MCAT Things to Remember Part 2
The skeleton is created from 2 major components:
bone and cartilage
Irregular bones
bones of the vertebrae and face
Lactone
cyclic ester
Cultural diffusion
spread of norms, customs, and beliefs from one culture to another
Mnemonic to remember introns vs extrons
INtrons stay IN the nucleus EXons will EXIT the nucleus as part of the mRNA
The 5 racial categories currently recognized by the U.S. Census
White, Black, Asian, American Indian or Alaskan native, and /native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander
One electron carries a charge of
1.6 x 10^-19 C
Acetate
C2H3O2-
Polyandry
One female, several males
Gay-Lussac's Law
P1/T1 = P2/T2 - as temperature increases, pressure increases (directly proportional)
Gene pool
all of the alleles that exist within a species
Dihybrid cross
inheritance of 2 different genes
What are the layers of the skin from deepest to most outward?
(most outward) epidermis dermis hypodermis (subcutaneous layer) (deepest)
Period
- the time necessary to complete a wave cycle - inverse of frequency (seconds/cycle)
What is the final product of an aldol condensation?
- α,β-unsaturated carbonyl
The 4 types of attachment
1) secure 2) avoidant 3) ambivalent 4) disorganized
The speed of sound in air at 20 degrees C is approximately
343 m/s
Hemiacetal
A functional group that contains a carbon atom bonded to one -OR group, one -OH group, an alkyl chain, and a hydrogen atom.
Which of the following processes would be LEAST impacted if a cell did not transition from G1 to S? A. protein synthesis B. mitosis C. DNA synthesis D. spindle formation
A. protein synthesis
Situational approach
Behavior is determined by the environment and context
Mental math for pKa and Ka conversions:
Ka = 10^-pKa pKa -------> Ka .1 -------> 8 x 10^x .3 -------> 5 x 10^x .5 -------> 3 x 10^x .7 -------> 2 x 10^x if pKa = 4.6, Ka = 2.5 x 10^-5
What is the mathematical relationship between Ka, Kb, and Kw?
Ka x Kb = Kw
Glycogen-6-Phosphate dehydrogenase is involved in what pathway
Pentose phosphate pathway (PPP)
What sleep stage experiences the greatest loss with a lack of sleep?
REM - it is the final sleep stage and constitutes an increasingly large portion of the later sleep cycles that are lost with lack of sleep
What is the mathematical relationship between vital capacity, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, and tidal volume?
Vital capacity = IRV + ERV + TV
The cathode always attracts _________ and the anode always attracts ___________
The cathode always attracts cations and the anode always attracts anions
Electrons in a voltaic cell normally flow
from anode to cathode
During exhalation, intrapleural pressure is ____________ than atmospheric pressure
higher
All phase changes are ___________ processes
isothermal
The filtrate is ______________ to blood so that neither the capsule nor the capillaries swell
isotonic
Monogamy
marriage with one mate at a time
Promiscuity
member of one sex mating with others without exclusivity
The molarity of a solute in a saturated solution is called the ____________________ of that substance
molar solubility
The binding or releasing of oxygen to or from the iron atom in the heme group of hemoglobin is a(n) ______________ reaction
oxidation-reduction
How does the biological perspective define personality?
personality is based on genetic influences and brain anatomy
From 5' to 3', what are the components of the operon?
regulator gene, promoter site, operator site, and structural gene
What are some mechanisms the body uses to cool itself?
sweating and vasodilation
Ethnography
the study of cultures and customs
Role set
the various roles associated with a status
Mores
widely observed social norms
Neologisms
- a person invents new words - seen in schizophrenia
Electron-withdrawing groups _____________ organic anions
- stabilize - ex. oxygen
Longitudinal study
research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period
Population density
- # of people per square kilometer of land area
If propanamide were treated with water, what products would be observed?
- propanoic acid
Negative emf
- the cell is nonspontaneous (electrolytic) - must absorb energy (ΔG > 0)
Rorschach inkblot test
- uses projection - used in psychoanalytic therapy - relies on the assumption that the client projects his or her unconscious feelings onto the shape
Oxidation number of oxygen in the superoxide anion (O2-)
-1/2 - it contains 2 molecules and an overall charge of -1 - thus, the -1 has to be split by the 2 O's, each carrying an oxidation number of -1/2
Log 1 =
0 b/c 10^0 = 1
Butanoic acid + LiAlH4 ---->
1-butanol
Prefix form-
1-carbon
How many molecules of ATP does glycolysis produce?
2
Prefix acet-
2-carbons
Acetal
A functional group that contains a carbon atom bonded to two- OR groups, an alkyl chain, a hydrogen atom.
Selection bias
A polling error in which the sample is not representative of the population being studied, so that some opinions are over- or underrepresented
Disproportionation
A redox reaction in which the same species is both oxidized and reduced
Chromate
CrO4 2-
For a Daniell cell discharging: Galvanic or electrolytic? = Anode material = Anode charge = Cathode material = Cathode charge =
Galvanic or electrolytic? = galvanic Anode material = Zn Anode charge = (-) Cathode material = Cu Cathode charge = (+)
SI units for pressure
Pascals (Pa)
How does social capital affect social cohesion?
The less social capital a person has (reduced network equality and equality of opportunity), the more social inequality. This, in turn, decreases social cohesion.
Root mean square speed equation
Urms = sqrt(3RT/M)
Gastric juice
a combination of secretions from the chief cells and parietal cells in gastric glands
Both the Strecker and Garbiel synthesis methods result in:
a racemic mixture of amino acids
The superior vena cava (SVC) returns blood from the portions of the body ______ the heart
above
What product of fatty acid breakdown enters the Citric Acid Cycle?
acetyl coA
Each gene may have alternative forms called ____________
alleles
The valve that separates the left ventricle from the aorta is the
aortic (semilunar) valve (3 leaflets)
Dispositional approach
behavior is primarily determined by an individual's personality
What enzyme is responsible for reversible interconversion of carbonic acid (H2CO3) and CO2 + water?
carbonic anhydrase
A fatty acid is comprised of a long hydrocarbon tail and a head consisting of:
carboxyl group
How are esters formed from carboxylic acids?
carboxylic acid + alcohol + under acidic conditions ----> ester - esterification is a condensation reaction with water as a side product - in
The mRNA strand is identical to the DNA ____________ strand in transcription except for U's are replaced for T's
coding
Germinal centers
collections in the lymph nodes where B-cells proliferate and mature
Interspecific communication
communication between members of different species
Pyloric glands
contain G-cells that secrete gastrin
Without Ca2+, the myosin-binding sites are:
covered by tropomyosin and contraction is prevented
If a certain blood vessel is constricted to half of its diameter yet maintains the same pressure gradient, according to Poiseuille's Law, the volumetric flow rate is expected to:
decrease by a factor of 16 flow rate = (ΔP*πr^4) / (8Lη) (1/2)^4 = 1/16
Unlike carbohydrates which must be broken down into monosaccharides for absorption, proteins can be broken down into ______________
di- and even tripeptides and can be absorbed across the small intestine wall
What are the 3 sections of the small intestine in order?
duodenum, jejunum, ileum - the duodenum is responsible for the majority of chemical digestion and has some minor involvement in absorption - most of the absorption in the small intestine takes place in the jejunum and ileum
The best health outcomes are generally seen in ________________ societies
egalitarian
Which type of cell (galvanic or electrolytic) has a positive ΔG?
electrolytic cells
Which type of cell (galvanic or electrolytic) has a positive Ecell (emf)?
galvanic cells
The neurotransmitter primarily responsible for CNS excitation is:
glutamate
HOMO
highest occupied molecular orbital
Which tautomer is thermodynamically favored: imines or enamines?
imines
What is the predominant cell type in the epidermis?
keratinocytes
What is the primary site of absorption for chylomicrons?
lacteals
A patient receiving IV fluids is likely to produce a _____________ volume of _________ concentrated urine
larger, less
What molecules stimulate feelings of satiety?
leptin and cholecystokinin
Lipid rafts
lipids assembled in a defined patch in the cell membrane cholesterol-rich plasma membrane domains
The larger the alkane reactant, the _____ numerous the combustion products
more
Depression is associated with low ___________ and ___________
norepinephrine and serotonin
Manic episodes are associated with high ___________ and _____________
norepinephrine and serotonin
Aldehydes or ketones + hydroxylamine (H2N-OH) ----->
oxime
How does the trait perspective define personality?
personalities are assembled from having different degrees of certain qualities and dispositions
To which property of a sound wave does frequency correspond?
pitch
In addition to glucose, what other monosaccharide is part of the UDP-glucose structure?
ribose The other monosaccharide in UDP-glucose is ribose, a pentofuranose in which the C2 and C3 hydroxyl groups are cis, and the C3 hydroxyl group and the C4 hydroxymethyl group are trans.
A T-cell appropriately passes through positive selection, but then inappropriately passes through negative selection. What will this T-cell be reactive toward?
self-antigens
Aldehydes or ketones + semicarbazide (H2N-NH-C(O)NH2) ----->
semicarbazone
What muscle cells are organized into sarcomeres?
skeletal and cardiac NOT smooth muscle !
More current flows through the _____________ resistor
smaller
Phases of matter from lowest to highest entropy:
solids (lowest entropy) < liquids < gases (highest entropy)
What liquid provides the lubrication for movable joints? What tissue produces it?
synovial fluid, produced by the synovium, lubricates movable joints
To test if an activity of an enzyme is independent from an event, you should test for . . .
the activity of the enzyme when the event is gone/abolished
What are the products of the transesterification reaction between isopropyl butanoate and ethanol?
the ethyl group of ethanol will replace the isopropyl group of isopropyl butanoate, resulting in ethyl butanoate and 2-propanol
The hydrostatic is much ______________ than the oncotic pressure between the nephron and blood, so the net flow is from blood into the nephron
the hydrostatic is much larger than the oncotic pressure between the nephron and blood, so the net flow is from blood into the nephron
Endpoint
the pH at which an indicator turns its final color
Race-concordant patient-physician relationships
the patient and physician are of the same race
Peristalsis
the rhythmic contraction of smooth muscle that propels food toward the stomach
Chemiosmosis
the use of energy in a H+ gradient to drive cellular work A process for synthesizing ATP using the energy of an electrochemical gradient and the ATP synthase enzyme
Many biological reactions catalyzed by enzymes never reach equilibrium b/c:
their products are consumed in other pathways
Monoamine/Catecholamine theory of depression
too much norepinephrine and serotonin in the synapse leads to mania, while too little leads to depression
Is it more common for the organic layer to be the top or bottom layer in an extraction?
top
Specific activity
units of enzyme per total protein mg use specific activity to calculate purity use just the units of enzyme (specific activity times total protein) to calculate yield
Image schema
visual or pictorial mental representation of an idea
Trust vs. Mistrust (Erikson)
- 0 to 1 year - "Can I trust the world?" - favorable outcome: learn to trust - unfavorable outcome: fail to learn to trust - ex. newborn humans are helpless and unsure of their environment, so they depend on caregivers for support. If caregivers do reliably care for the newborn, then the newborn will learn trust. If caregivers do not reliably care for the newborn, then the newborn could fail to learn trust
Contemptuous stereotype
- 1 of the 4 categories of the stereotype content model - low competence, low warmth - low status, competitive - the group is viewed with resentment, annoyance, or anger - ex. welfare recipients, poor people - ex. gay men applying to a CEO position (seen as competitive b/c they're competing for a CEO position, but are lower status compared to the in group)
Beneficience
- 1 of the 4 key tenets of American medical ethics - the physician has a responsibility to act in the patient's best interest
Parallel evolution
- 2 species with a common ancestor remain similar b/c of similar evolutionary pressures
Convergent evolution
- 2 species with no recent common ancestor become more similar b/c of similar evolutionary pressures - ex. fish and dolphins have come to resemble one another physically, though they belong to different classes of vertebrates. They evolved certain similar features in adapting to the conditions of aquatic life
Residual/Recovery Phase of Schizophrenia
- 3rd phase - occurs after an active episode and is characterized by mental clarity often resulting in concern or depression as the individual becomes aware of their previous behavior
Succinic acid
- 4 carbon dicarboxylic acid - AKA butanedioic acid
If chromosomal duplication before tetrad formation occurred twice during spermatogenesis, while the other steps of meiosis proceeded normally, what would result from a single spermatocyte?
- 4 diploid sperm - b/c replication occurred twice instead of once prior to tetrad formation, each sperm would have twice the normal amount of DNA
Beta-lactams
- 4-membered cyclic amides - highly reactive due to significant ring strain -- 4-membered rings have both torsional strain from eclipsing interactions and angle strain from compressing the normal sp3 angle of 109.5 degrees - the ring strain, and therefore the reactivity, is increased by fusion to a second ring - the 4-membered structure of a beta-lactam also forces a trigonal pyramidal bond geometry on the nitrogen atom in the ring, which reduces resonance, making hydrolysis more likely
Glutaric acid
- 5 carbon dicarboxylic acid - AKA pentanedioic acid
How are esters formed?
- Esters are formed by a condensation reaction of carboxylic acids or anhydrides with alcohols - formed by Fischer esterification under acidic conditions - b/c they lack H bonding, esters usually have lower boiling points than their related carboxylic acids
What are the 4 main reactants in the Gabriel synthesis of an amino acid?
- Gabriel synthesis begins with potassium pthalimide and diethyl bromomalonate, followed by an alkyl halide - water is then used to hydrolyze the resulting compound to form the amino acid - note: while acids and bases are used at various times as catalysts, they are not main reactants
Preparative TLC
- Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) performed on a large scale as a means of purification - as the large plate develops, the larger spot of sample splits into bands of individual compounds, which can then be scraped off and washed to yield pure compounds
Lymphocytes
- WBC, type of agranulocyte - responsible for antibody production, immune system modulation, and targeted killing of infected cells - important in the specific immune response, the body's targeted fight against particular pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria - some lymphocytes act as primary responders against an infection, while others function to maintain a long-term memory bank of pathogen recognition - help our body learn from experience - many vaccines work by training these cells -- exposure to a weakened pathogen or an antigenic protein (a protein that can be recognized by the immune system) of the pathogen can create memory cells - our body learns to remember the virus and prepares itself to ward off the virus if it appears again later in life - lymphocytes include T and B cells
Social action
- Weber - actions and behaviors that individuals are performing or modulating b/c others are around - refers to the effects of a group on an individual's behavior - opposite of social interaction
The likelihood of conformity in Western vs Eastern cultures:
- Western cultures tend to value independent thought and unique ideas. Thus, they are less likely to conform - in Eastern cultures, group mentality often supersedes the individual. Thus, this type of collectivist society tends toward conformity
Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI)
- a classic personality test - Jung's work laid the groundwork - includes each of Jung's 3 dichotomies + Judging (J, preferring orderliness) vs Perceiving (P, preferring spontaneity)
Constriction of the afferent arteriole will lead to . . .
- a lower pressure of blood reaching the glomeruli, which are adjacent to the juxtaglomerular cells - thus, this vasoconstriction will secondarily lead to renin release, which will also help raise blood pressure
Anima (Jungian archetype)
- a man's inner woman - explains emotional behavior in males
Neurosis
- a psychologic condition in which anxiety is prominent - caused by fixation - forms a personality pattern based on that particular stage
All types of electrochemical cells have:
- a reduction reaction occurring at the cathode - an oxidation reaction occurring at the anode - a current flowing from cathode to anode - electron flow from anode to cathode
Hydropathy index
- a scale that expresses the relative hydrophobic and hydrophilic tendencies of a chemical group - a positive hydropathy index (above line) means the amino acids are hydrophobic - a negative hydropathy index (below line) means the amino acids are hydrophilic
When benzaldehyde is reacted with acetone, which will act as the nucleophile?
- acetone, after reaction with strong base - b/c benzaldehyde lacks an alpha proton, it cannot be reacted with base to form the nucleophilic enolate carbanion - thus, acetone will be our nucleophile - an aldol condensation will occur - acetone will be reacted with strong base to extract the alpha-hydrogen and form the enolate anion, which will act as a nucleophile
The initial step in skeletal muscle contraction in healthy muscle cells is:
- acetylcholine binds to a receptor at the neuromuscular junction - note: they do NOT bind to receptors on t-tubules, t-tubules transmit current and do not contain acetylcholine receptors
Would acid dissolve better in aqueous acid or aqueous base?
- acid dissolves better in an aqueous base b/c it will dissociate to form conjugate base and, being more highly charged, will become more soluble - acids and bases dissolve more easily in solutions with the opposite acid-base characteristics
A 1,3-dicarbonyl (ex. beta-dicarboxylic acid, beta-keto acids) is particularly ____________ b/c . . .
- acidic - b/c there are 2 carbonyls to delocalize (-) charge - when an alpha hydrogen is removed (a H from the middle carbon), enolate carbanions can form - these can then act as nucleophiles
Postzygotic mechanisms of reproductive isolation
- allow for gamete fusion but yield either nonviable or sterile offspring - includes: - 1) hybrid inviability (formation of a zygote that cannot develop to term) - 2) hybrid sterility (forming hybrid offspring that cannot reproduce) - 3) hybrid breakdown (forming first-generation hybrid offspring that are viable and fertile, but second-generation hybrid offspring that are inviable and infertile) - ex. mules: although a horse and donkey can produce a viable mule, the mule will be sterile and thus unable to establish a self-perpetuating mule lineage
Open boundaries
- allow maximal oscillation - places of antinodes - ex. open end of a pipe, free end of a string, the free end of a flag
The reaction of ammonia with caprylic acid, found in coconuts, would produce a:
- amide + water molecule - a carboxylic acid + ammonia will produce an amid through a condensation reaction in which water is removed as a leaving group
What muscles are involved in inhalation?
- an active process - diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract - in labored breathing, muscles of the neck and back may also be involved
What are the 4 reactants in the Strecker synthesis of an amino acid?
- an aldehyde, ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), and potassium cyanide (KCN) are used to make the aminonitrile - water is used to hydrolyze the aminonitrile to form the amino acid
Creatine phosphate
- an energy storage molecule used by muscle tissue - created by transferring a phosphate group from ATP to creatine during times of rest - this reaction can be reversed during muscle use to quickly generate ATP from ADP creatine + ATP <----> creatine phosphate + ADP
Controlled experiment
- an experiment in which only one variable is manipulated at a time - involves random assignment - ex. cannot be doe when studying fatal diseases
Sick role
- an ill patient is not responsible for their illness and is exempt from normal social roles - this is a bit of an older thought, as patients now are expected to take more ownership of their health through diet, exercise, seeking help before it's needed, etc
In a reaction between ammonia and glutaraldehyde, what is the major product?
- an imine - C-O double bond is replaced with a C-N double bond
What would happen to filtration in the case of a kidney stone obstructing the ureter?
