completely identical to the umbrella religion. Sects are religious groups that broke off from parent religion.
What are some relevant trends about divorce rates?
Divorce rates increased significantly in the second half of the twentieth century, but have started to decrease over the past 2 decades.
Selfishness
Donor benefits while the recipient is negatively impacted.
Role exit
Dropping of one identity for another.
Front state vs back stage.
Elements of dramaturgical approach. Front stage is where actor is in front of audience, performing role or script that audience is intended to see, and back stage is where the actor is not being observed by an audience, and he is free to act however he wants without ruining his performance.
Culture
Encompasses the entire lifestyle for a given group, binding nation-states, political institutions, marketplaces, religions, and ideologies.
Organizations
Entities that are set up to achieve specific goals and are characterized by having a structure and culture.
Racialization
Establishment of a group as a particular race - for example Judaism was previously religion, often regarded as a race now.
Central route processing
Example of extreme on elaboration likelihood model. Deep thinking, scutinizing meaning and purpose of persuasive information. Drawing conclusions or making decisions based on this thought. Like Isaac, or Daniel, or my dad.
Peripheral route processing
Example of extreme on elaboration likelihood model. Those who do not elaborate, focusing on superficial details of persuasive information - the appearance of a person delivering the argument, catchphrases and slogans, and credibility. Like mom (she loved obama for his charisma, not the content of his arguments).
Self disclosure
Example of impression management strategy. Giving information about oneself to establish an identity.
Alter casting
Example of impression management strategy. Imposing an identity onto another person.
Aligning actions
Example of impression management strategy. Making questionable behavior acceptable through excuses
Ingratiation
Example of impression management strategy. Using flattery or conforming to expectations to win someone over.
Managing appearances
Example of impression management strategy. Using props, appearance, emotional expression, or associations with others to create a positive image.
Sick role
Expected role of patients in mid twentieth century, in which he was not responsible for the illness, but still exempt from normal social roles. Patient had obligation to seek help. Patient's are now expected to take ownership of health through diet, exercise, etc.
Kenneth and Mamie Clark study
Explored ethnic self concepts among white and black children using a doll preference task: asked each if they preferred a black doll or white doll, most chose white doll. Conducted in 1947.
Social interaction
Explores the ways in which two or more individuals can both shape each other's behavior. Includes group processes and establishment of culture.
Exchange theory
Extension of rational choice theory, although rational choice theory focuses on individual decisions that do not necessarily involve others. Exchange theory focuses on how rational choices apply to interactions in groups. Will make decisions based on approval level of others.
Jungian dichotomies of personality
Extraversion vs. introversion Sensing vs. intuiting Thinking vs. feeling These are the qualities tested in "INFJ" test (which is actually called Myer's Briggs Type Inventory). Note there is also a 4th quality tested in the MBTI, which is judiging and perceiving, but this is not a Jungian dichotomy.
Social stigma
Extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society. Mental illness is stigmatized.
What is more highly conserved between species - facial expression or body language?
Facial expression (meaning it is highly similar between different species). Body language is extremely variable.
Delusions
False beliefs that are discordant with reality and not shared by others.
Depersonalization
Feeling detached from mind or body
derealization
Feeling detached from surroundings
Health profiles based on sex
Females have better health profiles than men Females: -higher morbitity rates -more infectious and parasitic diseases, digestive problems, respiraory conditions, hypertension, arthritis, diabetes and IBD Males: -more likely to die from accidents, suicide, and homicide -far less likely to seek medical attention * this is b/c: -sociologically: men are bigger risk takers, more likely to be employed in dangerous jobs, hypermasculinity (toughing it out), higher rates of alcohol use, speeding, participation in violent sports -biologically: more likelt to come down with diseases that are life threatening
Anima and animus
Feminine and masculine sex-inappropriate qualities, respectively. In other words, feminine behaviors in males and masculine behaviors in females. Example of Jungian archetypes
Demographic statistics
Fertility rate = children per women per lifetime Birth rate = children per 1000 people per year Mortality rate = deaths per 1000 people per year Migration rate = immigration rate minus emigration rate.
Functional autonomy
First considered by Gordon Allport. Behavior continues despite satisfaction of the original drive that caused the behavior (such as hunting even after having enough food for dinner).
Basic model of emotional expression. What is it, who was it established by?
First established by Charles Darwin. States that emotional expression involves a number of components: facial expressions, behaviors, postures, vocal changes, and physiological changes. Consistent with his theories of evolution. Similar to appraisal model, which accepts there are biologically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced, but that there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression.
Social cognitive perspective
Focuses how our environment influences our behavior, and how we interact with that environment. Someone who practices this believes the best predictor of future behavior is past behavior.
B.F. Skinner
Focuses on behaviorist perspective, heavily focusing on concepts such as operant conditioning. Thought therapy should focus on operant conditions, through methods like token economies.
Rational choice theory
Focuses on decision making in an individual - based on benefits and harms to the individual.
Malthusian theory
Focuses on how exponential growth of a population can outpace growth of food supply and lead to social degradation and disorder. This is termed a Malthusian catastrophe.
Social constructionism
Focuses on how individuals put together their social reality. Reflects on how we, as a society, construct concepts and principles - what is justice? what is honor? This can change over time.
Macrosociology
Focuses on large groups and social structure
Self enhancement
Focuses on need to maintain self-worth and can be done through internal attribution of successes and external attribution of failures.
Microsociology
Focuses on small groups and the individual.
Attribution theory
Focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the cause of other people's behavior.
Social cognition
Focuses on the ways in which people think about others and how these ideas impact behavior.
Groupthink
Focusing solely on ideas generated within a group, ignoring outside ideas.
Token economies
Form of operant conditioning therapy in which a patient is rewarded for positive behavior (tokens which can be exchanged for privileges, treats, etc.)
Ritual
Formalized ceremony that usually involves specific material objects, symbolism, acceptable behavior, etc. Ordinary rituals exist too, such as morning routine (brushing teeth, showering, etc.)
Dissociative identity disorder
Formerly multiple personality disorder. Multiple personalities recurrently take control of person's behavior.
Capitalist
Free market, laissez-faire. Encourage division of labor, which is when specific components of a larger task are separated and assigned to skilled and trained individuals.
Primary differences between Freud, Jung, and Adler in personality theories
Freud's major assumption is that behavior is motivated by inborn instincts, Jung's principal axiom is that a person's conduct is governed by inborn archetypes, and Adler assumes people are primarily concerned with striving for superiority.
What type of theorist thinks deviance is necessary for social order?
Functional theorists
Causes of schizophrenia
Genetic, trauma at birth (especially hypoxemia). Excessive marijuana use in adolescence.
Dyads and triads
Group of 2 and 3, respectively. Small groups such as these allow individuals to present more of themselves to the group.
Reference groups
Groups that establish the terms by which individuals evaluate themselves: to determine how strong of a medical applicant I am, I consider myself in relation to the reference group of all medical school applicants.