- an obstruction would result in a buildup of urine behind the stone - eventually, enough fluid will build up and cause distention of the renal pelvis and nephrons - the hydrostatic pressure in Bowman's space would increase to the point that filtration could no longer occur b/c there would be excessive pressure opposing movement of fluid into the nephron
Reaction formation (defense mechanism)
- an unacceptable impulse is transformed into its opposite - an individual suppresses urges by unconsciously converting those urges into their exact opposite - ex. 2 coworkers fight all the time b/c they are actually very attracted to each other - ex. a man pining after a female celebrity he knows he will never meet may outwardly express hatred for the celebrity as a way of reducing the stress caused by his unrequited feelings - ex. stockholm syndrome
Often our muscles work in __________________ pairs
- antagonistic - one relaxes while the other contracts - ex. when the elbow is flexed, the biceps contract and the triceps relax. When the elbow is extended, the biceps relax and the triceps contract - note: muscles can also be synergistic -- working together to accomplish the same function
Lysozyme
- antimicrobial, nonspecific bacterial enzyme - produced by mucous membranes around the eye and oral cavity - secreted in tears and saliva
Ghettoes
- areas where specific racial, ethnic, or religious minorities are concentrated, usually due to social or economic inequities
Fad
- behavior that is transiently viewed as popular and desirable by a large community - ex. pet rock in the 70s, rubik's cubes in the 80s, pogs in the 90s - ex. catchphrases, altering clothing, engaging in viral videos
Bandura's triadic reciprocal causation
- behavioral factors, personal factors and environmental factors all affect behaviors/attitudes in people - they are not independent - ex. the work ethic of employees in a company (behavior) is affected by how hard their colleagues work, their previous attitudes toward hard work (personal), and the systems and infrastructure of the company (environment) - reciprocally, this behavior may create a change in the employees' attitude toward work (personal) and the systems within the company (environment)
Positive symptoms
- behaviors, thoughts, or feelings added to normal behavior - features that are experienced in individuals with psychotic disorders that are not present in the normal population - ex. delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought, and disorganized or catatonic behavior
The 3 portal systems in the body
- blood passes through 2 capillary beds before returning to the heart (unlike most cases where it is just 1) 1. hepatic: blood leaving capillary beds in the walls of the gut passes through hepatic portal vein before reaching capillary beds in the liver 2. hypophyseal: blood leaving capillary beds in the hypothalamus travels to a capillary bed in the anterior pituitary to allow for paracrine secretion of releasing hormones 3. renal: blood leaving the glomerulus travels through an efferent arteriole before surrounding the nephron in a capillary network called the vasa recta
Characteristic institution
- The basic organization of society - in prehistoric times, the kin, clan, or sib - in modern times, particularly in the West, a bureaucracy
Children are more likely to imitate behaviors performed by ____________________
- someone who is like them - ex. young children will reliably mimic behaviors performed by their same-gender siblings - ex. a female child is more likely to model the behavior of another female than a male - siblings, teachers, media, and peers all are important role models in a person's life
Ultrasonic waves
- sound waves with a frequency above 20,000 Hz - outside the range of normal human hearing - ex. dog whistles, medical ultrasound machines
Wobble hypothesis
- the 3rd base in a codon often plays no role in determining which amino acid is translated from that codon - this is a protective mechanism b/c mutations in the wobble position will not have any effect on the protein translated from that gene - an evolutionary development - mutations in the wobble position tend to be called silent or degenerate, which means there is no effect on the expression of the amino acid and thus no adverse effects on the polypeptide sequence
Starling forces
- the balance of hydrostatic and oncotic pressures - balance of these forces maintains proper fluid volumes & solute concentrations inside & outside the vasculature - the Starling equation quantifies that net filtration rate between 2 fluid compartments - the movement of solutes and fluid at the capillary level is governed by pressure differentials - imbalance of these pressures results in too little or too much fluid in tissues - accounts for the pressure differentials in both hydrostatic and oncotic pressures between the blood and Bowman's space - ex. accumulation of excess fluid in the interstitium results in edema
Just-world hypothesis
- the belief that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people - noble actions are rewarded and evil actions are punished - AKA karma - a strong belief in a just world increases the likelihood of "blaming the victim" or stating that a victim is getting what they deserve b/c such a worldview denies the possibility of innocent victims
Half-equivalence point
- the center of the buffering region, where [HA] = [A-]
Decarboxylation
- the complete loss of a carboxyl group as carbon dioxide - common way of getting rid of a carbon from the parent chain
Mechanism of mate bias: genetic compatibility
- the creation of mate pairs that, when combined, have complementary genetics - provides a mechanism for the reduced frequency of recessive genetic disorders in the population - attraction to others who have starkly different genetic makeups reduces the probability of offspring being homozygotic for a disease-carrying allele
How are HOMO and LUMO related to absorption wavelength in UV spectroscopy?
- the smaller the difference in energy between the LUMO and HOMO the more easily excited, and the longer the wavelengths (lower frequencies) that can be absorbed by the molecule with lower energy
What are some of the reasons low-income groups have higher mortality rates?
- they have poor access to quality medical care, poor nutrition, and feeling less in control of life circumstances - more likely to smoke and be overweight/obese - less likely to engage in physical activity
What is the purpose of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP)?
- to regenerate NADPH - high levels of NADP+ stimulates the PPP
The acid-catalyzed conversion of propyl ethanoate to benzyl ethanoate is likely:
- transesterification
Test cross/back cross
- used to determine an unknown genotype - the organism with an unknown genotype is crossed with an organism known to be homozygous recessive - if all of the offspring (100%) are of the dominant phenotype, then the unknown genotype is likely to be homozygous dominant - if there is a 1:1 distribution of dominant to recessive phenotypes, then the unknown genotype is likely to be heterozygous
Doppler ultrasound
- used to determine flow of blood within the body by detecting the frequency shift that is associated w/ movement toward or away from receiver - allows the observer to distinguish between a stationary and a moving object that reflects ultrasound waves - ex. measuring the blood flow
Vacuum distillation
- used whenever we want to distill a liquid with a boiling point over 150 degrees C - by using a vacuum, we lower the ambient pressure, thereby decreasing the temp that the liquid must reach in order to have sufficient vapor pressure to boil - this allows us to distill compounds with higher boiling points at lower temperatures so that we do not have to worry about degrading the product - the initial solution is placed in the heated distilling flask, where the components of the solution with the lowest boiling points will vaporize first - the vapor then condenses into the water-cooled condenser, and this distillate drips into the receiving flask - ex. best method for separating naphthalene (BP = 218 degrees C) and butyric acid (BP = 119 degrees C)
Ultrasound
- uses high-frequency sound waves outside the range of human hearing to compare the relative densities of tissues in the body - an ultrasound machine consists of a transmitter that generates a pressure gradient, which also functions as a receiver - the transmitter (sender) generates a wave, which reflects off of an object and returns to the transmitter (which also functions as a receiver) - note that ultrasound ultimately relies on reflection - thus, an interface between 2 objects is necessary to visualize anything
Thematic apperception test
- uses projection - used in psychoanalytic therapy - consists of a series of pictures that are presented to the client, who is asked to make up a story about each one - the story, presumably, will elucidate the client's own unconscious thoughts and feelings
Values vs beliefs
- value = what a person deems to be important, which dictates one's ethical principals and standards of behavior - belief = what a person deems to be true
Haversian canals
- vascular canals in bone - longitudinal channels (those with an axis parallel to the bone) - contain blood vessels, nerve fibers, and lymph vessels that maintain the health of the bone - osteocytes often form concentric circles around them
What is the small intestine lined with?
- villi (small, finger-like projections from the epithelial lining) - each villus has many microvilli, drastically increasing the surface area available for absorption - at the middle of each villus is a capillary bed for the absorption of water-soluble nutrients and a lacteal (a lymphatic channel that takes up fats for transport into the lymphatic system)
Emotional flattening (flat affect)
- virtually no signs of emotional expression - example of disturbance of affect, a negative symptom of schizophrenia/psychotic disorders
Emesis
- vomiting - reversal of peristalsis
Anhydrides can be reverted to carboxylic acids by exposing them to _________
- water - this is a nucleophilic acyl substitution reaction
How would our respiratory systems adjust if we moved to higher altitudes where less oxygen is available?
- we would breathe more rapidly to avoid hypoxia - the binding dynamics of hemoglobin to O2 would be altered - decreased CO2 concentrations would lead to a decrease in hemoglobin unloading O2 to tissues - short term: body can make more RBCs to ensure adequate delivery of O2 - long term: the body could develop more blood vessels to facilitate the distribution of O2 to tissues
What are the 4 functional areas of the functional attitudes theory?
1) knowledge 2) ego expression 3) adaptation 4) ego defense
For redox reactions with an equilibrium constant less than 1: 1. Is the Ecell (+) or (-)? 2. Is the natural logarithm (+) or (-)? 3. what type of electrochemical cell is this?
1. Ecell will be negative 2. the logarithm of any # between 0 and 1 is negative 3. electrolytic
Closed pipes
- closed at one end and open at the other - closed end has a node and open end has an antinode - n can only be odd integers (1,3,5) - can identify its harmonic by counting the # of quarter wavelengths - ex. clarinet or brass instruments λ = 4L/n ; f = nv/4L
In 1H-NMR, splitting of spectral lines is due to:
- coupling between protons on adjacent carbon atoms (these protons are 3 bonds away from each other) - splitting in other NMR spectra can include coupling with other carbon atoms, but not in 1H-NMR
Although DNA contains the actual coding sequence for a protein, the machinery to generate that protein is located in the ______________
- cytoplasm - DNA cannot leave the nucleus as it will be quickly degraded, so it must use RNA to transmit genetic information
Alkalemia
- decreased acidity of the blood (pH is higher and H+ concentration is lower) - there is a decrease in H+ and thus a decrease in CO2 - respiratory centers in the brain are sensitive to this decrease in partial pressure of CO2 and will promote a decrease in respiratory rate (CO2 is retained) - thus, increasing CO2 allows the H+concentration to increase back to normal
Poverty line
- derived from the government's calculation of the minimum income requirements for families to acquire the minimum necessities of life - poverty is highly related to geography - one big limitation of the poverty line: it is not contextualized according to geographic location and as a result does not take into account the cost of living in different communities -- certain areas are more costly to live in than others
What does it mean for a proton to be deshielded? How does this affect its peak in NMR spectroscopy?
- deshielding occurs in molecules that have electronegative atoms that pull electron density away from the hydrogens being measured, deshielding the proton from the magnetic field - the more the proton's electron density is pulled away, the less it can shield itself form the applied magnetic field - this results in a downfield (leftward) shift of the proton peak - as we add electronegative atoms or have resonance structures that pull electrons away from the proton, we Deshield and move Downfield
Persistant Depressive Disorder (PDD or Dysthymia)
- diagnosis requires an individual to experience a period, lasting at least 2 years, in which they experience a depressed mood on the majority of days - note: a patient can receive both the PDD and MDD diagnosis if they meet both the duration and severity requirements of both disorders
Distillation separates compounds based on what property?
- differences in boiling points in order to separate solutions of miscible liquids
Biological markers of Alzheimer's:
- diffuse atrophy of the brain on CT or MRI - flattened sulci in cerebral cortex - enlarged cerebral ventricles - deficient blood flow in parietal lobe, which is correlated with cognitive decline - reduction in levels of acetylcholine - reduction in choline acetyltransferase (produces acetylcholine) - reduced metabolism in temporal and parietal lobes - senile plaques of beta-amyloid - neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated tau protein
Diffusion vs Effusion
- diffusion = when gases mix with one another - effusion = when a gas moves through a smaller hole under pressure - both will be slower for larger molecules - Graham's law can be applied to both
Alimentary canal
- digestive tube that extends from the mouth to the anus - is sectioned off by sphincters, or circular smooth muscles around the canal that can contract to allow compartmentalization of function - involved in extracellular digestion - this is technically "outside" the body b/c the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract communicates directly with the outside world
Myopia is a condition of the eye where the crystalline lens focuses the light rays to a position between the lens and the retina. To correct for this condition, a thin lens is placed in front of the eye that will help to focus light on the retina. The type of lens required is:
- diverging - the image of a distant object is focused in front of the retina - the nearsighted eye has a focal length that is shorter than it should be, so the rays from a distant object form a sharp image in front of the retina - a diverging lens spreads out light before it reaches the crystalline lens. Therefore, the crystalline lens will focus the light further back, that is on the retina.
Schizophrenia and psychosis are caused by an excess of _____________
- dopamine - this is why treatment for Parkinson's disease can often lead to psychotic side effects like hallucinations and delusions
How are dopamine levels related in schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease?
- dopamine levels are elevated in schizophrenia - dopamine levels are reduced in Parkinson's - thus, treatments for 1 disorder may cause symptoms similar to those of the other
Osmotic pressure
- drawing fluid in - the "sucking" pressure generated by solutes as they attempt to draw water into the bloodstream - is dependent on the # of particles dissolved in the plasma - b/c most of this osmotic pressure is attributable to plasma proteins, it is usually called oncotic pressure - at the venule end of a capillary bed, oncotic pressure exceeds hydrostatic pressure and there is a net influx of water back into the circulation
Aldehydes and ketones act as ________philes
- electrophiles - making good targets for nucleophiles - this is due to the electron-withdrawing carbonyl O that is more electronegative, pulling electrons away from the carbon, which leaves a partial (+) charge on the carbon
Acidemia
- elevated acidity of the blood (pH is lower and H+ concentration is higher) - an increase in H+ will lead to an increase in CO2 - respiratory centers in the brain are sensitive to this increase in partial pressure of CO2 and will promote an increase in respiratory rate (more CO2 is blown off) - thus, removal of CO2 allows the H+ concentration to drop back to normal
All blood vessels are lined with:
- endothelial cells - helps to maintain the vessel by releasing chemicals that aid in vasodilation and vasoconstriction - can allow WBC's to pass through the vessel wall and into the tissues during an inflammatory response - release certain chemicals when damaged that are involved in the formation of blood clots to repair the vessel and stop bleeding
When the new interactions are weaker than the original ones, solvation is _____________
- endothermic - heat/energy must be supplied to facilitate the formation of these weaker, less stable interactions - ex. ammonium nitrate or sugar dissolving in water
Hess's Law
- enthalpy changes of reactions are additive - note: can be applied to any state function, including entropy and ΔG - switch signs when you reverse an equation - multiply entire equation by a coefficient if need be
An x-ray of the right femur in a child shows that it is shorter than the opposite femur, and below the average length for a child of this age. Which region of the bone is most likely to have caused this abnormality?
- epiphysis - damage to the epiphysis can imply damage to the epiphyseal plate, and this is where longitudinal growth occurs in bones
Glass escalator
- even in cases where men do not seek to climb the job ladder, invisible forces sometimes push men up to higher positions - especially prevalent for men working in traditionally female occupations
Functions of the lungs:
- gas exchange - thermoregulation (vasodilation and vasoconstriction) - immune function - control of pH by controlling CO2 concentrations
Aldehydes or ketones + H2O ----->
- geminal diols (1,1-diols) - the nucleophilic O in water attacks the electrophilic carbonyl carbon
Why is genetic drift more common in small populations? What relationship does this have to the founder effect?
- genetic drift occurs due to chance, so its effects will be more pronounced with a smaller sample size (in smaller populations) - the founder effect occurs when a small group is reproductively isolated from the larger population, allowing certain alleles to take on a higher prevalence in the group than in the rest of the population
Standard hydrogen electrode (SHE)
- given a potential of 0 V by convention - used as reference to measure reduction potential in Volts
Self-disclosure
- giving information about oneself to establish an identity - ex. disclosing that you are a pre-med student - also affects interpersonal attraction - sharing one's fears, thoughts, and goals with another person and being met with nonjudgemental empathy - engaging in this deepens attraction and friendship - must be a reciprocal behavior
Diabetic nephropathy is commonly detected by finding protein in the urine of a patient. In such a disease, where is the likely defect in the nephron?
- glomerulus - the glomerulus is the most likely location of pathology if large proteins are detected in the urine - this is b/c large proteins should not be able to pass through the filter of the glomerulus in the first place - once larger proteins are in the filtrate, no other nephron structure can reabsorb them - thus, the only likely source of protein in the urine is glomerular pathology
Subculture
- groups of people within a culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture to which they belong - can be formed based on race, gender, ethnicity, sexuality, etc - can be perceived as negative when they subvert the major culture's definitions of normalcy
Cultural transmission/cultural learning
- how beliefs, customs, and cultural norms are often passed down from one generation to another within a society - ex. Culture is passed along from generation to generation through various childrearing practices, including when parents expose children to music. As illustrated by the reminiscence bump, parents' musical preferences affected their children's memory of music
Mate bias
- how choosy members of the species are while choosing a mate - an evolutionary mechanism aimed at increasing the fitness of the species - this member looks for direct or indirect benefits
Allele frequency
- how often an allele appears in a population - does not tell us which are homozygous/heterozygous, only tells us the representation of the allele across all chromosomes of the population
What type of immunity is likely to be affected by removal of the spleen?
- humoral immunity - the spleen is a location where B-cells mature and proliferate - thus, removal of the spleen is likely to result in a reduction of humoral immunity - in fact, many people receive vaccinations prior to removal of the spleen in order to bolster their immunity
If all autonomic input to the heart were cut, what would happen?
- if all autonomic innervation to the heart were lost, the heart would continue beating at the intrinsic rate of the pacemaker (SA node) - the individual would be unable to change their heart rate via the sympathetic or parasympathetic NS, but the heart would not stop beating
Disparate influence of social factors
- if numbers are skewed significantly/have changed a lot, they are disparate - ex. self-identified "politically independent" subjects were led into a room with either 1 person or a group of 10 people strongly favoring the Republican party. After leaving the room, 32% of the subjects who were with 1 person and 67% of the subjects with a group voted Republican
Ascending limb of the loop of Henle
- important for salt reabsorption and dilution of the urine in the diluting segment - the descending loop of Henle dives deep into the medulla before turning around to become the ascending limb of the loop of Henle - only permeable to salts and is impermeable to water - maximizes salt reabsorption by taking advantage of decreasing medullary osmolarity
The stomach secretes 6 products:
1. HCl = kills microbes, denatures proteins, and converts pepsinogen to pepsin 2. pepsinogen = cleaved in the stomach to pepsin, partially digests proteins 3. mucus = protects mucosa 4. bicarbonate = protects mucosa 5. water = dilutes/dissolves ingested material 6. intrinsic factor = required for normal absorption of vitamin B12
Proximal stimulus
- in perception, it is the information our sensory receptors receive about the object - stimulus registered by sensory receptors - the patterns of stimuli from these objects and events that actually reach your senses (eyes, ears, etc.)
Disorganized behavior
- inability to carry out activities of daily living - ex. paying bills, maintaining hygiene, keeping appointments - includes catatonia, echolalia, and echopraxia
Mnemonic to remember the major waste products excreted in the urine:
"dump the HUNK" H+ Urea NH3 (ammonia) K+
Group conformity
- individuals are compliant with the group's goals, even when the group's goals may be in direct contrast to the individual's goals - individuals conform in an attempt to fit in and be accepted by the group, often participating in behaviors they normally would not
Depersonalization/derealization disorder
- individuals feel detached from their own mind and body (depersonalization) or from their surroundings (derealization) - symptoms include: failure to recognize one's reflection - ex. of depersonalization = an out of body experience - derealization = the world is dream-like - such patients may experience depersonalization and derealization at the same time
Social anxiety disorder
- individuals think that they will be perceived negatively by others - key diagnostic feature: fear or anxiety towards social situations with the belief that the individual will be exposed, embarrassed, or simply negatively perceived by others - heavily associated with selective mutism
The intrapleural pressure is necessarily lower than the atmospheric pressure during:
- inhalation - b/c the expansion of the chest cavity causes expansion of the intrapleural space, decreasing its pressure
What characteristics make inorganic phosphate so useful for energy transfer biologically?
- inorganic phosphate contains a very negative charge - when bonded to other phosphate groups in a nucleotide triphosphate, this creates repulsion with adjacent phosphate groups, increasing the energy of the bond - inorganic phosphate can also be resonance-stabilized
Spirometer
- instrument used to measure breathing - gives us lung capacities and volumes - NOTE: CANNOT MEASURE THE TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY ACCURATELY B/C IT CANNOT DETERMINE THE RESIDUAL VOLUME
Endoskeletons
- internal skeletons - are internal, but are not able to protect the soft tissue structures as well as exoskeletons - much better able to accommodate the growth of a larger organisms - ex. found in vertebrates, including humans
Role engulfment
- internalizing a label and assuming the role implied by the label may lead to the assumed role taking over a person's identity - goes hand in hand with labeling theory
Which tautomer of aldehydes and ketones is thermodynamically favored: keto or enol?
- keto form - the equilibrium between the tautomers lies far to the keto side, so there will be many more keto isomers in solution
Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder (DMDD)
- key diagnostic feature of persistent and recurrent emotional irritability in multiple environments (school, home, etc) - typically diagnosed between the ages of 6 and 10
T-cells
- lymphocytes that mature in the thymus (but develop in the bone marrow) - undergo both positive and negative selection in the thymus - the maturation of T-cells is facilitated by thymosin, a peptide hormone secreted by thymic cells - once the T-cell has left the thymus, it is mature but naive - upon exposure to antigen, T-cells will also undergo clonal selection so that only those with the highest affinity for a given antigen proliferate - kill virally infected cells and activate other immune cells - coordinate immune system and directly kill infected cells - specific - there are 3 major types of T-cells: helper, suppressor, and killer (cytotoxic) T-cells - have a division of adaptive immunity called cell-mediated immunity (= b/c they coordinate the immune system and directly kill virally infected cells)
Aligning actions
- making questionable behavior acceptable through excuses - ex. justifications for missing deadlines, blaming a bad grade on too little sleep, laughing off an inappropriate comment as a joke, etc
Word salad
- patients will string together unrelated words, although the prosody of the speech (its rhythm, stress, and intonation) remains intact - speech has no structure, as if words are thrown together incomprehensibly - seen in severe schizophrenia and Wernicke's aphasia
Sanctions
- penalties for misconduct or rewards for appropriate behavior - used to maintain social control - can be positive (reward behaviors that comply with norms) or negative (punish behaviors that deviate from norms), and formal (enforced by formal social institutions like governments or employers) or informal (enforced by social groups) - ex. formal and positive: receiving a promotion - ex. formal and negative: receiving a jail sentence - ex. informal and positive: being allowed to sit at a particular table in the school cafeteria - ex. informal and negative: exclusion from a social group
Hallucinations
- perceptions that are not due to external stimuli but nevertheless seem real to the person perceiving them - most common form is auditory (hearing voices inside or outside their head) - visual and tactile hallucinations also exist
Ligaments
- pieces of fibrous tissue that hold bones together at joints - consist of a synovial capsule, which encloses the actual joint cavity (articular cavity) - a layer of soft tissue called the synovium secretes synovial fluid, which lubricates the movement of structures in the joint space - the articular cartilage contributes to the joint by coating the articular surfaces of the bones so that impact is restricted to the lubricated joint cartilage, rather than to the bones
Gestalt therapy
- practitioners tend to take a holistic view of the self, seeing each individual as a complete person rather than reducing him to individual behaviors or drives - associated with humanistic theory
Premature infants with respiratory distress are often placed on ventilators. Often, the ventilators are set to provide positive end-expiratory pressure. Why might this setting be useful for a premature infant?
- premature infants lack surfactant - positive end-expiratory pressure = at the end of expiration, the ventilator will provide a higher pressure than normal, which forces extra air into the alveoli - this pressure must be used to prevent alveolar collapse, which is also the same purpose of surfactant
Dendritic cells
- presents antigens -- fragments of protein or other molecules from pathogens or cancer cells -- to adaptive immune cells, inducing them to attack bearers of the displayed antigens
MHC-II
- presents proteins that result from the digestion of extracellular pathogens that have been brought in by endocytosis (exogenous antigens) - only found in professional antigen-presenting cells - phagocytic cells pick up pathogens from the environment, process them, and then present them targeted by an antibody - b/c these antigens originated outside the cell, the MHC-II pathway is often called the exogenous pathway
Graham's law equation
- rate 1/rate 2 = square root of M2/M1 - a gas with a higher molar mass will leak more slowly than a gas with a lower molar mass - ex. both neon and oxygen gases will leak at slower rates than helium b/c they both have more mass than helium
Induction (chemistry)
- refers to the distribution of charge across sigma bonds - electrons are attracted to atoms that are more electronegative, generating a dipole across the sigma bond
n + 1 rule
- regarding the spin-spin coupling - n = number of protons that are three bonds away will be split into n + 1 peaks - note: do not include hydrogens that are attached to oxygen or nitrogen
Upper esophageal sphincter (UES)
- region of the upper part of the esophagus that opens to allow a mass of food to enter the esophagus - swallowing is initiated in the muscles of the oropharynx, which constitute the upper esophageal sphincter
Consensus cues
- relate to the extent to which a person's behavior differs from others - if a person deviates from socially expected behavior, we are likely to form a dispositional attribution about the person's behavior
Dispositional (internal) attributions
- relate to the person whose behavior is being considered, including his or her beliefs, attitudes, and personality characteristics - consensus cues lead us to be more likely to make a dispositional attribution about them - individualists are more likely to attribute behavior to dispositional factors - ex. believing your friend has been nominated for a reward b/c of hard work and personal effort
At any given time, there is more blood in the venous system than the arterial system. What feature of veins allows for this?
- relative lack of smooth muscle in the wall - allows for stretching to store most of the blood in the body
Diastole
- relaxation of the heart - the ventricles are relaxed, the semilunar valves are closed, and blood from the atria fills the ventricles - relaxation of the ventricles generates a lower pressure during diastole - note: the elasticity of the walls of the large arteries, which stretch to receive the volume of blood from the heart, allows the vessels to maintain sufficient pressure while the ventricular muscles are relaxes. If it weren't for the elasticity of large arteries, diastolic blood pressure would plummet to 0
Mast cells
- releases histamine and other chemicals that promote inflammation - have smaller granules and exist in tissues, mucosa, and epithelium - activated by allergens - closely related to basophils -- both release large amounts of histamine in response to allergens, leading to inflammatory responses
Positive control system
- require the binding of a protein to the operator site to increase transcription
Dysphoria
- sense of great unhappiness or dissatisfaction - antonym of euphoria
Merkel cells (discs)
- sensory receptors present at the epidermal-dermal junction - connected to sensory neurons and are responsible for deep pressure and texture sensation within the skin
What properties of molecules do thin-layer chromatography, paper chromatography, and standard column chromatography take advantage of to separate compounds?
- separates compounds using charge and polarity
Phyloric sphincter
- separates stomach from duodenum - food (chyme) leaves the stomach through the pyloric sphincter and enters the duodenum - the presence of chyme in the duodenum causes the release of brush-border enzymes
Cultural syndrome
- shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors among members of the same culture that are organized around a central theme - influence the rules for expressing or suppressing emotions and can even influence the ways emotions are experienced - ex. in the US, happiness is viewed as infinite, attainable, and internally experienced, thus, "I am happy". in Japan, happiness is a very rational emotion and generally applied to collective experiences more than to individual successes, thus, "I am sharing happiness with others"
In an enhancer, what are the differences between signal molecules, transcription factors, and response elements?
- signal molecules include steroid hormones and second messengers, which bind to their receptors in the nucleus - these receptors are transcription factors that use their DNA-binding domain to attach to a particular sequence in DNA called
Chlorate
ClO3-
Perchlorate
ClO4-
Geimenschaft
- "community" - Ferdinand Tonnies - groups unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, or geography - ex. families and neighborhoods
Core nations
- focus on higher skills and higher paying productions while exploiting peripheral nations for their lower-skilled productions
Traveling wave
- have nodes and antinodes that move with wave propagation
Normal gastrointestinal flora
- provides competition, making it hard for pathogenic bacteria to grow in the gut
In what ways do real gases differ from ideal gases?
- real gas molecules have non-negligible volume and attractive forces - real gases deviate from idea gases at high pressure (low volume) and low temperature
Self-antigens
- the proteins and carbohydrates present on the surface of every cell of the body - signal to immune cells that the cell is not foreign and should not be attacked - however, when the immune system fails to make the distinction between self and foreign, it may attack cells expressing particular self-antigens and this is called autoimmunity - the opposite can happen in which the immune system misidentifies a foreign antigen as dangerous when it is not (ex. allergies) - T-cells that respond to self-antigens are eliminated in the thymus (negative selection) - immature B-cells that respond to self-antigens are eliminated in the bone marrow (although this process is not perfect)
Larynx
- voice box - below the pharynx - only a pathway for air to the lungs
Saturated
- when the maximum amount of solute is dissolved in a liquid - the dissolved solute is in equilibrium with its undissolved state - if more solute is added, it will not dissolve
Conversions of units for pressure
1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 760 torr = 101.325 kPa
Good experimental design protocols state that a good buffer has a pKa within _____ pH unit of the desired experimental conditions.
1 pH unit Within this range, there is less than a 10 to 1 ratio of acid to base or base to acid forms of the buffer, and so some buffering capacity still remains. - ex. when choosing a buffer to use for an experiment conducted at pH 5.3, it would be best to choose one with a pKa of 4.75 than 6.5
What are the 3 main types of point mutations?
1) silent point mutations 2) missense mutations 3) nonsense mutations
What are the 3 steps of translation?
1. Initiation 2. Elongation 3. Termination
Solubility rules:
1. all salts containing NH4+ and alkali metals are water soluble 2. all salts containing NO3- and CH3COO- are water soluble 3. Halides except F- are soluble, except those formed with Ag+, Pb2+, Hg2^2+ 4. all SO4^2- are soluble except Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+ 5. all metal oxides are insoluble, except alkali metals, ammonium, and CaO, SrO, BaO 6. all OH- are insoluble except those formed with alkali metals, ammonium, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+ 7. all CO3^2-, PO4^3-, S2-, SO3^2- are insoluble except alkali and ammounium know these 2 absolutes: 1) all salts of group 1 metals are soluble 2) all nitrate salts are soluble
Faraday constant
1x10^5 C/mole e- (more specifically, 96,485 C/mol e-) - note: in the equation ΔG = -nFEcell if the Faraday constant is expressed in coulombs (J/V), then ΔG must be expressed in J, not KJ
B/c each chromosome is part of a homologous pair, a person will inherit ______ alleles for all genes
2 - except for male sex chromosomes!
The frequencies between _________ Hz and __________ Hz are generally audible to healthy young adults
20 Hz and 20,000 Hz
The number of different possible gametes that can be formed by diploid organisms as a result of independent assortment of chromosomes during meiosis can be calculated using the formula:
2^n where n is the haploid number of chromosomes - ex. Consider an organism that has three pairs of chromosomes, AaBbCc, in its diploid cells. It could possibly produce 8 genotypically different kinds of haploid cells (2^3)
How are standard reduction potentials measured?
A sample is measured by setting up a cell relative to a standard hydrogen electrode, which is given a reduction potential of 0 V by convention.
Under normal physiological circumstances, the primary function of the nephron is to create urine that is: A. hypertonic to the blood. B. hypotonic to the blood. C. isotonic to the filtrate. D. hypotonic to the vasa recta.
A. hypertonic to the blood. - our goal is to reabsorb as much water as possible - excretion of concentrated urine as a result of reabsorbing lots of water serves to limit water losses from the body and helps to preserve blood volume
Universal recipient blood type
AB (positive) - no blood antigen is foreign to AB individuals, so no adverse reactions will occur upon transfusion
Which of these types of bonds are most irreversible? A. hydrophobic interactions B. disulfide bridges C. H-bonding D. binding at an allosteric site
B. disulfide bridges, the only covalent bond listed
In which of the following segments of the nephron is sodium NOT actively transported out of the nephron? A. proximal convoluted tubule B. thin portion of the ascending limb of the loop of Henle C. distal convoluted tubule D. thick portion of the ascending limb of the loop of Henle
B. thin portion of the ascending limb of the loop of Henle
In capillaries that are not participating in angiogenesis (formation of new blood vessels), which of the following is LEAST likely to occur in capillaries? A. gas exchange B. endothelial turnover C. muscular contraction D. low pressure flow
C. muscular contraction - capillaries are very thin-walled and do not contain a muscular tunic - not A b/c capillaries are the primary sites of gas exchange in the body - not B b/c they do have some turnover of the endothelium in response to injury or age - not D b/c capillaries are a low pressure flow system much like veins
The cutting of introns and the splicing associated with the expression of certain genes occur during which of the following steps in the protein-synthesis process?
DNA ----> mRNA (transcription)
Divorce rates in the U.S. have _____________ in the second half of the 20th century but have started to _____________ over the last 2 decades
Divorce rates in the U.S. have rose significantly in the second half of the 20th century but have started to drop over the last 2 decades
Freud vs Jung vs Adler
Freud: Behavior is motivated by inborn instincts Jung: Behavior is motivated by inborn archetypes Adler: Behavior is motivated by striving for superiority
For an Ni-Cd battery discharging: Galvanic or electrolytic? = Anode material = Anode charge = Cathode material = Cathode charge =
Galvanic or electrolytic? = galvanic Anode material = Cd Anode charge = (-) Cathode material = NiO(OH) Cathode charge = (+)
Which phases of solvent and solute can form a solution? I. Solid solvent, gaseous solute II. Solid solvent, solid solute III. Gaseous solvent, gaseous solute
I, II, and III - all 3 can make a solution as long as the 2 components create a mixture that is of uniform appearance (homogenous)
For blood types, IA and IB are ______________ while i is ____________
IA and IB are codominant (if the A allele is present on one chromosome and the B allele is present on the other chromosome, both will be expressed and their blood type is AB) i is recessive (people with type O don't express either A or B antigens and have a homozygous recessive genotype)
Strong bases:
NaOH, KOH, and other soluble hydroxides of group 1A metals
What is true of spontaneity when ΔH is (-) and ΔS is (+)?
Spontaneous at all temperatures
What is true of spontaneity when ΔH is (+) and ΔS is (+)?
Spontaneous at high temperatures ΔG is temperature-dependent when ΔH and ΔS are the same sign
What is true of spontaneity when ΔH is (-) and ΔS is (-)?
Spontaneous at low temperatures ΔG is temperature-dependent when ΔH and ΔS are the same sign
If multiple genes in an operon are controlled by a single promoter, they will be transcribed as:
a single transcript, not multiple transcripts
Indirect therapy
aims to increase social support by educating and empowering family and friends of affected individual
Thought broadcasting
belief that one's thoughts are broadcast directly from one's head to the external world
How are amides formed from carboxylic acids?
carboxylic acid + ammonia/amine ----> amide - ammonia or an amine act as the nucleophile - carried out in either an acidic or basic solution
Social cognition
focuses on the ways in which people think about others and how these ideas impact behavior
The direction of the electric field at any point between the plates of a capacitor is from the _____________ plate toward the _____________ plate
from the positive plate toward the negative plate
Without ATP generation from the ETC, _____________ is the only mechanism by which cells can generate ATP
glycolysis
Aldehydes or ketones + hydrazine (H2N-NH2) ----->
hydrazone
What chemical forms most of the inorganic component of bone?
hydroxyapatite crystals
Migration rate
immigration rate (moving in) - emigration rate (moving out) - ex. the U.S. has a large net immigration than emigration
Mnemonic to remember what charge the anode in a galvanic cell has:
in a galvaNic cell, the aNode is Negative
When the current is not zero and the internal resistance is not negligible, then voltage will be ________ than emf
less
For a galvanic cell, the reduction potential of the cathode cannot be _____ than that of the anode
less (b/c overall emf is positive)
Each gene has a particular _________, or location on a specific chromosome
locus
Inbreeding depression
loss of genetic variation may cause reduced fitness of the population
Anything that makes it into the filtrate and that is not reabsorbed will be:
lost from the body in the urine
Observer's bias
occurs when researcher's expectation influence their interpretation of the results
Mixed-methods study
research study that includes elements of both quantitative and qualitative research
If the cell is not actually driving any current (ex. switch is in the open position), then the internal resistance is ________ and the voltage of the cell is equal to _______________
the internal resistance is 0 and the voltage of the cell is equal to its emf
What structure is primarily responsible for returning materials from lymphatic circulation to the cardiovascular system?
the thoracic duct carries lymphatic fluid into the left subclavian vein
Titrant vs analyte
titrant = solution of known molarity, what is added analyte = solution of unknown molarity
Direct therapy
treatment that acts directly on the individual such as medication or periodic meetings with a psychologist
The valve between the right atrium and right ventricle is the
triscuspid valve (3 leaflets)
When blood osmolarity is high . . .
water reabsorption increases and solute excretion increases
List the structures in the excretory pathway, from where filtrate enters the nephron to the excretion of urine from the body
Bowman's space ---> proximal convoluted tube ---> descending limb of the loop of Henle ---> ascending limb of the loop of Henle ---> distal convoluted tubule ---> collecting duct ---> renal pelvis ---> ureter ---> bladder ---> urethra
If a male with hemophilia (XhY) is crossed with a female carrier of both color blindness and hemophilia (XcXh), what is the probability that a female child will be phenotypically normal? A. 0% B. 25% C. 50% D. 100%
C. 50% - 25% of the offspring will be female hemophiliacs (XhXh) - 25% of the offspring will be female carriers of both alleles (XcXh) - thus, half of the females will have a normal phenotype (carriers for both traits)
Which of the following statements is FALSE? A. ADH increases water reabsorption in the kidney B. aldosterone indirectly increases water reabsorption in the kidney C. ADH acts directly on the proximal convoluted tubule D. aldosterone stimulates reabsorption of sodium from the collecting duct
C. ADH acts directly on the proximal convoluted tubule - ADH does not act on the proximal convoluted tubule, but rather on the collecting duct
Due to kidney disease, a person is losing albumin into the urine. What effect is this likely to have within the capillaries? A. Increased oncotic pressure B. Increased hydrostatic pressure C. Decreased oncotic pressure D. Decreased hydrostatic pressure
C. Decreased oncotic pressure - plasma proteins play an important role in generating osmotic (oncotic) pressure - this allows water that is displaced at the arterial end of a capillary bed by hydrostatic pressure to be reabsorbed at the venule end - loss of these plasma proteins would cause a decrease in the plasma osmotic (oncotic) pressure
Which technique employs the use of a stationary pH gradient inside the gel to separate proteins? A. SDS-PAGE B. Reducing SDS-PAGE C. Isoelectric focusing D. Gel filtration chromatography
C. Isoelectric focusing - isoelectric focusing separates proteins based on their isoelectric point by using a gel with a pH gradient in addition to an electric field - not A and B b/c they separate proteins via gel electrophoresis based on size - not D b/c that's another name for size-exclusion chromatography so it also separates molecules by size
Caste and estate systems stratify by ______________ SES, while class systems stratify by _____________ SES
Caste and estate systems stratify by ascribed SES, while class systems stratify by achieved SES
Ritual
- a formalized ceremony that usually involves specific material objects, symbolism, and additional mandates on acceptable behavior - tend to have a prescribed order of events or routine - can be associated with specific milestones -- ex. graduation, wedding, funeral - can be associated with holidays -- ex. thanksgiving dinner, trick or treating on halloween - can be associated with regular activities -- ex. Catholic mass, pep rally, getting ready in the morning - ex. some Native American tribes may have ceremonies that include chanting, singing, body painting, dancing, and even use of mind-altering substances to persuade the spirits to heal the sick person
Operator site (operon)
- binding site for repressor protein
Yellow marrow (of bones)
- composed primarily of fat/adipose tissue - is relatively inactive
Buffering region
- occurs when [HA] ~ [A-] and is flattest portion of the titration curve (resistant to changes in pH)
Hematocrit
- percentage of a blood sample consisting of red blood cells - measured in percentage points - normal hematocrit for males: 41 and 53% - normal hematocrit for females: 36 and 46%
Type B personality
- personality type characterized by being laid-back and relaxed
Power
- the ability to affect others' behavior through real or perceived rewards and punishments - based on the unequal distribution of valued resources - defines the relationship between individuals, groups, and social institutions - power relationships function to maintain order, organize economic systems, conduct warfare, and rule over to exploit people - power creates worldwide inequalities
Prions vs viruses
- unlike viruses, prions don't contain nucleic acids/DNA (we know this b/c we hit them with radiation that would kill DNA but they're fine) - instead, prions are misfolded protein.