Dysfunctions
Harmful consequences of people's actions as they undermine a social system's equilibrium.
Formal organizations
Have expressed goals. Contain enforcement procedures to control the activities of its members. Characterized by hierarchical allotment of its members. Continue despite the departure of an individual member, which is different from a group.
Altruism
Helping behavior in which person's intent is to benefit someone else at some cost to himself.
Biological perspective
Holds that personality can be explained as a result of genetic expression in the brain.
Nonverbal communication
How people communicate without words. Examples include facial expressions, body language, gestures, tone of voice, eye contact, or amount of personal space.
Religiosity
How religious one considers himself to be.
Second sickness
Howard Waitzkin An exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social injustice poverty and social inequality --> worse health outcomes: babies with low birth rates, lower life expectancies, life shortening diseases, and more likely to commit suicide
Example of evolution and human culture
Human beings are the only ones to ingest milk after adolescence, and are the only ones to ingest another animal's milk. Probably evolved to do this due to our culture, in which we relied heavily on cattle farming for sustenance.
Situational approach.
Idea that behavior is determined by environment and context. Contrary to dispositional approach, which is the idea that behavior is primarily determined by an individual's personality
Dispositional approach
Idea that behavior is primarily determined by an individual's personality Contrary to situational approach, which is idea that behavior is determined by environment and context.
Primacy effect
Idea that first impressions are often more important than subsequent impressions.
Adaptive function of attitude
Idea that one will be accepted if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed.
David Mclelland
Identified a personality trait known as need for achievement (N-Ach).
Archetypes
Images of common experiences between all humans (the collective unconscious), which have a powerful emotional element. For example, an image of God and the Devil would be an archetype for people of Christianity. Idea of Carl Jung. Other Jungian archetypes include Persona, Anima, Animus, and Shadow.
Echopraxia
Imitating another's actions. Often a form of catatonia, which refers to certain motor behaviors often exhibited by people with schizophrenia. Echoing someone.
Immigration vs emigration
Immigration is movement into new geographic space, emigration is movement out of geographic space.
Fictional finalism
Important concept in Alfred Adler's theory of personality. Individual is motivated by expectations of the future, rather than past experiences. Based on subjective or fictional estimate of life's values. "life would be perfect if only..."
Recency effect
In contrast to primacy effect, this states that the most recent information we have about an individual is the most important in forming our impressions.
Disorganized behavior
Inability to carry out activities of daily living, such as paying bills, maintaining hygiene, etc.
Negative cognitive symptoms
Include inability to recall key features of a traumatic event, negative mood or emotions, feeling distanced from others, persistent negative view of the world. Very common in PTSD.
Intrusion symptoms
Include recurrent reliving of a traumatic event through flashbacks, nightmares, prolonged distress. Very common in PTSD
Monarchies
Include royal ruler, although ruler's powers may be significantly limited by presence of parliament and constitution.
Agents of socialization
Includes family, peers, religion, government, media, work, ethnic background, clubs, school.
Biomedical approach to psychological disorders
Includes interventions that rally around symptom reduction of psychological disorders. Narrow approach, as it does not take into account aspects such as socioeconomic status or lifestyle.
Material culture
Includes physical items one associates with a given group, such as artwork, emblems, clothing, jewelry, foods, buildings, and tools. Often the tangible embodiment of symbolic culture, which is associated with ideas.
Arousal symptoms
Increased startle response, irritability, anxiety, self destructive or reckless behavior, and sleep disturbances. Common in PTSD.
Group conformity
Individual is compliant with group's goals, even when the group's goals may be in direct contrast to individual's.
Depersonalization/derealization disorder
Individuals feel detached from their own body and mind (depersonalization) or their surroundings (derealization). May fail to recognize one's reflection.
Instinct (in Freudian terms)
Innate psychological representation of a biological need
Gender inequality
Intentional or unintentional empowerment of one gender to the detriment of the other.
Secondary group
Interactions are superficial, with few emotional bonds. Typically last for short periods of time, and typically dissolve without special significance, such as students working together on a group project.
Irving Janis
Investigated decision making of groups that led to disastrous American foreign policy decisions, including Bay of Pigs invasion, in order to further understand group think. Examined 8 factors indicative of groupthink.
Delusions of reference
Involve belief that common elements in environment are directed toward the individual. Example is thinking people on TV are talking to you
Delusions of persecution
Involve belief that the person is being deliberately interfered with, discriminated against, plotted against, or threatened.
Somatic symptom disorder
Involves at least one somatic symptom, which may or may not be linked to underlying medical condition, which causes disproportionate concerns about its seriousness.
Network support
Involving someone in a group, giving them a sense of belonging.
Illness anxiety disorder
Irrational anxiety about having serious medical condition.
Prejudice
Irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing, prior to actual experience with that entity.
Shadow archetype
Jungian archetype, which is responsible for the appearance of unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness.
one-year prevalence rates for psychological disorders in the United States
Just note the ones that are most prevalent
Basic hostility
Karen Horney concept. Neglect and rejection from parents cause anger, which she termed basic hostility.
Basic anxiety
Karen Horney's primary concept. Based on premise that child's early perception of self is important and stems from relationship with parents. Can be caused by inadequate parenting due to vulnerability and helplessness.
Carl Rogers
Known for client-centered, person-centered, or nondirective therapy. Believed people were in control of their behaviors. Pioneered concept of unconditional positive regard (therapeutic technique in which therapist accepts client completely and expresses empathy).
Drug that is used to treat parkinson's?
L-DOPA, which is a precursor that is converted to dopamine once in the brain, replacing what is lost due to parkinson's.
Labeling theory
Labels given to people affect not only how others respond to that person, but also the person's self image. For example, if a woman is labeled as promiscuous, she may act more sexually or conform to be less promiscuous.
What part of the brain controls hunger?
Lateral hypothalamus causes hunger, ventromedial hypothalamus tells you you're full.
Prestige
Level of respect shown to a person by others. Influences prejudice.
Emotional support
Listening, affirming, empathizing with someone's feelings.
What are ethnic enclaves? How do they affect cultural assimilation?
Locations (usually neighborhoods) with a high concentration of one's specific ethnicity. Most common in urban areas. Example is China Town. Hinder cultural assimilation.
Self discrepancy theory
Maintains that each of us has three selves - our self concept makes up our actual self (the way we currently see ourselves), ideal self (the way we want to be), and our ought self (the way we perceive others want us to be). The closer these three selves are to each other, the higher our self esteem typically is.
Functionalism (religion)
Maintenance of strict adherence to religious code.
Heinz dilemma
Man steals drug that is to expensive for him to save his dying wife. What are the moral implications of this? Thoroughly studied by Lawrence Kohlberg
Avolition
Marked by decreased engagement in purposeful, goal-directed actions. Common in schizophrenia.