African Americans have a _________ health profile than White Americans
- worse - they have higher rates of death linked to cancer, heart disease, diabetes, drug and alcohol use, infant mortality, and HIV/AIDS - African American infants have twice the infant mortality rate of white infants
The world record for the longest-held breath is 22 minutes and 0 seconds. If a sample were taken from this individual during the last minute of breath-holding, which of the following might be observed? A. Increased hemoglobin affinity for O2 B. Decreased CO2 C. Increased hematocrit D. Decreased pH
D. Decreased pH - holding one's breath for a prolonged period of time would result in a drop in oxygenation and an increase in CO2 - the increased CO2 would associate with water to form carbonic acid, which would dissociate into a proton and bicarbonate anion - the low oxygen saturation would also eventually lead to anaerobic metabolism in some tissues, causing an increase in lactic acid - these would all lead to a decreased pH
DNA coding strand vs DNA template strand vs mRNA strand (Transcription)
DNA coding strand: 5' to 3' DNA template strand: 3' to 5' mRNA strand: 5' to 3' - mRNA strand goes off of the template strand so it is complementary & antiparallel to the DNA template strand - mRNA strand is identical to the DNA coding strand, except the DNA's T's are U's in mRNA
Nucleophilic Acyl substitution reaction examples:
- 1) anhydride cleavage: anhydride to amide + carboxylic acid - this is a cleavage reaction, ammonia acts as a nucleophile, one of the carbonyl carbons act as the electrophile, and carboxylic acid is the leaving group - the anhydride is split - 2) anhydride to easter + carboxylic acid - an alcohols is the nucleophile - 3) anhydride to carboxylic acids x2 - anhydrides can be reverted to carboxylic acids by exposing them to water - for these reactions to be useful, the anhydride should be symmetric, or else there will be a mixture of products formed - 4) transesterification = the reaction of an ester with an alcohol to form a different ester - 5) amide hydrolysis: amide to carboxylic acid
Prodomal Phase of Schizophrenia
- 1st phase - the time before schizophrenia is diagnosed - marked by poor adjustment and a deterioration of functioning - exemplified by clear evidence of deterioration, social withdrawal, role functioning impairment, peculiar behavior, inappropriate affect, and unusual experiences
How are amides formed?
- Amides are formed by the condensation reaction of other carboxylic acid derivatives + ammonia, a primary amine, or a secondary amine - amides may or may not participate in hydrogen bonding depending on the # of alkyl groups they have bonded, so their boiling points may be lower or on the same level as their respective carboxylic acids - note: loss of hydrogen from the nucleophile is required for this reaction to take place. Thus, only primary and secondary amines will undergo this reaction - another note: the less substituted the nucleophile (ammonia/amine), the easier it will be for the nucleophile to attack the carbonyl carbon and form the amide
How are anhydrides formed?
- Anhydrides are usually formed by the condensation reaction of two carboxylic acids - can be formed by simply heating carboxylic acids - anhydrides, particularly cyclic anhydrides, will form spontaneously from dicarboxylic acids when heated - this reaction is driven forward by the increased stability of the newly formed ring - only anhydrides with 5 or 6 membered rings are easily made - anhydrides often have higher boiling points than their related carboxylic acids, based solely on their much greater weight
What races have some of the best health profiles?
- Asians and Pacific Islanders - compared to white Americans, these groups have a lower rate of death associated with cancer, heart disease, diabetes, and infant mortality
How do antibodies become specific for a given antigen?
- B-cells originally mature in the bone marrow and have some specificity at that point - however, antibodies that can respond to a given antigen undergo hypermutation, or rapid mutation of their antigen-binding sites - only those B-cells that have the highest affinity for the antigen survive and proliferate, increasing the specificity for the antigen over time
Basic model of emotional expression
- Charles Darwin - involves facial expressions, behaviors, postures, vocal changes, physiological changes - Darwin claimed that expression is consistent with his theories on evolution and should be similar across cultures - many researchers have found that a # of basic human emotions are universally experienced and that their corresponding facial expressions are universally recognized - closely related to the appraisal model
A researcher is interested in studying fear responses to a variety of different stimuli. To rule out potential confounding variables, the research excludes individuals with phobias from the study. In a sample of 50 participants, how many will likely be excluded from the study, assuming that the sample is representative of the overall population? A. 45 B. 15 C. 10 D. 5
- D. 5 - phobias affect ~9% of the population, meaning that on average 9 in 100 people will have some sort of phobia - thus, in a sample of 50, 4 or 5 people will need to be excluded
Codons/genetic code
- Each codon consists of 3 bases. Thus, there are 64 codons - all codons are written in the 5'---->3' direction - the genetic code is unambiguous (each codon is specific for one and only one amino acid) - the genetic code is also degenerate (more than one codon can specify a single amino acid) - each codon represents only one amino acid, but most amino acids are represented by multiple codons - the genetic code is universal across species
PEN model
- Eysencks - describes 3 traits: 1) psychoticism = a measure of nonconformity or social deviance (ex. rebel) 2) extraversion = a measure of tolerance for social interaction and stimulation (ex. highly sociable) 3) neuroticism = a measure of emotional arousal in stressful situations (ex. not keeping calm in stressful situations) - reasoned that people could be distinguished from one another based on where they fell in each of these 3 dimensions
FAD/FADH2 must be tightly bound to enzymes, while NAD+/NADH do not need to be. What is the best explanation for this?
- FAD/FADH2 can exist as a semiquinone - NAD+/NADH do not need to be tightly coupled to an enzyme b/c NADH does not react with O2 - single-electron transfers to and from NAD+/NADH produce unstable free radical species - NAD+/NADH will only undergo 2-electron, not 1-electron transfers - thus, NAD+/NADH do not need to be bound to enzymes to control their reactivity with O2 - instead, FAD/FADH2 reacts very easily with O2 - single-electron transfers to and from FAD/FADH2 produce highly-stable free radical species known as semiquinones - thus, FAD/FADH2 will undergo either 1 or 2-electron transfers and must be bound to enzymes in order to keep them from reacting with O2
True or false: entropy can be measured directly
- FALSE! - it is not possible to measure enthalpy directly, only ΔH can be measured
Each of the following theorists evaluates an individual and determines that the person has failed in completing one of the theorist's developmental stages. What would each say is the most likely outcome for this person? Freud: Erikson: Kohlberg:
- Freud would say that the individual has become fixated in that stage and will display the personality traits of that fixation for the rest of his or her life - Erikson would say that the individual will still move through subsequent phases, but will be lacking the skills and virtues granted by successful resolution of that stage - Kohlberg would say that the individual was incapable of reasoning at the level of failure, and that the individual would use the reasoning described in previous stages to resolve moral dilemmas
Frequency summation
- If a muscle fiber is exposed to frequent and prolonged stimulation it will have insufficient time to relax - the contractions will combine, become stronger, and more prolonged - if the contractions become to frequent that the muscle is unable to relax at all, this is known as tetanus - prolonged tetanus will result in muscle fatigue
Illusion of unanimity
- Irving Janis - 1 of 8 factors indicative of groupthink - members believe the decisions and judgements of the group to be without disagreement, even if it does exist
Force field theory
- Lewin - humanistic theory - one's current state of mind (focuses on the present) - the sum of the forces (influences) on the individual at that time
Peak experiences
- Maslow - profound and deeply moving experiences in a person's life that have important and lasting effects on the individual - self-actualized people are more likely to have these
Lungs do not fill ______________
- Passively - Require skeletal muscles to generate negative pressure for expansion
When starting transcription, where does RNA polymerase bind?
- RNA Polymerase II binds to the TATA box, which is located within the promoter region of a relevant gene, at about ~25
Unconditional positive regard
- Rogers - a therapeutic technique by which the therapists accepts the client completely and expresses empathy in order to promote a positive therapeutic environment
Client-centered/person-centered/nondirective therapy
- Rogers - people have the freedom to control their own behavior, and are neither slaves to the unconscious (as psychoanalysts would say) nor subjects of faulty learning (as behaviorists would say) - rather than providing solutions or diagnoses, this helps the client reflect on problems, make choices, generate solutions, take positive action, and determine their own destiny
How is sound produced and transmitted?
- Sound is produced by mechanical vibrations - these are usually generated by solid objects like bells or vocal cords, but occasionally can be generated by fluids - sound is propagated as longitudinal waves in matter, so it cannot propagate in a vacuum
Intrapleural space
- Space between the two membranes, visceral pleura and parietal pleura, that cover the lungs - the contains a think layer of fluid to help lubricate the 2 pleural surfaces - introduction of fluid or air into this space can cause collapsing of the lung
Zone of proximal development
- Vygotsky - skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development - gaining these skills successfully requires the help of a "more knowledgable other", like an adult - ex. a child may struggle to ride a bicycle on their own, but with the help of a parent they may be successful - ex. a child finds that she cannot make an origami swan by herself, but is able to do so when observing and being assisted by an adult
Monocytes
- WBC, type of agranulocyte - phagocytic cells in the bloodstream - phagocytize foreign matter such as bacteria - most organs of the body contain a collection of these phagocytic cells - once they leave the bloodstream and enter an organ/tissues, they are renamed macrophages - can become a resident population within a tissue (become a permanent rather than transient cell group in that tissue) - in the CNS, they are known as microglia - in the skin, they are called Langerhans cells - in the bone, they are called osteoclasts
An individual with B+ blood is in an automobile accident and requires a blood transfusion. What blood types could he receive? To which blood types could he donate?
- a B+ person could receive blood from a B+, B-, O+, or O- person - a B+ person could donate blood to a B+ or AB+ person
What 2 peaks would you expect to see in the IR spectrum of a carboxylic acid?
- a broad O-H peak around 2800-3200 cm^-1 - a sharp carbonyl peak at 1700-1750 cm^-1
What is the purpose of a buffer solution?
- a buffer solution is designed to resist change in pH and has optimal buffering capacity within 1 pH point from its pKa
Inborn errors of metabolism
- a class of deleterious mutations -- defects in genes required for metabolism - children born with these defects often require very early intervention in order to prevent permanent damage from the buildup of metabolites in various pathways - ex. in phenylketonuria (PKU), the enzyme phenylalanine hydrolase, which completes the metabolism of the amino acid phenylalanine, is defective. In the absence of this enzyme, toxic metabolites of phenylalanine accumulate, causing seizures, impairment of cerebral function, and learning disabilities, as well as a musty odor to bodily secretions
Pancreatic juices
- a complex mixture of several enzymes in a bicarbonate-rich alkaline solution - this bicarbonate helps to neutralize acidic chyme, as well as provide an ideal working environment for the digestive enzymes, which are most active around pH 8.5 - contain enzymes that can digest all 3 types of nutrients: carbs, fats, and proteins - includes pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipase, and trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, and carboxypeptidases A and B - CCK promotes the secretion of pancreatic juices into the duodenum - acinar cells in the pancreas produce this - pancreatic juices are transferred to the duodenum via a duct system that runs along the middle of the pancreas - these ducts will then empty into the duodenum through the major and minor duodenal papillae
Anomie
- a lack of attachment to social norms, which can result in a breakdown in the connection between individuals and their community - a lack of widely accepted social norms and the breakdown of social bonds between an individual and society - ex. An individual feels disconnected from the larger community - social inequality is further accelerated by this - anomic conditions erode social solidarity and in postindustrial modern life, have accelerated the decline of social inclusion and as a result have further obstructed opportunities to acquire social capital - as society has become more urbanized, self-oriented, materialistic, and associational ties have diminished, there has been a decline in social capital
Preconventional (Kohlberg)
- "expected in children" - seen in preadolescence - reasoning is based on individual rewards and punishments - stages: obedience (concerned with avoiding punishment, ex. "If I steal the drug, I'll go to jail") and self-interest/instrumental relativist stage (gaining rewards, reciprocity, and sharing, ex. "I need to save my wife b/c I want to spend more of my life with her") - ex. avoiding driving above the speed limit to avoid a traffic fine (obedience, wants to avoid punishment)
Gesellschaft
- "society" - Ferdinand Tonnies - less personal groups that are formed out of mutual self-interests working together toward the same goal - ex. companies and countries
3' Poly-A tail
- 1 of the 3 major posttranscriptional modifications that turn hnRNA into mature mRNA - a polyadenosyl (Poly-A) tail is added to the 3' end of the mRNA transcript and protects the message against rapid degradation - composed of adenine bases - think of it as "a fuse for a time bomb for the mRNA transcript" -- as soon as the mRNA leaves the nucleus, it will start to get degraded from its 3' end - the longer the poly-A tail, the more time the mRNA will be able to survive before being digested in the cytoplasm - untranslated regions of the mRNA (UTRs) will still exist at the
Paternalistic stereotype
- 1 of the 4 categories of the stereotype content model - low competence, high warmth - low status, not competitive - the group is looked down upon as inferior, dismissed, or ignored - ex. housewives, elderly people, people with disabilities
Respect for autonomy
- 1 of the 4 key tenets of American medical ethics - the physician has a responsibility to respect patients' decisions and choices about their own healthcare - there are exceptions to this (ex. psychiatric illness, children, public health threats, etc) - patients have the right to refuse life-saving therapies
Helper T-cell (CD4+ T-cells)
- coordinate the immune system through lymphokines and respond to antigen bound to MHC-II - lymphokines are capable of recruiting other immune cells (like plasma cells, cytotoxic T-cells, and macrophages) and increasing their activity - human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) results from the loss of CD4+ cells, preventing the immune system from mounting an adequate response to infection - CD4+ T-cells respond to antigens presented on MHC-II molecules - b/c MHC-II presents exogenous antigens, CD4+ T-cells are most effective against bacterial, fungal, and parasitic infections - better at fighting extracellular infections
Kidney anatomy
- cortex = the kidney's outermost layer - medulla = sits within the cortex - renal hilum = a deep slit in the center of its medial surface, where the ureter, renal artery, renal vein, and nerves pass/enter and exit - renal pelvis = widest part of the ureter, spans almost the entire width of the renal hilum - afferent arterioles = the renal artery that branches out, passing through the medulla and entering the cortex - glomeruli = the highly convoluted capillary tufts derived from these afferent arterioles - efferent arterioles = form the second capillary bed after blood passes through a glomerulus - vasa recta = capillaries that surround the loop of Henle - Bowman's capsule = cup-like structure around the glomerulus
Glycogen synthase
- creates alpha-1,4 glycosidic links between glucose molecules - activated by insulin in liver and muscle
If the surface area of electrode material in an electrochemical cell is tripled, what else is necessarily tripled?
- current - as the electrode material is increased, the surface area participating in redox reactions is increased, and more electrons are released, thus also increasing current
Trait theorists
- describes individual personality as the sum of a person's characteristic behaviors - ex. PEN model - ex. Allport's cardinal, central, and secondary traits
Penetrance
- describes the proportion of the population that expresses a phenotype, given a particular genotype - it is the probability that given a particular genotype, a person will express the phenotype - it is a population parameter - ex. individuals with more than 40 sequence repeats have full penetrance -- 100% of individuals with this allele show symptoms of Huntington's disease - ex. individuals with fewer sequence repeats show high penetrance, where more (but not all) of those with the allele show symptoms of the disease - ex. with fewer sequence repeats, the gene comes to have reduced penetrance, low penetrance, or even nonpenetrance
Personality
- describes the set of thoughts, feelings, traits, and behaviors that are characteristic of an individual across time and location - how we act and react to the world around us
Solubility (concentration) and pressure are _____________ related
- directly - the solubility of a gas will increase with increasing partial pressure of the gas - ex. if the partial pressure of a gas is elevated, the amount of gas dissolved in the blood is also elevated
Institutional discrimination
- discrimination against a particular person or group by an entire institution - built into the structure of society, and thus is far more covert and harder to extricate - ex. racial segregation
What is the #1 cause of injury to American women?
- domestic violence - most common in families with drug abuse, especially alcoholism
Base Pairing of an Aminoacyl-tRNA with a Codon in mRNA
- during translation, the codon of the mRNA is recognized by a complementary anti-codon on a aminoacyl-tRNA (t-RNA + amino acid) - the anticodon sequence allows the tRNA to pair with the codon on the mRNA - b/c base-pairing is involved, the orientation of this interaction will be antiparallel - ex. the aminoacyl tRNA Ile-tRNA has an anticodon sequence 5'-GAU-3', allowing it to pair with the isoleucine codon 5'-AUC-3' - when a tRNA comes across a stop codon, there are no charged tRNA molecules that recognize these codons, which leads to the release of the protein from the ribosome
What effects do additional substituents have on the acidity of carboxylic acids?
- electron-withdrawing substituents make the anion more stable and thus increase acidity - electron-donating substituents destabilize the anion, causing the carboxylic acid to be less acidic - note: the closer the substituent is to the carboxylic acid on the molecule, the stronger the effect will be
What properties account for the differences in reactivity seen between anhydrides, esters, and amides with nucleophiles?
- electronic effects like induction have some effect on the reactivity of the carbonyl in these 3 functional groups - differences in resonance also explain the increase reactivity of anhydrides, in particular - steric effects could also be significant, depending on the specific leaving group present
With regard to health, which groups are most often affected by environmental hazards?
- environmental hazards tend to be located in low-income areas with a higher population of racial and ethnic minorities - poor living conditions can result in increased illness and disease among these groups of people, such as influenza, pneumonia, substance use disorders, tuberculosis, and whooping cough - these low-income areas also may lack the social and political power to prevent environmental risks from encroaching their communities
Wash (chemistry)
- a small amount of solvent is used to extract and remove unwanted impurities, rather than the compound of interest - the opposite of extraction
Myoglobin
- an O2 carrier that uses iron in a heme group to bind O2, imparting a red color - slow-twitch (red fibers) contain lots of myoglobin, hence the name - binds O2 with high affinity
Chyme
- an acidic, semifluid mixture - the result of solid food in the stomach being digested - mechanical and chemical digestion in the stomach results in a significant increase in the surface area of the food particles - thus, when the chyme reaches the small intestine, the absorption of nutrients from it can be maximized
Wavenumber
- an analog of frequency used for infrared spectra instead of wavelength (f = c/λ) - directly proportional to frequency - reciprocal of wavelength (1/λ)
Fingerprint region
- an area of an infrared spectrum 1500 to 400 cm-1 that gives a characteristic pattern for different compounds - where more complex vibration patterns caused by the motion of the molecule as a whole can be seen - the specific absorbance pattern is characteristic of each individual molecule
Sweating/bodily cooling mechanisms
- an excellent cooling mechanisms that is controlled by the autonomic nervous system - when body temp rises above the set point determined by the hypothalamus, thermoregulation processes must occur to get rid of the heat - postganglionic sympathetic neurons that utilize acetylcholine innervate sweat glands and promote the secretion of water with certain ions onto the skin - heat is then absorbed from the body as the water molecules undergo a phase change to evaporate - the production of swear itself is not the main mechanism of cooling; it is the evaporation of water from the skin which absorbs body heat - at the same time, arteriolar vasodilation occurs to maximize heat loss - this brings a large quantity of blood to the skin, which accelerates the evaporation of sweat by maximizing the heat energy available for the liquid-gas phase change
Ideal gas
- an imaginary gas that perfectly fits all the assumptions of the kinetic-molecular theory - molecules have no intermolecular forces and occupy no volume - real gases deviate from this ideal behavior at high pressures (low volumes) and low temperatures
Drive
- an internal state that the individual acts to reduce - ex. According to the psychodynamic theory, conflict between the superego and the id leads to unconscious conflict. The ego attempts to reduce this conflict through the use of defense mechanisms. Based on this description, the unconscious conflict functions as a drive
Colon
- another name for the large intestine - divided into the ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colons - main function is to absorb water and salts (like NaCl) from the undigested material left over from the small intestine - the bacteria in the colon represents a symbiotic relationship - note: the small intestine actually absorbed much more water than the colon, so the colon primarily concentrates the remaining material to form feces - too little or too much water absorption can cause diarrhea or constipation respectively
Antigen
- any specific target (usually a protein) to which the immune system can react - the stimuli for B-cells to make antibodies
The circulatory system is under ________________ control
- autonomic - note: the vagus nerve provides parasympathetic signals
Generalized other
- based on a person's established perceptions of the expectations of society - any time a person tries to imagine what is expected of them in a social situation, they are taking on the perspective of the generalized other - George Herbert Mead described the self in 2 parts: Me and I - Me = development comes from considering the generalized other, formed in interaction with others and with the general social environment (socialized and conforming aspect) - ex. studying for an exam instead of going to a party - I = the individual's own impulses, the spontaneous and autonomous part of the self (spontaneous, less socialized) - Me shapes I, a person's impulses are shaped by their interpretation of society's expectations
Psychosexual development (Freud)
- believed psychology and sexuality are linked - the libido (sex drive) is present at birth - libidinal energy and the drive to reduce libidinal tension are the underlying dynamic forces that accounted for human psychological processes
What is responsible for the increased rate of hydrolysis in beta-lactams?
- beta-lactams are susceptible to hydrolysis due to the high level of ring strain, which is due to both torsional strain (eclipsing interactions) and angle strain (deviation from 109.5 degrees)
Promoter
- bind to RNA polymerase during transcription - regulatory DNA sequences upstream of genes, regulate transcription
What are the 2 circulatory vessels in a villus? What biomolecules are absorbed into each?
- capillaries and lacteals - the capillary absorbs water-soluble nutrients like monosaccharides, amino acids, short-chain fatty acids, water-soluble vitamins, and water itself - the lacteal absorbs fat-soluble nutrients, like fats, cholesterol, and fat-soluble vitamins
Conversion Disorder (Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder, or hysteria)
- characterized by symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions that are incompatible with the patient's neurophysiological condition - symptoms begin after the patient experiences high levels of stress or a traumatic event - ex. paralysis or blindness without evidence of neurological damage - note: the patient may be surprisingly unconcerned by the symptom (this is known as la belle indifference) - ex. a woman going blind shortly after watching her son tragically die - ex. a woman comes to the doctor with a 2-week history of complete paralysis of her left arm. She has had no injury to the extremity, and full neurological workup fails to demonstrate any underlying cause. She seems surprisingly unconcerned about the paralysis, and seems more worried about an argument she has 1 month ago in which she had hit her daughter
Capacitor
- characterized by their ability to hold charge at a particular voltage - ex. defibrillator, dam - positive charge builds up on the plate connected to the positive (higher potential) terminal, and negative charge builts up on the plate connected to the negative (lower potential) terminal
Histamine
- chemical stored in mast cells that is an inflammatory mediator - causes inflammation by inducing vasodilation and the movement of fluid and cells from the bloodstream into tissues - released by mast cells, eosinophils, and basophils in response to allergens
Role-taking
- children's play that involves assuming adult roles, thus enabling the child to experience different points of view - ex. playing "house" or "school"
Schizoid personality disorder
- cluster A - a pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression - patients show little desire for social interactions, have few or no close friends, and have poor social skills
Paranoid personality disorder
- cluster A - marked by a pervasive distrust of others and suspicious regarding their motives - in some cases, these patients may actually be in the prodomal phase of schizophrenia and termed "premorbid"
Antisocial personality disorder
- cluster B - a pattern of disregard for and violations of the rights of others - patient may have repeated illegal acts, deceitfulness, aggressiveness, or a lack of remorse for their actions - many serial killers and career criminals who show no guilt for their actions have this disorder - 3x more common in males - onset begins before 18 y/o but patients must be at least 18 y/o to be diagnosed -- before 18, a person w/ similar characteristics is instead diagnosed with conduct disorder b/c adolescents are more likely to engage in risky behavior due to a belief that consequences for their behavior are unlikely and this belief often changes with age
Histrionic personality disorder
- cluster B - characterized by constant attention-seeking behavior - patients often wear colorful clothing, are dramatic, and are exceptionally extroverted - may also use seductive behavior to gain attention
Narcissistic personality disorder
- cluster B - patient has a grandiose sense of self-importance or uniqueness, preoccupation with fantasies of success, a need for constant admiration and attention, and characteristic disturbances in interpersonal relationships (ex. feelings of entitlement) - have very fragile self-esteem and are constantly concerned with how others view them - when they are not viewed favorably by others, they may show feelings of rage, inferiority, shame, humiliation, or emptiness
Avoidant personality disorder
- cluster C - patient has extreme shyness and fear of rejection - will see themselves as socially inept and socially isolated, despite an intense desire for social affection and acceptance - these patients tend to stay in the same jobs, life situations, and relationships
Lowball technique
- compliance technique - refers to gaining compliance without revealing the full cost (money, effort, or time) of the commitment - ex. you're asked by your boss to head a committee with a time commitment of 5 hours per month of meetings. You agree, but later discover that the commitment also includes written reports from each meeting and a quarterly presentation
That's-not-all technique
- compliance technique - refers to increasing the reward for a request before an individual has the chance to make a decision - a person is made an offer, but before making a decision, is told the deal is even better than they expected - frequently seen in informercials - ex. "We can offer you these earrings for the stunningly low price of $19.99. But wait! If you buy them, you'll also receive our matching necklace, normal retail value $49.99, absolutely free!"
Lamellae
- concentric circles of bony matrix surrounding a central microscopic channel - longitudinal channels (axis is parallel to the bone) = Haversian channels - transverse channels (axis is perpendicular to the bone) = Volkmann's canals
Complement (immune system)
- consists of a # of proteins in the blood that act as a nonspecific defense against bacteria - the complement proteins can punch holes in the cell walls of bacteria, making them osmotically unstable - can be activated through a classical pathway (requires the binding of an antibody to a pathogen) or an alternative pathway (which does not require antibodies) - despite the association with antibodies, complement is considered a nonspecific defense b/c it cannot be modified to target a specific organism over others
Innate immunity (Nonspecific immunity)
- consists of defenses that are always active against pathogens, but that are not capable of targeting specific invaders - refers to the responses cells can carry out without learning - components of the immune system that serve as nonspecific defenses often serve functions in other organ systems - innate immune cells include: macrophages, natural killer cells, mast cells, dendritic cells, granulocytes - note: the innate and adaptive immune systems are not separate entities -- they work together
Macro level of sociology
- consists of national and international systems - ex. conflict theory, functionalism, and feminist theory tend to focus on society at the macro level
Meso level of sociology
- consists of organizations, institutions, and ethnic subcultures - ex. symbolic interactionism, social constructionism, and rational choice-exchange theory tend to focus on society at micro- and meso- levels
Appendicular skeleton
- consists of the bones of the limbs (humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges in the upper limb, femur, tibia and fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges in the lower limb), the pectoral girdle (scapula and clavicle), and pelvis
At the melting or boiling point, temperature is
- constant - when a compound is heated, the temperature rises until the melting or boiling point is reached - then the temperature remains constant as the compound is converted to the next phase - cannot use mcΔt at these points b/c Δt = 0 and we will incorrectly think q = 0 at these points
Isobaric process
- constant pressure - appears as a flat horizontal line on a pressure-volume graph
All muscle types:
- contain actin + myosin - are capable of contraction - require Ca+2 for muscle contraction - are innervated
Flat bones
- contain red bone marrow, indicating high blood cell production - found where little movement is required - usually form protective functions - ex. bones of the ribs, shoulder blades, pelvis, and skull
H-zone
- contains only thick filaments - mnemonic: H is a thick letter (thick filaments only, myosin only) - during contraction, the H-zone, I-band, the distance between Z-lines, and the distance between M-lines all become smaller, whereas the A-band's size remains constant
A-band
- contains the thick filaments in their entirety, including any overlap with thin filaments - mnemonic: All of the thick filament, whether or not it is overlapping - during contraction, the H-zone, I-band, the distance between Z-lines, and the distance between M-lines all become smaller, whereas the A-band's size remains constant
Delusions
- false beliefs discordant with reality and not shared by others in the individual's culture - maintained in spite of strong evidence to the contrary - common delusions include delusions of reference, persecution, and grandeur - other common delusions involve the concept of thought broadcasting, thought withdrawal, and thought insertion
Specific phobia
- fear and anxiety are produced by a specific object or situation - lack a specific ideation or thought pattern and instead present as an immediate and irrational fear response to the specific object or situation - most closely associated with classical conditioning - ex. claustrophobia = irrational fear of closed spaces - ex. acrophobia = irrational fear of heights - ex. arachnophobia = an irrational fear of spiders
Cluster B personality disorders
- features: dramatic, emotional, or erratic - includes: antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic
Duodenum
- first part of the small intestine - is responsible for the majority of chemical digestion and has some minor involvement in absorption - the presence of chyme in the duodenum causes the release of brush-border enzymes - also secretes enteropeptidase (involved in the activation of other digestive enzymes from the accessory organs of digestion), secretin, and cholecytokinin (CCK)
Characteristics that make the gas phase unique:
- gases are compressible fluids with rapid molecular motion, large intermolecular distances, and weak intermolecular forces
Why would genetic leakage in animals be rare prior to the last century?
- genetic leakage is a flow of genes between species - genetic leakage requires the formation of a hybrid organism that can then mate with members of one or the other parent species - while hybrids existed historically (especially mules), fertile hybrids were certainly rare before a more modern understanding of genetics (and before a commercial, financial, or academic impetus existed to create these organisms) - ex. the mule (hybrid of a male horse and a female donkey) are not able to reproduce b/c they have odd numbers of chromosomes, cannot undergo normal homologous paring in meiosis, and cannot form gametes - ex. the beefalo (a cross between cattle and American bison) carries genes from both parent species, so this can result in a net flow of genes from 1 species to the other
Consistency cues
- has consistent behavior over time - the more regular the behavior, the more we associate that behavior with the motives of the person
Cyclothymic disorder
- has hypomanic episodes and dysthymia is not severe enough to be a major depressive episode - presence of both manic and depressive symptoms that are not severe enough to be considered episodes - the patient has never experienced 3 or more of the 7 manic symptoms in a 4 day period or 5 or more of the 9 depressive symptoms in a 2 week period - for diagnosis, a person must have experiences numerous periods of manic and depressive symptoms for the majority of time over a 2-year or longer period
Somatic symptom disorder
- have at least one somatic symptom which may or may not be linked to an underlying medical condition - this is accompanied by disproportionate concerns about its seriousness, devotion of an excessive amount of time and energy to it, or elevated levels of anxiety - ex. a person excessively stresses about sharp pains that have no physical cause. In turn, the stress exacerbates the pain
Theoretical approaches to sociology
- helps to explain aspects of human social behavior - there is no "best" model, but rather each model was created to explain certain aspects of sociology and is inadequate for explaining other aspects - includes: 1) functionalism 2) conflict theory 3) symbolic interactionism 4) social constructionism 5) rational choice and exchange theory 6) feminist theory
The kidneys are able to selectively increase or decrease the secretion of _______________ and __________________
- hydrogen ions and bicarbonate - when blood pH is too low (too much H+), the kidneys excrete more H+ ions and increase reabsorption of bicarbonate, resulting in a higher pH - when blood pH is too high (too little H+), the kidneys can excrete more bicarbonate and increase the reabsorption of H+ - this is slower than the respiratory response, but it is a highly effective way for the body to maintain acid-base balance
A mutation in what component of the lac operon would lead to a significant reduction in the expression of lactase (one of the structural genes?
- promoter - the promoter functions as a recruitment site for RNA polymerase and is required for gene expression - a mutation in this region would hinder RNA polymerase recruitment, resulting in a decrease in gene expression
Kinetic vs thermodynamic enolate
- kinetic enolate: double bond is to the less substituted alpha-carbon, forms more rapidly, favored by fast, irreversible reactions with a strong, sterically hindered base and @ lower temps - thermo enolate: double bond is with the more substituted alpha-carbon, favored by slower, reversible reactions with weaker/smaller bases and @ high temps - note: if the reaction is reversible, the kinetic product can revert to the original reactant and react again to form the thermo product
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)
- known antibodies and an unknown type of bacterium are added to a well; a reaction identifies the bacteria - used to isolate one specific protein among hundreds
Distinctiveness cues
- refers to the extent to which a person engages in similar behavior across a series of scenarios - if a person's behavior varies in different scenarios, we are more likely to form a situational attribution to explain it
Medial rotator
- rotates the axis of the limb toward the midline - ex. subscapularis
Stratum lucidum
- second outermost layer of epidermis - only present in thick, hairless skin like the skin on the sole of the foot or palms - nearly transparent
Foraging
- seeking out and eating food - driven by biological, psychological, and social influences - in species that forage as a group, foraging is primarily a learned behavior
Secure attachment
- seen when a child has a consistent caregiver that they trust and is able to go out and explore, knowing that they have a secure base to return to - a stranger can comfort them, but they will clearly prefer the caregiver - upset at departure of caregiver, comforted by return - having a secure attachment pattern is vital to a child's social development - ex. a child who cries when his mother departs and smiles and runs to his mother when she returns
Blunting
- severe reduction in the intensity of emotional expression - example of disturbance of affect, a negative symptom of schizophrenia/psychotic disorders
Spongy bone (AKA cancellous bone)
- spongy and porous - inner layer of bone - the lattice structure of spongy bone is visible under microscopy and consists of bony spicules (points) known as trabeculae - the cavities between trabeculae are filled with bone marrow, which may be either red or yellow
Expressivity
- the degree to which a trait is expressed - describes the differences in expression (severity, location, etc) of a phenotype in individuals - varying phenotypes despite identical genotypes - reflects the gray area in expression and is more commonly considered at the individual level - if expressivity is constant, then all individuals with a given genotype express the same phenotype - if expressivity is variable, then individuals with the same genotype may have different phenotypes - ex. a disease shows variable expressivity b/c presentations range from no clinical effect to severe disability
Enolate carbanion results from
- the deprotonation of the alpha carbon by a strong base - ex. lithium diisopropyl amide (LDA), OH-, and potassium hydride (KH) - the enolate carbanion can then act as a nucleophile
Allopatric speciation
- the formation of new species in populations that are geographically isolated from one another - occurs when 2 populations become physically isolated from one another and then diverge into 2 species - only occurs if these 2 populations are physically separated from one another
Simple distillation
- the least complex version of distillation - should only be used to separate liquids that boil below 150 degrees C and have at least 25 degrees C difference in boiling temperature - these restrictions prevent the temp from becoming so high that the compounds degrade and provide a large enough difference in BPs that the 2nd compound won't accidentally boil off into the distillate - the apparatus for this technique consists of a distilling flask (containing combined solution) and a distillation column (with a thermometer, condenser, and receiving flask to collect the distillate) - sometimes a boiling chip, ebulliator, or magnetic stirrer will be introduced to break surface tension and prevent superheating - ex. best method for separating propionaldehyde (BP = 50 degrees C) and acetic acid (BP = 119 degrees C)
Medicalization
- the process by which problems or issues not traditionally seen as medical come to be framed as such - describes the increasing number of human issues that are defined and treated as medical conditions - ex. hoarding disorder, binge eating disorder, alcoholism
Dependency ratio
- the ratio of the # of members of a population that are not in the workforce to the # of members that are in the workforce - aging of the U.S. population is most likely to increase this - depends on the youth ratio (the # of of people under the age of 15 divided by the # of people aged 15-65) and age dependency ratio (the # of people over 65 divided by the number of people aged 15-65)
Simple twitch contraction
- the response of a single muscle fiber to a brief stimulus at or above threshold - consists of a latent period, contraction period, and relaxation period - latent period = the time between reaching threshold and the onset of contraction. it is during this time that the action potential spreads along the muscle and allows for calcium to be released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum - the muscle then contracts, and, assuming calcium is cleared from the sarcoplasm, it then relaxes
Skin helps maintain the osmolarity of the body through:
- the skin is relatively impermeable to water - this prevents not only the entrance of water through the skin, but also the loss of water from the tissues - this becomes very important in cases such as burns or large losses of skin as dehydration of the tissues becomes a real threat to survival
Positive reappraisal
- the strategy of focusing on the positive aspects of a stressful event - focusing on the good
Nucleophilic acyl substitution reactions
- the substitution of an attacking nucleophile for the leaving group of an acyl compound - acyl compounds include carboxylic acids, amides, esters, and anhydrides - the nucleophile attacks, opening the carbonyl and forming a tetrahedral intermediate - the carbonyl then reforms, kicking off the leaving group - this reaction is favored by acidic or basic conditions - also favored by a good leaving group (ex. weak bases) - note: tertiary amines lack a replaceable hydrogen, so they cannot be acylated through this process
Welfare state
- the system of government that protects the health and well-being of its citizens
Critical point
- the temperature and pressure above which liquid and gas phases are indistinguishable (supercritical fluids) - heat of vaporization at this point and for all temperatures and pressures above the critical point value is 0 - this is found at the end of the phase boundary between liquid and gas phases
Heterozygote advantage
- the tendency for a carrier of a dangerous condition to have a survival advantage - ex. with sickle cell anemia, the carrier state protects against malaria - ex. retinoblastoma: individuals that display a homozygous recessive genotype typically do not survive early childhood, but individuals with a single copy of the recessive allele experience greater neural growth in early life
Risky shift
- the tendency for groups to make riskier decisions than individuals would - relates to group polarization
Plasma
- liquid part of blood (makes up 55% of blood) - an aqueous mixture of nutrients, salts, respiratory gases, hormones, and blood proteins (clotting proteins, immunoglobulins, etc) - plasma can be further refined via the removal of clotting factors into serum
Fundamentalism
- literal interpretation and strict adherence to basic principles of a religion - maintenance of strict adherence to religious code
Spleen
- location of blood storage and activation of B-calls, which turn into plasma cells to produce antibodies as part of adaptive immune system - acts as a storage area for WBCs and platelets, a recycling center for RBCs, and a filter of blood and lymph for the immune system
What is the relationship between class, ethnicity, and health?
- low-income racial and ethnic minorities have higher morbidity rates and overall worse health compared to the middle and upper classes - the lower class also has higher infant mortality rates, homicide rates, and suicide rates in comparison to wealthier classes
If blood volume is low and blood osmolarity is high, then it is most beneficial to the body to:
- maximally retain water - this results in low-volume, highly concentrated urine
Ego (Psychoanalytic Theory)
- mediates the anxieties caused by the actions of the id and superego by using defense mechanisms - operates according to the reality principle (= aims to postpone the pleasure principle until satisfaction can actually be obtained) - the secondary process = taking into account reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id and the id's pleasure principle - the ego is the organizer of the mind - it receives its power from and can never be fully independent of the id - ex. when stuck in traffic, our ego knows getting frustrated and doing something reckless is unwise. Instead, it may advise us to breathe deeply and change the radio to something calming
What are the assumptions made by the kinetic molecular theory?
- negligible volume of gas particles - gas particles exhibit no intermolecular forces - gas particles are in continuous, random motion, undergoing collisions with other particles and the container walls - collisions between any 2 gas particles are elastic (there is conservation of momentum and kinetic energy) - there is proportionality between absolute temperature and kinetic energy, and the KE will be the same for all gases at a given temperature
Symbolic culture
- nonmaterial culture - focuses on the ideas and principles that belong to a particular group - may be encoded in mottos, songs, catchphrases, or themes - in times of war and crisis, governments often draw upon symbolic culture to rally people to action, using songs, parades, discussion of heroes of the past, etc - usually slower to change than material culture, which can thus lead to culture lag - ex. for American culture: "free enterprise", "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness", Uncle Sam "I want you" - ex. school mascot, colors, and song
If IR spectroscopy were employed to monitor the oxidation of benzyl alcohol to benzaldehyde, which of the following would provide the best evidence that the reaction was proceeding as planned?
- noting the appearance of a strong absorption in the region of 1750 cm^-1 (aldehyde) and disappearance of the OH peak at 3100-3500 cm-1
Which role does the enolate carbanion play in organic reactions: nucleophile, electrophile, oxidizing agent, or reducing agent?
- nucleophiles
Mechanism of mate bias: phenotypic benefits
- observable traits that make a potential mate more attractive to the opposite sex - indicate increased production and survival of offspring - ex. males that appear more nurturing are more likely to care for and promote the survival of their offspring
How does the social cognitive perspective define personality?