Acute stress disorder
May account for symptoms consistent with PTSD, but is not diagnosed as such because its duration is between 3 days and 1 month. PTSD must have a duration of symptoms of at least 1 month.
Inclusive fitness
Measure of an organism's success in a population. This is based on number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, and ability of the offspring to then support others.
Neurosis
Mental disorder that due to a personality pattern that develops as a child but carries into adulthood. Occurs due to anxiety caused by fixation on o developmental stage as a child (according to freud's theories of psychosexual development).
Wish fulfillment
Mental imagery, such as daydreaming or fantasy that fulfills the id's primary process (initial response to frustration).
Foot-in-the-door-technique
Method of getting someone to comply in which someone requests a small favor, and then after gaining compliance a larger request is made.
that's-not-all technique
Method of getting someone to comply. Occurs in infomercials. Individual is made an offer, but before they make a decision they are told the deal is even better than they expected.
Door-in-the-face technique
Method of getting someone to comply. Opposite of foot in the door technique. Large request is made first, followed by a small request after being rejected.
Lowball technique
Method of getting someone to comply. Requestor will get an initial commitment from the individual while leaving out some unfavorable information. For example, boss may tell employee to do something that requires 5 hours of work every week, but not tell them that they will also have to do presentations and write reports for meetings.
Where do most American immigrants emigrate from (in recent censuses).
Mexico, the Caribbean, and India.
Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development
Mnemonic (this is ridiculous) (Erik's son) Tony Must Act Shamefully. I Guess Ian Is (an) Idol (to) Remington. If Ian Gets Syphilis, I'll Die.
According to Karen Horney, what strategies do children use to overcome basic anxiety or basic hostility?
Move toward people to obtain good will of people who provide security, move against people and fighting them to obtain the upper hand, and moving away from people. This strategy then carries into adulthood.
Multiculturalism vs. assimilation
Multiculturalism refers to communities or societies containing multiple cultures. From a sociology perspective, multiculturalism encourages, respects, and celebrates cultural differences. Assimilation is like a melting pot. Melting pot describes the melting together of different elements of culture into one homogenous culture.
Justice
Must treat similar patients with similar care, and distribute healthcare resources fairly.
Distant networks
Networks that are looser and contain weaker ties. May include acquaintances.
Folkways
Norms that refer to behavior that is considered polite in particular social interactions, such as shaking hands after a tennis match.
What determines salience in identity? (the parts of our identity we choose to express)
Number of factors, including the amount of work invested into the identity, the rewards and gratification associated with it, the amount of self esteem associated with it.
Big 5 traits of personalities
OCEAN. openness, conscientiousness (wanting to do what is right), extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism
Kohlberg's stages of moral development
Obedience - concerned with avoiding punishment Self-interest - concerned with gaining rewards Conformity - concerned with seeking the approval of others Law and Order - concerned with maintaining social order (if everyone stole things they couldn't afford, that would be bad for businesses) Social contract - views moral rules as conventions designed to ensure greater good, focused on people's individual rights (everyone has a right to live). Universal human ethics - reasons that decision should be made in consideration of abstract principles (it is wrong for one to hold another's life for ransom). Menomic: Otis Started Climbing Ladders So Calmly..... then you just have to remember universal human ethics
Phenotypic benefits
Observable traits that make a potential mate more attractive to opposite sex. Typically indicate increased production and survival of offspring. For example, male who is more nurturing.
Stereotypes
Occur when attitudes and impressions are based on limited and superficial information about a person or a group of individuals.
Primary socialization
Occurs during childhood when we initially learn acceptable actions and attitudes in our society, primarily through observation of our parents and other adults in close proximity.
Physiological revolution
Occurs during erikson's stage of identity vs role confusion (which occurs during adolescence). Basically puberty.
What socioeconomic groups are most likely to have domestic violence?
Occurs in all groups, book does not state it is more likely in any particular group. However, more prevalent in alcoholics and drug users
Hypomania
Occurs in bipolar II, rather than mania. Typically does not significantly impair functioning, nor are there psychotic features, although the individual may be more energetic or optimistic.
Avoidant attachment
Occurs when a caregiver has little or no response to a distressed child. Children show no preference between stranger and caregiver. They show little distress when caregiver leaves or returns.
Attribute substitution
Occurs when individuals are required to make judgments that are complex, but instead substitute a simpler solution or apply a heuristic. For example, see image.
Discrimination
Occurs when prejudicial attitudes cause individuals of a particular group to be treated differently from others.
Material support (AKA tangible support)
Offering finances or materials for support.
Relative deprivation
Often a motivator of social movements. Decrease in resources, representation, or agency relative to the past or the whole of society.
PTSD
Often involves intrusion symptoms, avoidance symptoms, negative cognitive symptoms, arousal symptoms following traumatic event. To be diagnosed, particular symptoms must last for at least one month.
Empathy-altruism hypothesis
One individual helps another person when he or she feels empathy for the other person, regardless of the cost.
id
One major entity of Freud's structural model of personality. Consists of all basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce. Functions according to pleasure principle, which is to achieve immediate gratification
Ego
One major entity of Freud's structural model of personality. Operates according to reality principle, taking into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits activity of the id and the id's pleasure principle. This guidance is referred to as the secondary process. Ego can be considered the organizer of the mind: it receives its power from, and can never be fully independent of, the id. Also moderates desires of superego.
Secondary traits
One of 3 basic traits listed by Gordon Allport. Personal characteristics that are more limited in occurrence: aspects of one's personality that only appears in close groups or specific social situations.
Central traits
One of 3 basic traits listed by Gordon Allport. Represent major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer, such as honesty or charisma.
Cardinal traits
One of 3 basic traits listed by Gordon Allport. Traits around which a person organizes his or her life.
Fritz Heider
One of founding fathers of attribution theory. Divided causes of attribution theory into two main categories - dispositional (internal) and situational (external).
Reaction formation
One of the 8 defense mechanisms. An unacceptable impulse is transformed into its opposite Example is two coworkers who fight all the time to hide the fact that they are actually very attracted to each other
Projection
One of the 8 defense mechanisms. Attribution of wishes, desires, thoughts, or emotions to someone else. Example is a man who has committed adultery, and is convinced that his wife must be cheating on him despite lack of evidence
Displacement
One of the 8 defense mechanisms. Changing the target of an emotion, while the feelings remain the same Punching a pillow while mad
Subilmation
One of the 8 defense mechanisms. Channeling of an unacceptable impulse in a socially acceptable direction Example is a boss who is attracted to his employee deciding to become her mentor or advisor.
Suppression
One of the 8 defense mechanisms. Consciously removing an idea or feeling from consciousness Example is a terminal patient putting troubles aside to enjoy time with her family
Rationalization
One of the 8 defense mechanisms. Justification of attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors. Example is murderer saying they deserved it
Regression
One of the 8 defense mechanisms. Returning to an earlier stage of development Example is talking to your wife in "baby talk" when giving bad news
Repression
One of the 8 defense mechanisms. The ego's way of forcing undesired thoughts and urges to the unconscious, and underlies many of the other defense mechanisms. Example is a man who survived concentration camp cannot remember it.