- personality comes from the interactions between an individual and his/her environment - ex. antisocial individuals are unable to anticipate long-term consequences of their behavior
How does the psychoanalytic perspective define personality?
- personality is the result of unconscious urges and desires - unconscious internal states that motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality - Freud - looking at id, ego, and superego
Open pipes
- pipes that are open at both ends - has antinodes at both ends - the second harmonic has a wavelength equal to the length of the pipe -the third harmonic has wavelength equal to 2/3 the length of the pipe - can identify its harmonic by counting the # of nodes - ex. flute λ = 2L/n ; f = nv/2L
Social status
- position in society used to classify individuals - most statuses exist in relation to other statuses - ex. being a premed student doesn't have meaning unless there are other statuses to compare it to, such as medical student and resident - note: not all personal characteristics are considered to be social statuses (ex. being left handed)
MHC-I
- presents pieces of proteins (peptides) created within the cell (endogenous antigens) - any protein produced within a cell can be loaded onto MHC-I and presented on the surface of the cell - found in all nucleated cells - this can allow the immune system to monitor the health of these marked cells and to detect if the cells have been infected with intracellular pathogens (especially viruses) - only those cells that are infected would be expected to present an unfamiliar (non-self) protein on their surfaces - thus, the MHC-I pathway is often called the endogenous pathway b/c it binds antigens that come from inside the cell - cells that have bee invaded by intracellular pathogens can then be killed by a certain group of T-calls (cytotoxic T-lymphocytes) to prevent infection of other cells
Of a tertiary and primary alcohol, which is the better reducing agent?
- primary alcohol - reducing agent = being oxidized (OH to carbonyl) - the tertiary alcohol cannot be oxidized (can't have a double bond added) b/c its bonds are all filled
Phase changes
- transitions from one state to another (solid, liquid, gas) - reversible - an equilibrium of phases will eventually be reached at any given combination of temperature and pressure - all phase changes are isothermal
A child is born with a # of unusual phenotypic features and genetic testing is performed. The child is determined to have partial trisomy 21, with 3 copies of some segments of DNA from chromosome 21, and partial monosomy 4, with only 1 copy of some segments of DNA from chromosome 4. What mutation could have occurred in one of the parental gametes during development to explain both findings?
- translocation - if part of chromosome 21 was swapped with part of chromosome 4, then a gamete resulting from meiosis in this cell would result in a daughter cell with 2 copies of some of the DNA from 21 and no copies of some of the DNA from 4 - thus, after fertilization, there would be partial trisomy 21 and partial monosomy 4 - note: while a deletion or insertion could explain one of these findings, it cannot explain both
Positive control
- treatment with known response - establishes a baseline
True or false: if you need to multiply each half-reaction by a common denominator to cancel out electrons when coming up with the net ionic equation, do not multiply the reduction potential
- true! - this is b/c the potential of each electrode does not depend on the size of the electrode (the amount of material), but rather the identity of the material - the standard reduction potential of an electrode will not change unless the chemical identity of that electrode is changed
Identification
- type of conformity - refers to the outward acceptance of others' ideas without personally taking on these ideas - accepting others' ideas on the surface level but without internalizing it
Emotional support
- type of social support - listening, affirming, and empathizing with someone's feelings - many people equate social support with emotional support - ex. saying "I'm sorry for your loss" - ex. making the trip to a hospital to visit a sick relative
Informational support
- type of social support - providing information that will help someone - ex. a doctor explaining their patient's diagnoses, treatment options, risks, and benefits
Fractional distillation
- used to separate 2 liquids with similar boiling points (less than 25 degrees C apart) - a fractionation column connects the distillation flask to the condenser - a fractionation column is a column in which the surface area is increased by the inclusion of inert objects like glass beads or steel wool - as the vapor rises up the column, it condenses on these surfaces and refluxes back down until rising heat causes it to evaporate again, only to condense again higher in the column - each time the condensate evaporates, the vapor consists of a higher proportion of the compound with the lower boiling point - by the time the top of the column is reached, only the desired product drips down to the receiving flask - with increased surface area in the distillation column, the distillate has more places to condense on its way up the column. this allows for more refined separation of liquids with fairly close BPs - ex. best method for separating ethyl acetate (BP = 77 degrees C) and ethanol (BP = 80 degrees C)
Internal locus of control
- viewing yourself as controlling your life - ex. a runner who loses a race attributing the cause of the loss to not training hard enough - ex. "I got a good score on my term paper, but only because I worked much harder on it than usual" - ex. while studying for the MCAT: "what can I do to prepare myself better for the next practice test?" - ex. not doing well on a test b/c they didn't study enough - ex. "I won this trial b/c I made great arguments and had more experience than the defense"
Correspondent inference theory
- when an individual unexpectedly performs a behavior that helps or hurts us, we tend to explain the behavior by dispositional attribution - thus, we may correlate these unexpected actions with the person's personality
Blood type A Genotypes: Antigens produced: Antibodies produced: Can donate to: Can receive from:
Genotypes: IAIA, IAi Antigens produced: A Antibodies produced: anti-B Can donate to: A, AB Can receive from: A, O
Blood type AB Genotypes: Antigens produced: Antibodies produced: Can donate to: Can receive from:
Genotypes: IAIB Antigens produced: A and B Antibodies produced: none Can donate to: AB only Can receive from: A, B, AB, O (universal recipient)
Crossing 2 heterozygotes with complete dominance for a dihybrid cross results in what phenotypic ratio?
Genotypic ratio: 9:3:3:1
Bone matrix
- where the strength of compact bone comes from - has both organic and inorganic components - organic components include: collagen, glycoproteins, and other peptides - inorganic components include: calcium, phosphate, and hydroxide ions (which harden to form hydroxyapatite crystals) - minerals such as sodium, magnesium, and potassium are also stored in bone - is ordered into structural units known as osteons or Haversian systems (each one contains lamellae)
Vibrio cholera causes a severe infection in the intestines, leading to massive volumes of watery diarrhea -- up to 20 liters per day. Given these symptoms, does cholera likely impact the small intestine or the large intestine?
- while the large intestine's main function is to absorb water, the small intestine actually absorbs a much larger volume of water - thus, massive volumes of watery diarrhea are more likely to arise from infections in the small intestine than in the large intestine
The activated macrophage does what 4 things?
1) phagocytizes the invader through endocytosis 2) digests the invader using enzymes 3) presents little pieces of the invader (mostly peptideS) to other cells using a protein called major histocompatibility complex (MHC) 4) release cytokines, chemical substances that stimulate inflammation and recruit additional immune cells to the area
Social trust comes from two primary sources:
1) social norms of reciprocity - ex. I'll scratch your back if you scratch mine 2) social networks (connections)
What are the 3 processes by which solutes are exchanged between the filtrate and the blood?
1. Filtration = the movement of solutes from blood into filtrate at Bowman's capsule 2. Secretion = the movement of solutes from blood into filtrate anywhere besides Bowman's capsule 3. Reabsorption = the movement of solutes from filtrate into blood
Name each of these steps of formation of a salt solution as endothermic or exothermic: 1. Breaking the solute into its individual components 2. Making room for the solute in the solvent by overcoming intermolecular forces in the solvent 3. Allowing solute-solvent interactions to occur to form the solution
1. endothermic -- energy is required to break molecules apart 2. endothermic -- the intermolecular forces in the solvent must be overcome to allow incorporation of solute particles 3. exothermic -- polar water molecules will interact with the dissolved ions, creating a stable solution and releasing energy
The 3 types of electrochemical cells:
1. galvanic (AKA voltaic) cells -- contain spontaneous reactions 2. electrolytic cells -- contain nonspontaneous reactions 3. concentration cells -- contain spontaneous reactions
According to the equation ΔG = -RTlnKeq, 1. when will the logarithm will be positive? 2. when will the logarithm be negative? 3. when will the logarithm = 0?
1. positive when equilibrium constants are greater than 1 2. negative when equilibrium constants are less than 1 3. 0 when equilibrium constants are = to 1
Suppose a certain far-sighted person can see objects clearly no closer than 300 cm away. What is the minimum distance from a plane mirror such a person must be to see his reflection clearly?
150 cm A plane mirror produces an image behind its plane at a distance equal to the object distance in front of the plane. If the sum between the object and the image distances must be at least 300 cm, then the mirror must be at half this distance, meaning 150 cm.
pH = 7 = neutral is only valid at . . .
25ºC (298K) - the Kw will change if the temp changes and will in turn change the significance of the pH sca;e
Hemiketal
A functional group that contains a carbon atom bonded to one -OR group, one -OH group, and two alkyl chains
On a very cold day, a man waits for over an hour at the bus stop. Which of the following structures helps his body set and maintain a normal temperature? A. Hypothalamus B. Kidneys C. Posterior pituitary D. Brainstem
A. Hypothalamus - the hypothalamus functions as a thermostat that regulates body temperature
Sarin is a potent organophosphate that can be used in chemical warfare. As an inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase, sarin causes excessive buildup of acetylcholine in all synapses where it is the neurotransmitter. Which of the following symptoms would be most likely to be seen in an individual with sarin poisoning? A. Increased urination and increased sweating B. Increased urination and decreased sweating C. Decreased urination and increased sweating D. Decreased urination and decreased sweating
A. Increased urination and increased sweating - an excess of ACh will lead to activation of all parasympathetic neurons, preganglionic sympathetic neurons, and the postganglionic sympathetic neurons that innervate sweat glands - b/c the parasympathetic nervous system causes contraction of the bladder, one would expect increased urination - the increased activation of sweat glands would lead to increased sweating as well
Cholecystectomy is the surgical removal of the gallbladder. Which of the following people is most likely to have had a cholecystectomy? A. a person whose stool contains large amounts of fat B. a person with low blood levels of insulin C. a person who cannot absorb vitamin B12 D. a person with recurrent gastric ulcers
A. a person whose stool contains large amounts of fat - the gallbladder's function is to store and secrete bile salts - bile is used to emulsify fats, so a person lacking a gallbladder would have difficulty absorbing fat from the digestive tract
The process of culturing bacteria often involves inoculation of cells on a noncellular, agar-based medium. Such a methodology would NOT result in growth of animal viruses because animal viruses: A. are obligate parasites. B. lack DNA. C. assimilate carbon. D. require essential vitamin supplements for growth.
A. are obligate parasites. Animal viruses can only infect animal cells, not bacteria. Thus, animal viruses cannot grow in agar plates with bacteria.
Mnemonic for anode vs cathode:
AN OX and a RED CAT - anode = site of oxidation - cathode = site of reduction
Creutzfekdt-Jakob disease tends to impact the CNS, especially the cerebrum, while sparing the PNS. Which of the following would be LEAST likely to be affected by this disease? A. short-term memory B. heart rhythm C. cognition D. speech
B. heart rhythm - HR is regulated by the PNS, all of the others involve the cerebrum
Mnemonic for the causes of a RIGHT shift of the oxyhemoglobin curve:
EXERCISE is the RIGHT thing to do - the following occur during exercise: - increased CO2 - increased [H+] (decreased pH) - increased temperature - increased 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-BPG, a side product of glycolysis in RBCs)
Blood type B Genotypes: Antigens produced: Antibodies produced: Can donate to: Can receive from:
Genotypes: IBIB, IBi Antigens produced: B Antibodies produced: anti-A Can donate to: B, AB Can receive from: B, O
Water dissociation constant (Kw)
Kw = [H3O+][OH-] = 10^-14 at 25ºC - the concentrations of the hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions are always equal in pure water at equilibrium - thus, [H3O+] = 10^-7 [OH-] = 10^-7 - Kw is an equilibrium constant - unless the temperature of the water is changed, the value of Kw cannot be changed - Kw value is dependent only on temperature. Changes in concentration, volume, or pressure will not affect it - at temperatures above 298K, Kw will increase. This is a direct result from the endothermic nature of the autoionization reaction
An electrolytic cell is filled with water. Which of the following will move toward the cathode of such a cell? I. H+ ions II. O2- ions III. electrons
I and III only - in an electrolytic cell the cations migrate toward the cathode - thus, the H+ ions will move to the cathode - in all electrochemical cells electrons move from anode to cathode, so this is also correct
How can this chemical equation be balanced? IO3- + I- + H+ ----> I3- + H2O
IO3- + 8I- + 6H+ ----> 3I3- + 3H2O NOTE: in oxidation-reduction chemistry, we must balance not only for stoichiometry but also charge Thus, this equation would be INCORRECT b/c it only accounts for stoichiometry, the reactants side has a charge of +3 and the products side has a charge of -1: IO3- + 2I- + 6H+ ----> I3- + 3H2O
How are peptide bonds formed and cleaved?
Peptide bonds are formed by condensation reaction in which water is lost and cleaved hydrolytically by strong acid or strong base.
Are each of these hydrogen bond acceptors or donors? Primary amine: Secondary amine: Tertiary amine:
Primary amine: both Secondary amine: both Tertiary amine: only has an acceptor (N)
Radio waves have the _____________ frequencies and ___________ wavelengths of all the waves in the electromagnetic spectrum
Radio waves have the smallest frequencies and longest wavelengths of all the waves in the electromagnetic spectrum
Which of the following is likely to be seen in a patient with liver failure? A. high concentrations of urea in the blood B. high concentrations of albumin in the blood C. low concentrations of ammonia in the blood D. low concentrations of clotting factors in the blood
D. low concentrations of clotting factors in the blood - the liver synthesizes proteins, like albumin and clotting factor, as well as convert ammonia into urea through the urea cycle - a patient with liver failure would not be able to convert ammonia into urea and would have high concentrations of ammonia and low concentrations of urea in the blood - with decreased synthetic activity, both albumin and clotting factor concentrations would be low
Without conscious effort, people are unlikely to automatically visually process: A. spatial information B. temporal information C. the frequency of specific events D. novel information
D. novel information due to the brain's capacity for parallel processing, information about space, time and frequency of events is automatically processed; however, conscious effort is needed to process novel information
Which of the following hormones has the greatest direct effect on mitochondria? A. insulin B. glucagon C. growth hormone D. thyroid hormone
D. thyroid hormone - thyroid hormone passes through the cell membrane and the mitochondrial membrane to exert a portion of its influence on metabolism - the other hormones listed act through second messengers or by modifying the concentration of substrates, not via direct action
The stomach is _________ and the duodenum is __________
The stomach is acidic (pepsin active in the stomach and works best at pH 2) and the duodenum is basic (pancreatic enzymes are active in the duodenum and work best at pH 8.5)
Hypophyseal portal system
blood leaving capillary beds in the hypothalamus travels to a capillary bed in the anterior pituitary to allow for paracrine secretion of releasing hormones
Hepatic portal system
blood leaving capillary beds in the walls of the gut passes through hepatic portal vein before reaching capillary beds in the liver
Renal portal system
blood leaving the glomerulus travels through an efferent arteriole before surrounding the nephron in a capillary network called the vasa recta
Hemoglobin's affinity for O2 _____________ in exercising muscle tissue
decreases - the affinity is generally lowered in exercising muscle to facilitate unloading of O2 to tissues
What reactant could be combined with butanol to form butyl acetate (butyl ethanoate)?
ethanoic anhydride and catalytic acid
When the new interactions are stronger than the original ones, solvation is ______________ and favored at _______ temps
exothermic and favored at low temps - ex. the dissolution of gases in liquids, like CO2 in H2O, is exothermic b/c the only significant interactions that must be broken are those between water molecules
IR spectroscopy is most useful for distinguishing:
functional groups (ex. double and triple bonds)
Sparingly soluble salts general formulas + Ksp relationships to memorize:
general formula of MX will have Ksp = x^2 general formula of MX2 will have Ksp = 4x^3 general formula of MX3 will have Ksp = 27x^4
How can the concentration of CO2 in sodas or other carbonated beverages be so much higher than that of atmospheric CO2?
high pressures of CO2 gas are forced on top of the liquid in sodas, increasing its concentration in the liquid
The BP in the aorta is always __________ than the pressure in the superior vena cava
higher - the pressure in the aorta is usually between 120-80 mmHg - the pressure in the superior vena cava is near 0
Reducing the width of the aperature in an optical microscope _____________ diffraction and thus results in a _____________ resolution
increased diffraction, worsened resolution
When bacteriophages (viruses) infect a bacterium, they:
inject their genetic material into the cell and leave their capsid outside
What are the 2 main types of frameshift mutations?
insertion and deletion mutations
Electrodeposition equation
mol M = It/nF amount of metal ion being deposited at an electrode = (current * time) / (number of electron equivalents for a specific metal ion * Faraday's constant) (Moles of Metal, It is Not Fun) Faraday constant = 1x10^5 C/mole e- (96,485 C)
What kind of twins would be most appropriate for studying differences between genetic vs environmental factors?
monozygotic twins adopted into separate families same genetic material, but brought up in different environments
Certain lactams (cyclic amides) and lactones (cyclic esters) are more reactive to hydrolysis b/c they contain ______ strain
more
The ratio of the image height to the object height (magnification) is equal to the ratio of the lens-image distance to the
object-lens distance
In which part of the pH range will the equivalence points fall for each of the following titrations? a) strong acid + weak base b) strong base + weak acid c) strong acid + strong base d) weak acid + weak base
a) acidic b) basic c) pH = 7 (neutral) d) acidic, neutral, or basic, depending on the relative strengths of the acid and base
Psychotic disorder
presenting with one or more of the following: - delusions - hallucinations - disorganized thought - disorganized behavior - catatonia - negative symptoms
Delusion disorder
psychotic symptoms are limited to delusions and are present for at least a month
A species with a higher reduction potential is more likely to be ___________
reduced
Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
replication ----> DNA ----> transcription (or reverse transcription in the opposite direction) ----> RNA ----> translation ----> protein
What organs process waste?
the lungs, liver, and kidneys
What arm of the nervous system is responsible for contraction of the detrusor muscle?
the parasympathetic NS
Race-disconcordant patient-physician relationships
the patient and physician are of different races
Anabolism
Metabolic pathways that construct molecules, requiring energy
Universal donor blood type
O (negative) - b/c type O blood cells express neither antigen variant (A or B), they will not initiate any immune response regardless of the recipient's actual blood type - their blood will not cause ABO-related hemolysis in any recipient - however, a recipient who is type O will produce both anti-A and anti-B antibodies and can only receive blood from other type O people
Visceral vs parietal pleura
Parietal is around the pleural cavity (outermost) Visceral is around the lungs (innermost)
Retardation factor (Rf)
Rf = distance spot moved / distance solvent front moved - a ratio used in thin-layer chromatography to identify a compound - stays relatively constant for a particular compound in a given solvent, so it can be used to identify unknown compounds - usually higher for less polar compounds (trend is switched in reverse-phase chromatography) - usually lower for more polar compounds (trend is switched in reverse-phase chromatography)
Left lung vs right lung
Right = larger & heavier, 3 lobes Left = smaller & lighter - during development, heart occupies a lot of space on left side, 2 lobes
What are the 4 heart chambers and what are each of their respective valves that prevent backflow?
Right atrium -- tricuspid valve (RAT) Right ventricle -- pulmonary valve Left atrium -- bicuspid (mitral) valve (LAB) Left ventricle -- aortic valve
If genes Q and R have a recombination frequency of 2%, genes R and S have a recombination frequency of 6%, genes S and T have a recombination frequency of 23%, and genes Q and T have a recombination frequency of 19%, then what is the order of these four genes in the chromosome?
SQRT S <---4%---> Q <---2%---> R <---17%---> T
The cell acts as a __________________ cell when it discharges and as an ___________________ cell when it recharges
The cell acts as a galvanic (voltaic) cell when it discharges (voltage/emf is positive) and as an electrolytic cell when it recharges (voltage/emf is negative)
The external anal sphincter is under ________________ control, but the internal sphincter is under ______________ control
The external anal sphincter is under voluntary control (somatic), but the internal sphincter is under involuntary control (autonomic)
The human body has many different ways to ______ BP but very few ways to ______ it
The human body has many different ways to raise BP but very few ways to lower it
Atria are separated by the _____________ valves
atrioventricular
The valve between the left atrium and left ventricle is the
bicuspid/mitral valve (2 leaflets)
Cross-bridge cycle (sliding filament model)
contraction of muscle requires a series of steps of coordinated steps that are repeated to induce further shortening -- this depends on both ATP and calcium 1) Ca2+ binds to troponin, myosin carrying hydrolyzed ATP (ADP and an inorganic phosphate) is able to bind with the myosin-binding site on actin 2) the release of the inorganic phosphate and ADP in rapid succession provides the energy for the powerstroke and results in sliding of the actin filament over the myosin filament 3) then, ATP binds to the myosin head, releasing it from actin. Once actin and myosin disconnect, the sarcomere can return to its original width 4) This ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP and Pi, which "recocks" the myosin head so that it is in position to initiate another cross-bridge cycle The repetitive binding and releasing of myosin heads on actin filaments allows the thin filament to slide along the thick filament, causing sequential shortening of the sarcomere
All ________________ tissues have cell-to-cell attachments to form at least one continuous layer on a basement membrane
epithelial
Out of viruses, eukaryotes, bacterium, and prokaryotes, only ___________ have nuclei
eukaryotes
Defensins
examples of antibacterial enzymes on the skin
Antibody production is an energetically ________________ process
expensive - thus, naive B-cells that have not yet been exposed to an antigen wait in the lymph nodes for their particular antigen to come along
Intraspecific communication
- communication between members of the same species - ex. a cat who uses scent glands to mark his territory for other cats
Closed boundaries
- don't allow oscillation - places of nodes - ex. closed end of a pipe or secured ends of a string
Bundle of His
- embedded in the interventricular septum (wall between ventricles)
Plasma cell
- form from B-cells exposed to antigen and produce large amounts of antibodies
Stratum spinosum
- fourth outermost layer of the epidermis - cells become connected to each other - the site of Langerhans cells
Case-control study
- groups of participants are analyzed for prevalence of some past risk factor - ex. researchers wishing to investigate the correlation between poverty and mortality rate for pancreatic cancer
If the value of Ecell is known, what other data is needed to calculate ΔG?
- half-reactions of the cells ΔG = -nFEcell to determine n, one must look at the balanced half-reactions occurring in the redox reaction
Polygamy
- having exclusive relationships with multiple partners - includes polygyny and polyandry
Each human being possesses 2 copies of each chromosome, called _________________
- homologues - note: except for male sex chromosomes (1 X and 1 Y chromosome)
Religiosity
- how religious one considers themself to be - includes strength of religious beliefs, engagement in religious practices, and attitudes about religion itself
How do the hydrostatic, oncotic, and net flow between the nephron and blood compare?
- hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus is significantly higher than that in Bowman's space - this causes fluid to move into the nephron - the osmolarity of blood is higher than that of Bowman's space - this results in pressure opposing the movement of fluid into the nephon - the hydrostatic is much larger than the oncotic pressure, so the net flow is still from blood into the nephron
Echopraxia
- imitating another's actions - example of disorganized behavior seen in psychotic disorders
Alter-casting
- imposing an identity onto another person - ex. as a good mcat student, you should . . . (kaplan is assigning you the role of a good mcat student) - ex. "A good friend would let me borrow the bike" (assigning you the role of a good friend)
Distal stimulus
- in perception, it is the actual object or event out there in the world, as opposed to its perceived image - exists in the environment/outside world - objects and events out in the world about you
Monarchy
- include a royal ruler (king or queen), although the ruler's powers may be significantly limited by the presence of a constitution, a parliamentary system, or some other legislative body
Molecular clock model
- molecular evolutionists correlate the degree of genomic similarity with the amount of time since two species split off from the same common ancestor - the more similar the genomes, the more recently the two species separated from each other
Abductor
- muscle that moves a part of the body away from the midline - ex. deltoid
For a behavior to be considered aggressive, is it necessary to have the intent to do harm? Does the behavior have to be physical in nature?
- no, in addition to behavior with the intent to cause harm, aggression can also be a behavior that increases relative social dominance - aggression can be physical, verbal, or nonverbal
For open pipes, the number of _____ present will tell you which harmonic it is
- nodes - 1 node = fundamental frequency = L = λ/2 - 2 nodes = second harmonic = L = λ - 3 nodes = third harmonic = L = 3λ/2
Folkways
- norms that refer to behavior that is considered polite in particular social interactions - ex. shaking hands after a sports match
3 types of social inequality that can influence prejudice:
- power, prestige, and class all influence prejudice through unequal distribution of wealth, influence, and resources - power = the ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite any obstacles and their ability to control resources - prestige = the level of respect shown to a person by others - class = SES - have-nots develop a negative attitude toward haves based on envy - haves develop a negative attitude toward have nots as a defense mechanism to justify the fact that they have more
For closed pipes, the number of _____ present will tell you which harmonic it is
- quarter-wavelengths contained in the pipe - 1 quarter-wavelength = first harmonic = L = λ/4 - 3 quarter-wavelengths = third harmonic = L = 3λ/4 - 5 quarter-wavelengths = fifth harmonic = L = 5λ/4
Angular frequency
- same as frequency but measured in radians per second w = 2 * pi * frequency = (2 * pi) / period
Principle of superposition
- states that when waves interact with each other, the displacement of the resultant wave at any point is the sum of the displacements of the two interacting waves - when waves are perfectly in phase, the displacements always add together (constructive interference) - when waves are perfectly out of phase, the displacements always counteract each other and the amplitude of the resultant wave is the difference between the amplitudes of the interacting waves (destructive interference)
Youth ratio
- the # of of people under the age of 15 divided by the # of people aged 15-65
Structural gene (operon)
- the gene of interest - its transcription is dependent on the repressor being absent from the operator site
Postpartum depression
- the rapid change in the mother's hormone levels just after birth is the cause of the depressive symptoms
Social solidarity
- the sense of community and social cohesion - anomic conditions erode this
Social cohesion (AKA social integration)
- the solidarity and sense of connectedness among different social groups and social classes in society - describes the level of connection to the institutions and structures of a society - ex. U.S. born members of an ethnic group would likely have greater level of social integration than immigrant members of the same group. With that social integration would also be greater exposure to incidences of discrimination, as constituted by systems of stratification in the U.S.
Counterculture
- the subculture group gravitates toward an identity that is at odds with the majority culture and deliberately opposes the prevailing social mores
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
- the volume of additional air that can be forcibly exhaled after a normal exhalation
Illness experience
- the ways in which people, rather than doctors, define and adjust to changes in their health - people can experience disease without illness - ex. someone living a full and productive life with a manageable condition such as HIV - people can also experience illness without disease - ex. a person experiences somatic symptoms as a result of psychological stress
Volkmann's canals
- transverse channels (axis is perpendicular to the bone) - contain blood vessels, nerve fibers, and lymph vessels that maintain the health of the bone
Neutrophils
- type of granulocyte - most populous WBC in the blood - are very short-lived (a bit more than 5 days) - target bacteria and are phagocytic like macrophages - can follow bacteria using chemotaxis -- the movement of an organism according to chemical stimuli - the neutrophil senses products given off by bacteria, moving up the concentration gradient to the source - can also detect bacteria once they have been opsonized (marked with an antibody from a B-cell) - activated by bacteria, especially those that have been opsonized (tagged with an antibody on their surface) - dead neutrophil collections are responsible for the formation of pus during an infection
Ingratiation
- using flattery or conforming to expectations to win someone over - ex. blindly agreeing to someone else's opinion, complimenting a friend before asking a favor, etc
What are the 3 patterns of evolution between species?
1) divergent 2) parallel 3) convergent
How many electrons are involved in the following half-reaction after it is balanced? Cr2O7 2- + H+ + e- ----> Cr2+ + H2O
8 First, balance the atoms like this: Cr2O7 2- + 14H+ ----> 2Cr2+ + 7H2O The left side has a charge of +12 The right side has a charge of +4 In order to balance these out, we need to add 8 electrons to the left side of the equation
What chemical shift could correspond to an aldehydic proton signal in a 1H-NMR spectrum?
9.5 ppm
The 2 major antigen families relevant for blood groups:
ABO antigens and Rh factor
Enzymes alter the rate of chemical reactions by all of the following methods EXCEPT: A. co-localizing substrates. B. altering local pH. C. altering substrate shape. D. altering substrate primary structure.
D. altering substrate primary structure. The enzyme needs to co-localize with the substrates to be able to modify the rate of chemical reactions. It is one of the enzyme functions to change the pH of the environment so that the reaction can occur. The enzyme will alter the shape of the substrate to modify the rate of chemical reactions. Altering the primary structure of the substrate is not a way for the enzyme to modify the rate of chemical reaction.
Which of the following bones is NOT a part of the appendicular skeleton? A. the triquetrum, one of the carpal bones B. the calcaneus, which forms the heel C. the ischium, one of the fused pelvic bones D. the sternum, or breastbone
D. the sternum, or breastbone - the sternum is a point of attachment of the rib cage and is thus a part of the axial skeleton - the limb bones, pectoral girdle, and pelvis are all part of the appendicular skeleton
Mnemonic to remember left and right atrium valves:
LAB RAT Left Atrium = Bicuspid Right Atrium = Tricuspid
What are the 5 types of human bones?
Long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones, and sesamoid bones
Catabolism
Metabolic pathways that break down molecules, releasing energy
Permanganate
MnO4-
Most common blood type in the U.S. : Least common blood type in the U.S. :
Most common blood type in the U.S. : O+ Least common blood type in the U.S. : AB-
Titin
acts as a spring and anchors the actin and myosin filaments together, preventing excessive stretching of the muscle
Slum
an extremely densely populated area of a city with low-quality, often informal housing, and poor sanitation
Isotype switching
cells can change which isotype of antibody they produce when stimulated by specific cytokines in this process
Aldehydes or ketones + ammonia ----->
imine (C-O double bond is replaced with a C-N double bond)
2 types of social movements
proactive and reactive
Population pyramids
provide a histogram of the population size of various age cohorts
Timbre
quality of sound
Intrastand DNA damage
single-stranded damage
By both weight and size, what is the largest organ in our bodies?
skin (integument)
What forms the bolus?
tongue
List the vessels in the renal vascular pathway, starting from the renal artery and ending at the renal vein.
renal artery ---> afferent arteriole ---> glomerulus ---> efferent arteriole ---> vasa recta ---> renal vein
When the blood pressure is too low, baroreceptors will stimulate the sympathetic nervous system, which causes _______________ to increase blood pressure again
vasoconstriction
What are some mechanisms the body uses to retain heat?
vasoconstriction, piloerection, and shivering
Ideal gas constant
R = 0.08206 L*atm/mol*K (8.21 x 10^-2) = 8.315 J/K*mol - note: 1st R should be used when pressure is in atm and volume is in liters - note: 2nd R should be used when pressure is in Pascals and volume is in cubic meters
Sarcomeres are attached end-to-end to form ______________
myofibrils
What acts primarily as a motor protein, but also has secondary activity as an ATPase?
myosin; to accomplish its motor function, it hydrolyzes ATP
To study tertiary structure, an experimenter would ideally fully disrupt ____________ structure but not _____________ structure
they would want to fully disrupt tertiary structure, but not secondary or primary
Choice shift
this term is analogous to group polarization, but describes the behavior change of the group as a whole rather than the individual
Intimacy vs. Isolation (Erikson)
- 20-40 years - "Can I love?" - focusing on creating long-lasting bonds with others - favorable outcome: ability to have intimate relationships with others, and the ability to commit oneself to another person and to one's own goals - unfavorable outcome: avoidance of commitment, alienation, distancing, seeming withdrawn, and only capable of superficial relationships
Standard conditions
- 25 degrees C (298 K), 1 atm, and 1 M concentrations - used for kinetics, equilibrium, and thermodynamics problems - under standard conditions, the most stable form of a substance is called the standard state
When the pH of the blood is high, which substance is likely to be excreted in larger quantities in the urine? A. Urea B. Ammonia C. Hydrogen ions D. Bicarbonate ions
D. Bicarbonate ions - when the pH of blood is high, this indicates that the blood is alkalemic - in order to correct the pH of the blood, the kidney will increase the excretion of a base - note: ammonia is a base but it is quite toxic and is generally converted to urea before excretion, and excretion of urea would have little effect on the pH
Transcription
DNA template ----> RNA - occurs in nucleus - "if we're transcribing something in court, we are using the same language to write it down" - produces a copy of only one of the 2 strands of DNA - results in a single strand of mRNA, synthesized from one of the 2 nucleotide strands of DNA called the template strand (or the antisense strand) - the newly synthesized mRNA is both antiparallel and complementary to the DNA template strand - initiation = helicase and topoisomerase are involved in unwinding the double-stranded DNA and preventing formation of supercoils - RNA polymerase does not require a primer to start generating a transcript - RNA polymerase travels along the template strand in the 3' to 5' direction, which allows for the construction of transcribed mRNA in the 5' to 3' direction - RNA polymerase does not proofread its work, so the synthesized transcript will not be edited - the coding strand (or sense strand) of DNA is not used as a template during transcription - b/c the coding strand is also complementary to the template strand, it is identical to the mRNA transcript except that all the thymine nucleotides in DNA have been replaced with uracil in the mRNA molecule - transcription will continue along the DNA coding region until the RNA polymerase reaches a termination sequence or stop signal, which results in the termination of transcription - the DNA double helix then reforms, and the primary transcript formed is termed hnRNA (heterogeneous nuclear RNA)
To which property of a sound wave does amplitude correspond?
sound level (volume)
During demographic transition, what happens to the mortality rate and birth rate?
- both mortality and birth rate decrease
Bone marrow
- produces all of the WBCs that participate in the immune system through the process of hematopoiesis - site of immune cell production
If an anion ends in -ite, then the acid will end with
-ous acid
NAD is composed of:
2 nucleotides joined by their phosphate groups (not riboses)
What gender and race combination have the lowest life expectancy of any racial or gender category?
African American males
Borate
BO3 3-
In a nonevolving population, there are 2 alleles, R and r, which code for the same trait. The frequency of R is 30%. What are the frequencies of all the possible genotypes? A. 49% RR, 42% Rr, 9% rr B. 30% RR, 21% Rr, 49% rr C. 0.09% RR, 0.42% Rr, 0.49% rr D. 9% RR, 42% Rr, 49% rr
D. 9% RR, 42% Rr, 49% rr 30% = 0.3 = p q = 1 - 0.3 = 0.7 RR = p^2 = (0.3)^2 = 0.09 = 9% Rr = 2pq = 2 * 0.3 * 0.7 = 0.42 = 42% rr = q^2 = (0.7)^2 = 0.49 = 49%
Autoionization of water formula
H2O (l) + H2O (l) <----> H3O+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
At physiologic pH, what 2 forms of phosphoric acid have the highest concentrations?
H2PO4- and HPO4 2-
Strong acids:
HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO4 (perchloric acid)
____________ activity in the amygdala and ____________ activity in the prefrontal cortex has been linked to increased aggressive behavior
Increased activity in the amygdala and decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex has been linked to increased aggressive behavior
What is true of spontaneity when ΔH is (+) and ΔS is (-)?
Nonspontenous at all temperatures
In the formation of an amide from ammonia and an anhydride, what serves as the nucleophile and what serves at the electrophile?
Nucleophile = ammonia Electrophile = one of the carbonyl carbons of the anhydride
Boyle's Law
P1V1 = P2V2 - as pressure increases, volume decreases (inversely proportional)
Cell diagram (cell notation) for the discharging state of a lead-acid battery:
Pb(s) | H2SO4 (4M) || H2SO4 (4M) | PbO2 (s)
Proteins are digested in the ___________ and _______________, but not the ______________ and __________________
Proteins are digested in the stomach and small intestine, but not the mouth and large intestine
Sound cannot travel through
a vacuum
The binding of an antigen to antibodies on the surface of a B-cell causes:
activation of that cell, resulting in its proliferation and formation of plasma and memory cells
The vaccines to prevent chicken pox and shingles act through what kind of immunity and are mediated by what?
active immunity mediated by B-lymphocytes
The largest drop in blood pressure occurs across the
arterioles - this is critical b/c the capillaries are thin-walled and unable to withstand the pressure of the arterial side of the vasculature
Tendons
attach muscle to bone
What are the 5 types of infectious pathogens?
bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites (including protozoa, worms, and insects), and prions (for which there are no immune defenses)
Thought withdrawal
belief that thoughts are being removed from one's head
The inferior vena cava (IVC) returns blood from the portions of the body ______ the heart
below
When blood osmolarity is low . . .
excess water will be excreted, while reabsorption of solutes increases
All blood cells are formed from:
hematopoietic stem cells, which originate in the bone marrow
Tidal volume (TV)
- the volume of air inhaled or exhaled in a normal breath
Sparingly soluble salts
- solutes that dissolve minimally in the solvent - molar solubility under 0.1 M
Vital capacity (VC)
- the difference between the minimum and maximum volume of air in the lungs - (TLC - RV)
Order the following compounds by increasing boiling point: butane, butanol, butanone
(lowest BP) butane < butanone < butanol (highest BP)
Malonic acid
- 3 carbon dicarboxylic acid - AKA propanedioic acid
Flexor
- a muscle that decreases the angle across a joint - ex. biceps brachii
What neurotransmitter is responsible for peristalsis?
- acetylcholine (ACh) - it is responsible for actions of the PNS
Synovial fluid
- joint-lubricating fluid secreted by the synovial membrane (synovium)
Type A personality
- personality type characterized by behavior that tends to be competitive and compulsive - more prone to heart disease than Type B people
Origin
- the end of the muscle with a larger attachment to bone (usually the proximal connection)
If an anion ends in -ate, then the acid will end with
-ic acid
In oxidative phosphorylation, cytochrome c acts as a ____ electron carrier
1 - cytochrome c is a heme protein that cycles between Ferrous (Fe2+) and ferric (Fe3+) state during oxidative phosphorylation. Thus, only a single electron is transferred in the process
For electrolytic cells, describe each of these with anode or cathode: 1. site of oxidation: 2. electrons flow toward it: 3. current flows toward it: 4. has (-) designation: 5. attracts cations:
1. site of oxidation: anode 2. electrons flow toward it: cathode 3. current flows toward it: anode 4. has (-) designation: cathode 5. attracts cations: cathode
Disruption of two disulfide bonds within a protein requires ____ molecules of NADH:
2 - reducing agents like NADH denature disulfide bonds - the reduction of a disulfide bond requires two electrons and each molecule of NADH can provide two electrons when reducing another compound
Log 1000 =
3 b/c 10^3 = 1000
Visible light wavelength range
400 nm to 700 nm 4 x 10^-7 - 7 x 10^-7 m
What is the mRNA codon of the DNA sequence GAT?
5' GAT 3' DNA template 3' TAG 5' DNA template, right direction 5' AUC 3' mRNA (codes for Isoleucine)
What molecules trigger the sensation of thirst, encouraging the behavior of fluid consumption?