Mindguards
One of the 8 factors studied by Irving Janis in groupthink. The appointment of members to the role of protecting against opposing views.
Illusion of invlunerability
One of the 8 factors studied by Irving Janis in groupthink. The creation of optimism and encouragement of risk-taking.
Peer group
One that is defined by association of self-selected equals around similar interests, ages, and statuses. Note self selection.
Freud's stages of psychosexual development
Oral - 0-18 months Anal - 18-36 months Phallic - 3-6 years Latency - 6 years to puberty Genital - puberty + Easy way to remember these stages is that they all double! e.g. 18x2 = 36, 3x2 = 6, 6x2 = 12 (puberty).
Self efficacy
Our belief in our ability to succeed. Can be depressed past the point of recovery, as shown in the experiment with dogs being shocked (terrible). When this occurs, it is called learned helplessness, and this is thought to be one of the causes of clinical depression.
Prodromal phase of schizophrenia
Patient goes through phase of poor adjustment prior to diagnosis of schizophrenia. Exemplified by clear evidence of deterioration, social withdrawal, role functioning impairment, peculiar behavior, inappropriate affect, and unusual experiences.
Who are the most important role models for an adolescent?
Peers
Sanctions
Penalties for misconduct, which strengthen norms. Include fines and incarceration.
Bystander effect
People often do not intervene to help victims when others are present. Especially when there are more people around than less.
Mere exposure effect (familiarity effect)
People prefer stimuli that they have been exposed to more frequently. Element of attraction due to proximity.
Components of social perception
Perceiver (influenced by experience, motives, and emotional state). Target (refers to the person about which the perception is made). Situation (given social context can determine what information is available to perceiver).
Cultural relativism
Perception of another culture as different from one's own, but with the recognition that the culture values, mores, and rules of a culture fit into that culture itself. Does not perceive own cultural rules as superior.
Social support
Perception or reality that one is cared for by a social network. Divided into emotional, esteem, material, informational, and network support Remember the S.S. EEMIN...picture a boat? SS stands for social support
Generalized anxiety disorder
Persistent worrying about things for at least 6 months. May have fatigue, muscle tension, sleep problems, etc.
Dissociative disorders
Person avoids stress by escaping from his identity. Otherwise intact sense of reality. Include dissociative amnesia, dissociative identity disorder (multiple personality disorder), or depersonalization/derealization disorder.
Avoidant personality disorder
Person feels inadequate, inferior, and undesirable and is preoccupied with fears of criticism
Role partner
Person with whom one is interacting. Parts of a person's role change when interacting with different role partners. For doctor, may include patient, nurse, other doctors, etc.
Somatotypes
Personality types proposed by William Sheldon, which presumed that short, stocky people were jolly, all tall people were high-strung and aloof, and people in between were strong and well adjusted.
superego
Personality's perfectionist, judging our action and responding with pride at our accomplishments and guilt at our failures. Made up of conscience and ego-ideal.
Learned helplessness
Phenomenon in which one's self efficacy is severely depressed, and they do not feel they can do anything to repair it. One possible model of clinical depression.
Glass ceiling
Phenomenon in which women have difficulty attaining top level administrative positions within a company.
Reciprocal liking
Phenomenon whereby people like others better when they believe the other person likes them.
5 mechanisms of mate choice
Phenotypic benefiters Sensory bias Fisherian or runaway selection Indicator traits Genetic compatibility Mnemonic: Think of someone saying "F PIGS!" because unattractive people are often called pigs, and they would not want to mate with them.
What influences interpersonal attraction?
Physical characteristics, similarity, self-disclosure, reciprocity, and proximity.
Client centered therapy (AKA person-centered or nondirective therapy).
Pioneered by Carl Rogers. Method helps patient reflect on problems, make choices, generate solutions, take positive action, and determine their own destiny. Works on assumption that people are in control of their actions.
Positive vs. negative effects of globalization
Positive - availability of foods throughout entire year. Negative - unemployment, rising prices, increased pollution, civil unrest, global terrorism.
Fisherian or runaway selection
Positive feedback mechanism in which a trait holds no actual value for survival, but continues to exist and becomes more and more exaggerated over time due to sexual desirability. Peacock is good example.
Racial formation theory
Posits that racial identity is fluid and dependent on concurrent political, economic, and social factors
Fundamental attribution error
Posits that we are generally biased toward making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions, especially in negative contexts.
Personal construct psychology
Postulated by George Kelly. Thought of individuals as scientists trying to construct a scheme of anticipation of what others will do. Those with anxiety are simply confused about the variables they face, according to this construct.
Social cognitive theory
Postulates that people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviors of others. Behavior develops through direct observation and replication of others, and in tandem with the influence of personal factors and environmental factors.
Collective unconscious
Powerful system shared among all humans and considered to be a residue of the experiences of our early ancestors. Its building blocks are derived from common experiences, such as having a father and a mother. Give rise to archetypes.
What part of the brain can control a "revved-up" amygdala?
Prefrontal cortex. Reduces aggressive behavior.
Gordon Allport
Primarily a trait theorist. LIsted 3 basic types of traits or dispositions: cardinal, central, and secondary traits. Also known for functional autonomy, in which behavior continues despite satisfaction of the original drive that caused the behavior (such as hunting even after having enough food for dinner).
Proactive vs reactive social movements
Proactive social movements try to promote change. Include civil rights movement, women's rights movement, etc. Reactive social movements try to resist social change (by resisting proactive social movements). Include white supremacist movement, antiglobalization movement, etc.
Cultural assimilation
Process by which an individual's or group's behavior and culture begin to resemble that of another group. This can also mean that groups with different cultures begin to merge into one.
Resocialization
Process by which one discards old behaviors in favor of new ones to make a life change. Can have positive or negative connotations. Example is members of armed forces being trained to obey orders and commands without hesitation.
Secularization
Process by which society moves from a world dominated by religion toward rationality and scientific thinking.
Socialization
Process of developing, inheriting, and spreading norms, customs, and beliefs.
Self presentation
Process of displaying oneself to society through culturally accepted behaviors. People use specific strategies to shape what people will think of them. Term is often used interchangeably with impression management.
Globalization
Process of integrating global economy with free trade and the tapping of foreign markets.
Peak experiences
Profound and deeply moving experiences in a person's life that have important and long lasting effects on the individual. According to Abraham Maslow, self actualized people (those with the desire for self fulfillment) are more likely to have these experiences.
Ego-defensive function of attitudes
Protect our self esteem or justify actions we know are wrong. For example, child with difficulty doing math may develop negative attitude toward it.
Knowledge function of attitude
Provides consistency and stability. Helps predict people's behavior. For example, someone who has an attitude of caring about political action - we would predict that they would likely vote in an upcoming election.
Informational support
Providing information to help someone, like explaining a diagnosis to a patient.
Schizophrenia
Psychotic disorder in which person has at least 2 conditions that characterize psychotic disorders for 6 months, one of which must be delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech. Divided into positive and negative symptoms.
Kinsey scale
Rates a person's sexuality 0-6, with 0 being completely heterosexual and 6 being completely homosexual. Few people fall into 0 or 6.
Bureaucracy
Rational system of political organization, administration, discipline, and control. Typically consists of paid, non-elected officials on fixed salary; officials who are provided rights and privileges as a result of making career out of holding office; regularly salary increases, seniority rights, and promotions; entrance by holding advanced degree or training; responsibilities, obligations, privileges, etc; and responsibility for meeting the demands for one's position. Often slow to change and inefficient due to this.
Consistency cues
Refer to consistent behavior of a person over time. The more regular the behavior, the more we associate their motives with that behavior.
Subcultures
Refer to groups of people within a culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture to which they belong. Symbolic attachment to things is common (clothes or music etc). Formed based on race, gender, ethnicity, sexuality, and other differentiating factors.
Distinctiveness cues
Refer to the extent to which a person engages in similar. behavior across a series of scenarios. If behavior varies in different scenarios, we are more likely to form situational (external) attributions of behavior.
Mass hysteria
Refers to a shared, intense concern about the threats to society. Several aspects of groupthink exacerbate this hysteria, leading to delusion that is augmented by distrust, rumors, propaganda, and fear mongering. Example is salem witch trials
Catatonia
Refers to certain motor behaviors characteristic of some people with schizophrenia. May involve reduction of spontaneous movement of maintaining a rigid posture, refusing to move. May also involve useless or bizarre movements not caused by any external stimuli. May also include echolalia or echopraxia
Mate bias
Refers to choosiness of members of a species in sexual selection
Stereotype threat
Refers to concept of people being concerned or anxious about confirming a negative stereotype about one's social group. Can cause reduced performance, creating self fulfilling prophecy.
Urbanization
Refers to dense areas of population creating a pull for migration. Due to economic opportunities and increase in "world cities".
Individual discrimination
Refers to one person discriminating against a particular person or group. Different from institutional discrimination, which is discrimination against a particular person or group by an entire institution.
Impression management
Refers to our attempts to influence how others perceive us. Done through regulation or controlling of information in social interactions. Often used synonymously with self presentation.
Ethnocentrism
Refers to practice of making judgments about other cultures based on values and beliefs of one's own culture. Can be displayed as celebration of ethnic pride, or violent supremacy groups.
Social loafing
Refers to tendency of individuals to put in less effort when in a group setting than individually.
Affective component of attitude
Refers to the way a person feels toward something. The emotional component. For example, "snakes scare me".
Locus of control
Refers to the way we characterize the influences in our lives. People with internal locus of control view themselves controlling their own fate, whereas those with external locus of control feel that the events in their lives are caused by luck or outside influences.
Situational (external) attribution
Relate to features of the surroundings, such as threats, money, social norms, and peer pressure.
Consensus cues
Relate to the extent in which a person's behavior differs from others. If behavior differs from norm, we will likely use dispositional (internal) attribution about bevavior.
Roschach inkblot test
Relies on the assumption that a client is projecting his or her unconscious feelings onto the shape they pick.
Cult
Religious sect that takes on extreme or deviant philosophies.
Echolalia
Repeating another's words. Often a form of catatonia, which refers to certain motor behaviors often exhibited by people with schizophrenia. Echoing someone. can remember someone going "la la la" to remember that it is echoing someone's speech.
Risky shift and choice shift
Risky shift occurs when a group is polarized to be more extreme than the individuals within the group, causing them to make risky choices. Choice shift occurs when a group is polarized to be more extreme than the individuals within the group, causing them to make more cautious choices.
Classifications of stereotypes in the stereotype content model
See image
Foraging
Seeking out and eating food, driven by biological, psychological, and social influences.
Mate choice, AKA intersexual selection
Selection of mate based on attraction.
Difference between identity and self concept
Self concept describes the sum of all the phrases that come to mind when we think of who we are, who we used to be, who we may become. Identity describes a set of behaviors and labels we take on when in a specific group.
What are some common impression management strategies?
Self disclosure, managing appearances, ingratiation, aligning actions, and alter-casting
Elaboration likelihood model
Separates individuals on a continuum based on their processing of persuasive information. Composed of central route processing and peripheral route processing, which are extremes of elaboration likelihood model.
Gender segregation
Separation of individuals based on perceived gender. Bathrooms, single-sex schools, etc.
Role
Set of beliefs, values, attitudes, and norms that define expectations for those who hold the status.
Cultural syndrome
Shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors among members of the same culture that are organized around a central theme. Influence rules for expressing or suppressing emotion, and even influence the ways emotions are experienced.
Self disclosure
Sharing one's fears, thoughts, and goals with another person and being met with non-judgmental empathy. Deepens attraction and friendship if reciprocal.
Disorganized attachment
Show no clear pattern of behavior in response to caregiver's absence or presence. Show a mix of different behaviors, including avoidance, resistance, confusion, or repetitive behaviors. Often due to erratic behavior and social withdrawal by caregiver. Red flag for abuse.
Solomon Asch's conformity experiment
Showed that individuals will often agree with an opinion held by a group, even if they know it is wrong. Used simple tasks of perception.
Bandura's triadic reciprocal causation
Shows relationship between 3 factors of social cognitive theory - behavioral, personal, and environmental factors.
Indicator traits
Signify overall good health and well being of an organism, increasing its attractiveness to mates. These traits may or may not be genetic in origin.
Dictatorship
Single person holds power, usually includes mechanisms to quell threats to his power.
Race
Social construct based on phenotypic differences between groups of people. May be real or perceived differences. Not strictly defined by genetics, and rather classifies individuals based on superficial traits such as skin color.
Ethnicity
Social construct, which sorts people by cultural factors such as language, nationality, religion, etc. Person can be racially black but be Latino in ethnicity.
Groupthink
Social phenomenon in which desire for harmony or conformity results in group of people coming to incorrect or poor decision. Loss of independent thinking.
4 primary factors that can be used to assess the completeness of cultural assimilation
Socioeconomic status, geographic distribution, language attainment, and intermarriage.
Demographic transition
Specific example of demographic shift, referring to changes in birth and death rates in a country as it develops from a preindustrial to industrial economic system. Split into 4 stages. THIS IS A TYPE OF DEMOGRAPHIC SHIFT, but is different because demographic shift can be any trend. This trend shows decreased mortality rate and decreased birth rate.
Word salad
Speech may be disorganized entirely, seeming incomprehensible
4 stages of demographic transition
Stage 1: preindustrial society; birth and death rates are both high. Stage 2: improvements in healthcare, nutrition, sanitation, and wages cause death rates to drop Stage 3: Improvements in contraception, women's rights, and a shift from an agricultural to an industrial economy cause birth rates to drop. Children go to school for longer periods of time and require support for longer, which is part of the reason birth rate decreases. Stage 4: Industrialized society; birth and death rates are both low.
Instrumental relativist stage
Stage of Kohlberg's moral stages based on reciprocity and sharing (I'll scratch your back you scratch mine). Also known as self interest phase, which is stage 2. Part of preconventional morality, which develops in preadolescent thinking.
Functional attitudes theory
States that attitudes serve four functions: knowledge, ego expression, adaptation, and ego defense.
Iron law of oligarchy
States that democratic or bureaucratic systems naturally shift to being ruled by an elite group.
Differential association theory
States that intimate exposure to others who engage in deviant behavior lays the groundwork for one to engage in deviant behavior himself. Amount someone is affected is based on the degree to which one is surrounded by ideals that adhere to social norms vs. ideals that go against them.
Yerkes-Dodson law of social facilitation
States that social facilitation increases performance of simple tasks because of the increase in arousal. However, with complex tasks, too much arousal can cause a significant decrease in performance.
Cognitive neoassociation model
States that we are more likely to respond to others aggressively whenever we are feeling negative emotions.
Implicit personality theory
States there are sets of assumptions people make about how different types of people, their traits, and their behavior are related. Uses stereotyping.
Envious stereotypes
Stereotype in which group is viewed with jealousy, bitterness, or distrust. Low warmth, high competence. Example is asians, jews, rich people, feminists.
Paternalistic stereotypes
Stereotypes in which group is looked down upon as inferior, dismissed, or ignored. They have high warmth, but low competence. Example is housewife, elderly, disabled people.
Contemptuous stereotypes
Stereotypes in which group is viewed with resentment, annoyance, or anger. Low warmth, low competence. Example is welfare recipients, poor people.
Functionalism (functional analysis)
Study of the structure and function of each part of a society. Early functionalists viewed society as a living organism - its parts and systems must work together in harmony. Later theorists used the word function to refer to beneficial consequences of people's actions.
Symbolic interactionism
Study of the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols.
Counterculture
Subculture group that gravitates toward an identity that is at odds with the majority culture, deliberately opposing prevailing social norms. Punk rock would be a counterculture.
Dissociative fugue
Sudden, unexpected move or purposeless wandering away from one's home or location of usual activities. May be confused about identity. Often accompanies dissociative amnesia/traumatic event.
Learning theory
Suggests that attitudes are developed through different forms of learning. Direct contact with the object can influence attitudes. For example, a child may develop positive attitude immediately after trying candy. A child who is taught not to swear develops negative attitude toward swearing.
Negative symptoms
Symptoms that involve the absence of a normal or desired behavior, such as disturbance of affect and avolition.
Social structure
System of people within a society organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships.
Interaction process analysis
Technique for observing, classifying, and measuring the interactions within small groups. Was revised to the system for multiple level observation of groups (SYMLOG).
Group polarization
Tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than individual ideas and inclinations of the members within the group. Can lead to riskier or more cautious decisions.
Social facilitation
Tendency to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others.
Personal unconscious
Termed by Carl Jung. Similar to Freud's notion of unconscious - thoughts that have been repressed. Carl Jung also believed in collective unconscious.
What did Freud theorize about human sexuality?
That libido is present from birth (rather than being dormant until puberty). He believed that relief of libidinal tension was the underlying force that accounted for human psychological processes. His theories have been mostly discredited, but they are still historically important.
What concept did the Stanley Milgram experiment demonstrate?
That people are very likely to obey authority figures, even if they are uncomfortable doing so. The experiment involved shocking people who got questions wrong, and people being pushed to increase the intensity every time they got it wrong. The ones being shocked were actors.
Characteristic institution
The basic organization of a society. Bureaucracy is the characteristic institution of our society.
Genetic compatability
The creation of mate pairs that, when combined, have complementary genetics. Reduces frequency of recessive genetic disorders.
Warmth (in terms of stereotype content model)
The degree of competitiveness to an in group. If a person/group is highly competitive to one's in group, than they will have low warmth. If they are not competitive, they will have high warmth. Think of it this way - we are warmer toward those that do not intimidate us
Attitude
The expression of positive or negative feelings toward a person, place, thing, or scenario. Develop from experiences with others who affect our opinions and behaviors.
Primary process
The id's response to frustration - "obtain satisfaction now, not later".
The self (from Jungian perspective)
The point of intersection between the collective unconscious, the personal unconscious, and the conscious mind. The self strives for unity, and can be displayed by a Mandala.
Cognitive dissonance
The simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions (often due to contradiction of social norms with personal character), which often leads to internal state of discomfort. Often causes identity shift to resolve this discomfort.
Reliance on central traits
The tendency to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics of the target most relevant to the perceiver.
Verbal communication
The transmission of words, whether through spoken language, written language, sign language, or tactile language (braille).
Behavioral component of attitude
The way a person acts with respect to something. For example, avoiding snakes would reflect behavioral attitude.
Cognitive component of attitude
The way an individual thinks about something, which is usually the justification for the other two components. For example, knowing snakes can be dangerous and poisonous provides a reason to be afraid of snakes and avoid them.
Object relations theory.
The way people relate to others in their adult lives is based around family experiences as a child.
Alfred Adler
Theories focused on immediate social imperatives of family and society and their effects on unconscious factors. Originator of inferiority complex - striving for superiority drives the personality. Also discussed creative self and style of life. Also discussed fictional finalism.
Erik Erikson
Theorized stages of psychosocial development.
Inferiority complex
Theory of Alfred Adler. An individual's sense of incompleteness, imperfection, and inferiority both physically and socially. Striving for superiority drives the personality.
Gemeinschaft und Gesellchaft
Theory of Ferdinand Tönnies, which translates to community and society. Gemeinschaft (community) refers to groups unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, or geography. Examples are families and neighborhoods. Gesellschaft (society) refers to groups that are formed because of mutual self-interests working together toward the same goal. Companies and countries are examples.
Gemeinschaft
Theory of Ferdinand Tönnies, which translates to community. Gemeinschaft (community) refers to groups unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, or geography. Examples are families and neighborhoods.
Gesellschaft
Theory of Ferdinand Tönnies, which translates to community. Gesellschaft (society) refers to groups that are formed because of mutual self-interests working together toward the same goal. Companies and countries are examples.
Admiration stereotypes
Those in which group is viewed with pride and other positive feelings. High warmth, high competence. Example is another of in group, close allies.
Dispositional (internal) attributions
Those that relate to the person whose behavior is being considered, including his beliefs, attitudes, and personality characteristics.
Unconscious
Thoughts that have been repressed. Often incorrectly referred to as subconscious.
Preconscious
Thoughts that we are not currently aware of.
Hans and Sybil Eysenck
Trait theorists. Described 3 traits in PEN model (psychoticism, extraversion, and neuroticism).
Hidden curriculum of education
Transmitting of social norms attitudes, and beliefs to students.
Indirect therapy
Treatment of psychological disorder that aims to increase social support by educating and empowering family and friends of affected individual. Different from direct therapy, which is treatment that acts directly on an individual with psychological disorder, such as medication or psychotherapy.
Direct therapy
Treatment that acts directly on an individual with psychological disorder, such as medication or psychotherapy. Different from indirect therapy, which aims to increase social support by educating and empowering family and friends of affected individual.
Internalization vs. identification
Two types of conformity. With internalization, person conforms to behavior and also personally believes in the behavior. With identification, a person will conform to a behavior at the surface level, but not because they believe in the ideas themselves.
Type theorists vs trait theorists
Type theorists attempt to create a taxonomy of personality types, while trait theorists prefer to describe individual personality as the sum of a person's characteristic behaviors.
Trait theorists
Use clusters of behaviors to describe individuals. For example, Hans and Sybil Eysenck used factor analysis to group behaviors that typically occur together and assigned labels to these groups - (one example would be that people who are reserved and less outspoken prefer solitary activities and avoid overstimluation, which falls under category of introversion).
Correspondent inference theory
Used to describe attributions made by observing the intentional (especially unexpected) behaviors performed by another person.
Network
Used to described observable pattern of social relationships among individuals or groups. Can be used to gain understanding of the actions of individuals and groups and to study broader social structure.
Dramaturgical approach
Using metaphor of theatrical performance to describe how individuals create images of themselves in various situations. Status would be one's part in the performance, and role would be the script. Concepts of front stage (where actor is in front of audience, performing role or script that audience is intended to see) and back stage (where the actor is not being observed by an audience, and he is free to act however he wants without ruining his performance.
Values and beliefs
Values are things deemed important in one's life. Beliefs are things that are accepted to be true.
Deviance
Violation of norms, rules, or expectations of society. Does not necessarily have to be a negative act, although that is the classic connotation.
The four humors
Way of determining personality types by ancient Greeks based on body fluids, with imbalances in body fluids leading to personality disorders.
Hierarchy of salience
We let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment. For example, male and female college students in same sex groups are less likely to list gender in their self descriptions than in mixed gender groups because it is not a distinguishable part of their identity.
Social institutions
Well established social structures that dictate certain patterns of behavior or relationships and are accepted as a fundamental part of culture. Regulate behavior of individuals in core areas of society. Include family, education, religion, government, economy, and medicine.
Evolutionary stable strategy (ESS)
When ESS is adopted by a given population in a specific environment, natural selection will prevent alternative strategies from arising. Object of the game is to be more fit than the competitors. Hawk-Dove game is a good example of ESS.
Culture shock
When traveling outside of one's own society, and they experience cultural differences that seem quite dramatic.
Difference between prejudice and discrimination?
While prejudice is an attitude, discrimination is a behavior
Mores
Widely observed social norms.
Prevalence
a measure of the number of cases of an illness overall (whether chronic or new) per population in a given amount of time * total cases/total population/time
obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
a personality disorder characterized by preoccupation with orderliness, perfection, and control Different from OCD because OCPD is lifelong and egosyntonic ("I like following the rules"). OCD is focal and acquired, and it is egodystonic ("I can't stop washing my hands because of the germs!")
power
ability to affect other's behaviour thorugh real or perceived rewards and punishements and is based on unequal distribution of valued resources defines the relationship between individuals, groups and social insititutions creates worldwide social inequalities
narcissistic personality disorder
abnormal sense of self-importance. Fragile self esteem and concerned with how others perceive them.
Achieved status
acquired via direct, individual efforts obtained through hard work or merit
3 primary components of attitude
affective, behavioral, and cognitive. Mnemonic: ABC
prestige
amount of positive regard society has for a given person or idea
Affordable care act (ACA) --> 2010
attempts to increase the coverage rate and affordability of insurance for all americans and to reduce overall cost of healthcare but! disadvantaged groups, espcially poor americans are still affected by disparities in healthcare in terms of access and quality
Positive symptoms
behaviors, thoughts, or feelings added to normal behavior. Examples include delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought, etc. Split into two distinct dimensions - psychotic dimension and disorganized dimension.
ideas of reference
beliefs that unrelated events pertain to them in some important way. Similar to delusions of reference but less intense. Present in schizotypal personality disorder
What is happening to the size of US population? the average age? the diversity?
bigger. older. more diverse.
Characteristics of parkinson's disease
bradykinesia (slowness in movement), resting tremor, pill-rolling tremor (flexing and extending the fingers while moving the thumb back and forth, as if rolling the fingers), masklike facies (facial expression with expressionless facial features, staring eyes, partially open mouth), cogwheel rigidity, shuffling gait.
mobidity
burden or degree of illness associated with a given disease
Urban decay
can be due to suburbanization where a previously functional portion of a city deteriorites and becomes decrepit over time
social class
category of people who share a similar socioeconomic position in society can be identified looking at economic opportunities, job positions, lifestyles, attitudes, and behaviours of a given slice of society
horizontal mobility
change in occupation or lifestyle that remains within the same social class
intergenerational social mobility
changes from parents to cildren changes across generations
schizotypal personality disorder
characterized by peculiar thoughts and behaviors and by poor interpersonal relationships May have ideas of reference (similar to delusions of reference but less intense) or magical thinking (superstition or belief in clairvoyance)
Conversion disorder
characterized by unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory function. Usually begins after experiencing traumatic event. Example is going blind without evidence of neurological damage
ascribed status
clearly identifiable characteristics ; involuntary ex: age, gender, skin colour
borderline personality disorder
condition marked by extreme instability in mood, identity, and impulse control. More common in females. Often using splitting as defense mechanism.
Ego-ideal
consists of those proper actions for which a child is rewarded. Makes up part of superego, along with the conscience.
medicare
covers patients over 65 those with end-stage renal disease, and those with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)
MEdicaid
covers patients who are in siignificant financial need
residential segregation
culturaly diversity and anonymity of urban neighbourhoods offer a person a greater range of opportunities than normally found in rural areas Rural areas: children tend to take up the family business Urban areas: lesslikely to fall into occupations and social positions due to familial ties
mortality
deaths caused by a given disease
Splitting
defense mechanism used by those with borderline personality disorder - separate others as "all good or all bad"
poverty line
derived from government's calculation of the min income requirements for families to acquire the minimum necessities of life problem: does not take into account geographic location --> cost of living in different communities
Normative conformity
desire to fit into a group because of fear of rejection (example is Asch experiment).
Nonmaleficence
do no harm; the physican has a responsibilty to avoid treatments or interventions in which potential for harm is greater than potential for benefit.
Three fundamental dimensions of interaction:
dominance vs. submission, friendliness vs. unfriendliness, and instrumentally controlled vs. emotionally expressive.
6 major social institutions
education, family, religion, government, economy, medicine.
histrionic personality disorder
excessive emotionality and attention seeking behavior. May wear bright clothing, dramatic, especially extroverted.
Slum
extreme case of densely populated area of a city with low quality, often informal housing and poor sanitation. Think of slumdog millionaire.
Polyandry
female having exclusive relationships with multiple males
Lev Vygotsky
focused on understanding cognitive development. Specifically focused on how internalization of various aspects (rules, symbols, language, etc.) of culture drive cognitive development. Known for zone of proximal development, which refers to the skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development.
strain theory
focuses on how anomic conditions can lead to deviance anomic conditions: individualism, social inequality and isolation --> all erodes social solidarity
spatial inequality
focuses on social stratification across territories and their populations social categories such as gender, ethnicity and race, and class are distributed across spaces differnetly leads to population segregation and the formation of ghettoes and slums space itself can also create inequalities --> spatially varied social structures create differently built enviornments and regional development
Achieved status
gained as a result of one's efforts or choices
Ascribed status.
given involuntarily, based on race, ethnicity, gender, family, background, etc
proletariats
have-nots that is proposed by Marxist theory
Bourgeoisie
haves that is proposed by Marxist theory
inequalities in health care
healthcare system in US is not organized and planned by a central government system Access: -physicians will not accept public insurance programs -doctors will not open up practices in low income neighborhoods -overcrowded clinics less appealing to go to -Quality of care differs regionally -discrimination against overweight and obese patients --> doctors less likely to recommend programs to lose weight because they think obese people have a lack of willpower --> obese people tend to switch doctors frequently --> less likely to have quality preventative carea nd screenings women vs men: -women more likely to be insured, more likely to utilize healthcare services more often such as examinations LGBTQ: -discrimination and decreased access to healthcare due to prejudices
Reciprocal determinism
idea that our thoughts feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation.
privilege
inequality in opportunity
personality disorder
inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning, by At least two of the following: Cognition, emotions, interpersonal functioning, or impulse control Considered ego-syntonic, meaning person perceives behavior as correct
factors that allows socioeconomic inequalities to remain high
intersectionality oversimplied racial categories
anmoie
lack of social norms or the break down of social bonds between and individual and society accelerates social inequality
dependent personality disorder
lacks confidence and self-esteem, has difficulty making decisions, and is passive and overaccepting
global inequalities
largely due to globalization, massive restructuring of industry and trade patterns --> major impact on local communities, specifically because of the production of cheap goods at suppressed rates for the global market limits access to power and resources inequalities in space, food, water, energy, housing, and education unprecedented large population spike placing strain on world's resoucrces
meritocracy
largest factor driving american social mobility based on intellectual talent and achievement means for a person to advance up the social ladder (merit: a good quality or feature that deserves to be praised)
relative level of poverty
one is poor incomparision to the larger population in which they live
strong ties
peer group and kinship contacts quantitatively small but qualitatively powerful
schizoid personality disorder
pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and restricted range of emotional expression.
Michelangelo phenomenon
phenomenon observed by psychologists in which interdependent individuals influence and "sculpt" each other
reasons low income groups have higher mortality rates:
poor access to quality medical care poor nutrition feeling less in control of life circumstances more liekly to smoke more likely to be overweight or obses less likely to engage in physical activity differences in culture may be a contributor to diagnosis and treatment greater barrier to care and poorer quality of care when they receive it (african americans, asian americans, native americans and hispanic americans)
enviornmental justice
poor minority groups tend to live near enviornmental pollution because these areas are usually cheaper -inadequate housing, heating, and santiation -toxin exposure -illness --> influenza, pneumonia, substance use disorders, TB, whopping cough low income areas also may lack the social and political power to prevent enviornmental risks from encroaching on their own communities
upward mobility
positive change in a person's status, resulting in a higher position
What are negative feelings toward outgroup based on?
positive feelings toward the in group - not typically based on a sense of dislike for the out group.
Secondary socialization
process of learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of the larger society. Occurs outside of homes, based on learning rules of specific social environments. (church or sports team would be examples).
4 categories of theories of personality
psychoanalytic (psychodynamic), humanistic (phenomenological), type and trait, and behaviorist.
antisocial personality disorder
psychological disorder in which one demonstrates a lack of conscience, illegal acts, deceitfulness, aggressiveness, lack of remorse for said actions. Common in serial killers and in prisons.
Functions
refers to beneficial consequences of people's actions. Help keep society in balance.
Social stratification
related to one's SES focuses on social inequalities and studies the basic question of who gets what and why
social mobility
result of an economic and occupational structure that allows one to acquire higher level employment opportunities given proper crednetials and experience requirements can occur within generation or across generations *not directly correlated with education
plutocracy
rule by the upper class
4 attachment styles
secure, avoidant, ambivalent, and disorganized. Just remember SAAD. People with all froms of attachments other than secure are SAAD.
weak ties
social connections that are personally superficial such as associates but that are large in number and provide connections to a wide range of other individuals
Deindividuation
social phenomenon that occurs in group settings - individual behavior can be dramatically different in social environments due to large group providing anonymity and loss of individual identity.
absolute level of poverty
socioeconimic condition in which people do not have enough money or resources to maintain a quality of living that includes basic life necesstiies such as shelter, food, clothing and water
Androgyny
states of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine. Different from undifferentiated, which is someone with low scores on both scales.
Master status
status by which one is most identified; is pervasive in that person's life. May cause pigeonholing.
la belle indifference
surprisingly unconcerned by symptoms, often seen in conversion disorders
cultural capital
the benefits one receives from knowledge, abilities, and skills
intersectionality
the compounding of disadvantage seen in individuals who belong to more than one oppressed group
social reproduction
the idea that social inequalities such as poverty can be reproduced or passed on from one generation to the next ex: lifestyle of poverty powerlessness isolation apathy
social capital
the investments people make in their society in return for economic or collective rewards the greater the investment the higher the level of social integration and inclusion; The less social capital a person has the more social inequality thus decreases social cohesion
magical thinking
thinking based on assumptions that don't hold up to rational scrutiny, such as superstition. Often present with schizotypal personality disorder.
five ethnicities model
used by US census and NIH white, black, asian, latino, and native american oversimplification of racial categories
Common characteristics shared by social groups
values, interests, ethnicity, social background, family ties, and political representation. Walking together across a crosswalk does not constitute a social group.
social exclusion
when poor individuals feel segregated and isolated from society can create further obstacles to achieving self-help, independence and self respect. disadvantaged groups can feel magnified feelings of alienation
gentrification
when upper- and middle-class populations begin to purchase and renovate neighborhoods in deteriorated areas, displacing the low-SES population
Undifferentiated
which is someone with low scores on both masculine and feminine scales. Different from androgyny, which is someone being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine.
intragenerational social mobility
within a generation changes in social status that happens within a person's lifetime