ADH and aldosterone
Following a viral infection, a patient is not showing any respiratory symptoms or fever. What cycle is the virus most likely in? A) Lytic B) Lysogenic C) Invasion D) Protein production
B) Lysogenic - the lysogenic cycle is where the virus integrates its own genome into the host genome, but it does not lyse the cell or produce lots of progeny yet - as a result, it may be undetected by the immune system
Hypochlorite
ClO-
Chlorite
ClO2-
Upon encountering an antigen, only T-cells with a specific T-cell receptor are activated. This is an example of: A. innate immunity B. a cytotoxic T-cell response C. humoral immunity D. clonal selection
D. clonal selection - this is when the adaptive immune system encounters an antigen and only the cells with antibodies or T-cell receptors specific to that antigen are activated
Which of the following enzymes is required for both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis? A. pyruvate dehydrogenase B. pyruvate carboxylase C. phosphofructokinase-1 D. triose phosphate isomerase
D. triose phosphate isomerase
Charles' Law
V1/T1 = V2/T2 - as temperature increases, volume increases (directly proportional)
Lactone formation
a compound with an alcohol group and a carboxylic acid + H+ ------> lactone + H2O
Order of isoelectric points for basic amino acids
arginine, lysine, histidine
Pulmonary arteries
carry deoxygenated blood out of the right ventricle and into the lungs
Aldehyde or ketone + 1 equivalent of alcohol ----->
hemiacetals and hemiketals
Wavelength differences between visual stimuli are perceived as differences in
hue
What are the 2 opposing pressure gradients essential for maintaining a proper balance of fluid volume and solute concentrations between the blood and interstitium (the cells surrounding the blood vessels)?
hydrostatic and osmotic (oncotic) pressures
AM radio waves have _______ wavelengths than FM radio waves
lower
Schizoaffective disorder
major mood episodes (major depressive episodes and manic episodes) while also presenting psychotic symptoms
Brief psychotic disorder
positive psychotic symptoms are present for at least a day, but less than a month
The 3 major phases of Kohlberg's theory of moral development:
preconventional, conventional, postconventional
Oxygen saturation
% of hemoglobin molecules carrying O2
What are the layers of the dermis, from superficial to deep?
(superficial) papillary layer -- consists of loose connective tissue reticular layer -- denser (deep)
Oral Stage (Freud's Psychosexual Stages)
- 0 to 1 year - libidinal energy centered on the mouth - ex. biting, sucking, putting objects in mouth, etc - fixation can lead to excessive dependency
Nonmaleficence
- 1 of the 4 key tenets of American medical ethics - "do no harm" - the physician has a responsibility to avoid interventions where the potential for harm outweighs the potential for benefit
Oxalic acid
- 2 carbon dicarboxylic acid - the smallest dicarboxylic acid - AKA ethanedioic acid
Pimelic acid
- 7 carbon dicarboxylic acid - AKA heptanedioic acid
What are the reaction types used in the Gabriel synthesis?
- Gabriel synthesis proceeds through 2 SN2 reactions, hydrolysis, and decarboxylation
Prevalence
- a measure of the # of cases of an illness overall -- whether new or chronic -- per population in a given amount of time - total cases / total population / time - ex. the # of people with new or chronic lung cancer per 1000 people per year
Mandated reporter
- a person who is required by law to report maltreatment (child abuse, elder abuse, etc) - ex. physicians
Reliability vs. Validity
- a test may be reliable without being valid, but a test cannot be valid unless it is reliable reliability (consistency) vs validity (accuracy)
Disorganized attachment
- a type of insecure attachment and can lead to deficits in social skills - no clear pattern of behavior in response to the caregiver's absence or presence, but instead can show a mix of different behaviors, such as avoidance or resistance, seeming dazed frozen or confused, or repetitive behaviors like rocking - often associated with erratic behavior and social withdrawal by the caregiver - may also be a red flag for abuse
Animus (Jungian archetype)
- a woman's inner man - explains power-seeking behavior in females - ex. a woman advances through the ranks of a company, eventually becoming the CEO
Uracil is produced from cytosine as a result of a conversion of:
- an amine group to a carbonyl group - in the deamination of cytosine, the amine group of cytosine is replaced with a carbonyl group, resulting in the structure of uracil
Ribozyme
- an enzymatic RNA molecule that catalyzes reactions during RNA splicing - enzymes made up of RNA molecules instead of peptides
Qualitative study
- answers questions about non-numerical data - ex. "what is it like to live with pancreatic cancer?"
Persona (Jungian archetype)
- aspect of personality we present to the world - liked to a mask that we wear in public - emphasizes the qualities that improve our social standing and suppresses our other, less desirable qualities
Nationality
- based on political borders - the results of shared history, media, cuisine, and national symbols like a country's flag
Titration curve of an acidic amino acid
- basic amino acids are opposite: starts at high pH on left side and has 2 flat areas until it reaches bottom on right side
Role partner
- behaviors and expectations change as a result of the person with whom one is interacting - ex. doctors' role partners include patients, nurses, patients' families, other doctors, residents, and hospital administration
Butanoic anhydride can be produced by the reaction of butanoic acid with which compounds?
- butanoic acid - anhydrides are produced by the reaction of 2 carboxylic acids with the loss of a water molecule - since butanoic anhydride is an anhydride with 2 butane R groups, it would be produced by the reaction of 2 molecules of butanoic acid
What is an organic phosphate?
- carbon-containing compounds with phosphate groups - ex. nucleotides, like those in DNA, ATP, or GTP
Cytokines
- chemical substances that stimulate inflammation and recruit additional immune cells to the area - macrophages release these
Which region of the kidney has the lowest solute concentration under normal physiological circumstances?
- cortex - this is where the proximal convoluted tubule and a part of the distal convoluted tubule are found - the solute concentration increases as one descends into the medulla, and concentrated urine can be found in the renal pelvis
Medicare
- covers patients over the age of 65, those with end-stage renal disease, and those with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)
Ksp expressions should never have _________________
- denominators - this is b/c pure solids and liquids do not appear in the equilibrium constant - dissociation reactions by definition have a solid salt as a reactant
Immediate networks
- dense with strong ties - composed of friends - the combination of immediate and distant networks provide the most benefit to individuals
Purkinje fibers
- distribute the electrical signal from the Bundle of His through the ventricular muscle
Disturbance of affect
- disturbance in the expression of emotion - may include blunting (severe reduction in the intensity of emotional expression), emotional flattening/flat affect (virtually no signs of emotional expression), or inappropriate affect (the affect is clearly discordant with the content of the individual's speech)
Parkinson's disease is caused by a deficit in ______________
- dopamine - this is why antipsychotic medications often lead to "parkinsonian" side effects like muscle rigidity and flattened affect
Part of the reason it takes so long to initiate the antibody response is b/c:
- each B-cell undergoes hypermutation of its antigen-binding region, trying to find the best match for the antigen - only those B-cells that can bind the antigen with high affinity survive, providing a mechanism for generating specificity (clonal selection) - each B-cell only makes 1 type of antibody, but we have many B-cells, so our immune system can recognize many antigens
How are wastes absorbed into the bloodstream?
- ex. CO2, urea, ammonia - enter the bloodstream by traveling down their respective concentration gradients from the tissues to the capillaries - the blood eventually travels to the kidneys, where these waste products are filtered or secreted for elimination from the body
Cluster C personality disorders
- features: anxious or fearful - includes: avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive
Cluster A personality disorders
- features: odd or eccentric - includes: paranoid, schizotypal, and schizoid
Solid phase of a phase diagram
- found at low temperatures and high pressures
Other sensory organs in the skin other than Merkel cells include:
- free nerve endings = respond to pain - Meissner's corpuscles = respond to light touch - Ruffini endings = respond to stretch - Pacinian corpuscles = respond to deep pressure and vibration
Phase diagrams
- graphs that show the temperatures and pressures at which a substance will be thermodynamically stable in a particular phase - also show the temperatures and pressures at which phases will be in equilibrium - the lines of equilibrium (AKA phase boundaries) indicate the temperature and pressure values for the equilibria between phases
Spongy (cancellous) bone
- has many spaces between bony spicules called trabeculae - the site of marrow production - found in the interior core of the bone and also helps distribute forces or pressures on the bone
String attached at both ends
- has nodes at both ends - can identify its harmonic by counting the # of antinodes λ = 2L/n ; f = nv/2L
Forced oscillation
- if a periodically varying force is applied to a system, the system will then be driven at a frequency equal to the frequency of the force - ex. pushing someone on a swing
Secularization
- indifference to or rejection of religion or religious consideration - moving from a world dominated by religion toward rationality and scientific thinking
Memory T-cell
- lie in wait until a second exposure to a pathogen to mount a rapid, robust response - similar to memory B-cells
Total Lung Capacity (TLC)
- maximum volume of air in the lungs when one inhales completely - usually around 6-7 L
Adductor
- muscle that moves a part of the body toward the midline - ex. pectoralis major
Superheating
- occurs when a liquid is heated to a temperature above its boiling point without vaporization - occur when gas bubbles within a liquid are unable to overcome the combination of atmospheric pressure and surface tension - sometimes a boiling chip, ebulliator, or magnetic stirrer will be introduced during simple distillation to break surface tension and prevent superheating
Pitch
- our perception of the frequency of sound - lower-frequency sounds = lower pitch - higher-frequency sounds = higher pitch
Stratum corneum
- outermost layer of epidermis - contains up to several dozen layers of flattened keratinocytes, forming a barrier that prevents invasion by pathogens and that helps to prevent loss of fluids and salt - hair projects above the skin, and there are openings for sweat and sebaceous glands
Ethnic identity
- part one's identity associated with membership in a particular racial/ethnic group - members of a given ethnic group share a common ancestry, cultural heritage, and language - a social construct that considers language, religion, nationality, and cultural factors - determined by birth
Equilibrium position
- point with zero displacement in an oscillating system
Pull factors
- positive attributes of the new location that attract the immigrant
Large intestine
- primarily involved in water absorption - has a larger diameter but a shorter length than the small intestine - 3 major sections: the cecum, colon, and rectum
Loop of Henle
- responsible for exchange with the Vasa Recta and the adjustment of solute amounts in the urine
Lower esophageal sphincter (AKA cardiac sphincter or LES)
- ring of muscles between the esophagus and the stomach - as the bolus approaches the stomach, the cardiac sphincter relaxes and opens to allow the passage of food
Promoter site (operon)
- site of RNA polymerase binding (similar to promoters in eukaryotes)
Downward drift hypothesis
- states that schizophrenia causes a decline in socioeconomic status, leading to worsening symptoms, which sets up a negative spiral for the patient toward poverty and psychosis - this is why rates of schizophrenia are much higher among homeless and indigent people
If a reaction produces a weak acid and a strong base, the reactant base must be __________ than the base produced
- stronger - this causes the reaction to go forward
All batteries/electrochemical cells are influenced by changes in ________________
- temperature - ex. lead-acid batteries in cars, like most galvanic cells, tend to fail most in cold weather
Social stigma
- the extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society - it is an attribute that is devalued/is recognized - ex. mental illness has been stigmatized in american society - ex. HIV, achondroplasia (dwarfism), obesity - can also spread to affect others associated with that individual - ex. family members of an alleged or convicted murderer or rapist can be stigmatized
Educational attainment
- the highest degree obtained or the # of years of education completed - an important factor in achieved status
Vapor pressure
- the pressure exerted by evaporated particles over the surface of a liquid (at equilibrium) - vapor pressure increases as temperature increases b/c more molecules have sufficient kinetic energy to escape into the gas phase
Mate choice (intersexual selection)
- the selection of a mate based on attraction - 5 recognized mechanisms: phenotypic benefits, sensory bias, fisherian or runaway selection, indicator traits, and genetic compatibility
Behavioral component of attitude
- the way a person acts with respect to something - ex. avoiding snakes - ex. spending time with one's family
Stratum granulosum
- third outermost layer of the epidermis - the keratinocytes die and lose their nuclei here
Repression (defense mechanism)
- unconsciously removing an idea or feeling from consciousness - underlies many of the other defense mechanisms - often happens after traumatic events - ex. a man who survived 6 months in a concentration camp cannot recall anything about his life during that time period
Shadow (Jungian archetype)
- unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions experienced in the unconscious mind
What are some of the mechanisms used in the respiratory system to prevent infection?
- vibrissae in the nares = help trap particulate matter and potentially infection particles - lysozyme in the mucous membranes = attacks the peptidoglycan walls of gram-positive bacteria - mucociliary escalator = underlying cilia in the internal airways propel mucus up the respiratory tract to the oral cavity, where it can be expelled or swallowed - macrophages in the lungs = can engulf and digest pathogens and signal to the rest of the immune system that there is an invader - mucosal IgA antibodies = help to protect against pathogens that contact the mucous membranes - mast cells in the lungs = can release inflammatory chemicals into the surrounding area to promote an immune response and mediate allergic reactions
Standard enthalpy of formation of an element in its standard state is:
0
Area Ratios for Peaks Split by Adjacent Hydrogens
0 adjacent H's = 1 peak = area ratio of 1 1 adjacent H's = 2 peaks = area ratio of 1:1 2 adjacent H's = 3 peaks = area ratio of 1:2:1 3 adjacent H's = 4 peaks = area ratio of 1:3:3:1 4 adjacent H's = 5 peaks = area ratio of 1:4:6:4:1 5 adjacent H's = 6 peaks = area ratio of 1:5:10:10:5:1 6 adjacent H's = 7 peaks = area ratio of 1:6:15:20:15:6:1 7 adjacent H's = 8 peaks = area ratio of 1:7:21:35:35:21:7:1
The softest sound that the average human ear can hear has an intensity equal to about
1 x 10^-12 W/m^2
4 strategic alternatives for socially influenced competitors:
1) Cooperation = both the donor and recipient benefit by cooperating 2) Selfishness = the donor benefits while the recipient is negatively impacted 3) Altruism = the donor provides a benefit to the recipient at a cost to themself 4) Spite = both the donor and recipient are negatively impacted
3 Dichotomies of personality (Jung)
1) Extraversion (E, orientation toward the external world) vs Introversion (I, orientation toward the inner/personal world) 2) Sensing (S, obtaining objective information about the world) vs Intuiting (N, working with information abstractly) 3) Thinking (T, using logic and reason) vs Feeling (F, using a value system or person beliefs)
What are the 2 different circulations in series that the heart supports?
1) Pulmonary circulation = the right side of the heart accepts deoxygenated blood returning from the body and moves it to the lungs by way of the pulmonary arteries 2) Systemic circulation = the left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs by way of the pulmonary veins and forces it out to the body through the aorta
The middle class is divided into 3 levels:
1) Upper-middle class = successful business and professional people 2) Middle-middle class = those who have been unable to achieve the upper-middle lifestyle b/c of educational and economic shortcomings 3) Lower-middle class = those who are skilled and semiskilled workers with fewer luxuries
What are the 3 interactive factors of Bandura's triadic reciprocal causation?
1) behavior 2) personal factors 3) environment
What are the 4 key tenets of American medical ethics?
1) beneficence 2) nonmaleficence 3) respect for autonomy 4) justice
For each situation, will there be an increase or decrease in entropy? 1) H2O (l) ----> H2O (s) 2) Dry ice sublimates into CO2 3) NaCl (s) ----> NaCl (aq) 4) N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ----> 2NH3 (g) 5) An ice pack is placed on a wound
1) decrease (freezing) 2) increase (sublimation) 3) increase (dissolution) 4) decrease (fewer moles of gas) 5) increase (heat is transferred)
What are the 3 patterns of selection?
1) stabilizing 2) directional 3) disruptive
Compared to IR and NMR spectroscopy, UV spectroscopy is preferred for detecting:
Conjugated alkenes
Which of the following sets of metrics would be least helpful in determining trends in upward mobility? A. Employment and disposable income B. Literacy and education level C. Housing and household stability D. Crime and enforcement of laws
D. Crime and enforcement of laws - upward mobility is primarily defined by social and economic currency - crime does not directly relate to social mobility
Each codon consists of _____ bases. Thus, there are ______ codons
Each codon consists of 3 bases. Thus, there are 64 codons
True or false: the movement of potassium ions out of a neuron during an action potential causes the cell membrane to hyperpolarize
FALSE! - it causes it to repolarize - repolarization = restoring the resting membrane potential - hyperpolarization = the cell membrane potential is more negative than resting membrane potential
Standard states of: hydrogen, water, salt, oxygen, and carbon
H2 (g) H2O (l) NaCl (s) O2 (g) C (s, graphite)
Solutions vs mixtures
Solutions- homogeneous Mixtures- heterogeneous (ex. gases dissolved into other gases b/c gas molecules do not interact all that much chemically) - all solutions are mixtures but not all mixtures are solutions
Rank the following molecules by decreasing reactivity to OR-: acetamide, acetic anhydride, and ethyl acetate
acetic anhydride (most reactive) > ethyl acetate > acetamide (least reactive - anhydrides are the most reactive to nucleophiles, followed by esters (tied with carboxylic acids), and then amides - anhydrides, with their resonance stabilization and 3 electron-withdrawing O atoms, are the most electrophilic - in comparison, esters lack 1 electron-withdrawing carbonyl O and are slightly less reactive - amides, with an electron-donating amino group, are the least reactive toward nucleophiles
What role does the binding of ATP to the myosin head play in the cross-bridge cycle?
allows the myosin filament to disconnect from actin
Ion product (IP)
analogous to the reaction quotient (Q) for other chemical reactions IP = [A^(n+)]^m[B^(m-)]^n (where the concentrations are the of the ionic constituents at a given moment in time, not necessarily at equilibrium) IP < Ksp : unsaturated, solute will continue to dissolve IP = Ksp : saturated, solution is at equilibrium IP > Ksp : supersaturated, precipitation will occur
Cell diagram (shorthand cell notation)
anode | anode solution (concentration) || cathode solution (concentration) | cathode - single vertical line = phase boundary - double vertical line = presence of a salt bridge
For electrolytic cells, the electrode with the more positive reduction potential is the ______________, and the electrode with the less positive reduction potential is the ____________
anode, cathode - b/c the movement of electrons is in the direction against the tendency or desires of the respective electrochemical species, the reaction is non-spontaneous ΔG (+)
Alpha-racemization
any aldehyde or ketone with a chiral alpha carbon will rapidly become a racemic mixture as the keto and enol forms interconvert
Thought insertion
belief that thoughts are being placed in one's head
Pulmonary veins
carry the oxygenated blood from the lungs into the left atrium of the heart
The binding of an antigen to antibodies on the surface of a mast cell causes:
causes degranulation (exocytosis of granule contents), releasing histamine and causing an inflammatory allergic reaction
What role does the dissociation of ADP and inorganic phosphate from the myosin head?
causes the powerstroke
The bronchi and trachea contain _________________ to catch material that has made it past the mucous membranes in the nose and mouth
ciliated epithelial cells
Synthesis of antibody proteins in eukaryotic cells is associated with what organelle?
endoplasmic reticulum
Aspartate transaminase (AST) transfers an amino group to alpha-ketoglutarate to form:
glutamate (glutamic acid) and oxaloacetate
LUMO
lowest unoccupied molecular orbital
Which types of leukocytes are involved in the specific immune response?
lymphocytes
The digestive tract
oral cavity (mouth) ----> pharynx ----> esophagus ----> stomach ----> small intestine ----> large intestine ----> rectum - in addition to the digestive tract itself, the salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder all help to provide the enzymes and lubrication necessary to aid in the digestion of food (accessory organs of digestion)
What sum in the Hardy-Weinberg equations represents the frequency of the dominant phenotype?
p^2 + 2pq (the frequency of the homozygous dominant genotype + the frequency of the heterozygous dominant genotype)
How does the behaviorist perspective define personality?
personality is the result of behavioral responses to stimuli based on prior rewards and punishments
Ventricles are separates from the vasculature by the _____________ valves
semilunar (3 leaflets) - allow the heart muscle to create the pressure within the ventricles necessary to propel the blood forward within the circulation, while also preventing backflow of blood
Name psychological disorders with greater than 2% one-year prevalence in the U.S. (affecting more than 1 in 50 people per year):
specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, major depressive disorder (MDD), posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), bipolar disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and panic disorder
Most lymphatic fluid (lymph) is returned to the central circulatory system by way of a channel called the
thoracic duct
Mnemonic for the Gibb's Free Energy Equation
ΔG = ΔH - TΔS Goldfish are (=) Horrible without (-) Tartar Sauce
Equation for the pressure differential across the circulation:
ΔP = CO * TPR Pressure differential across the circulation = cardiac output * total peripheral (vascular) resistance - the pressure gradient across the circulatory system drives cardiac output through a given vascular resistance
What are the reaction types used in the Strecker synthesis?
- Strecker synthesis is a condensation reaction (formation of an imine from a carbonyl-containing compound and ammonia, with loss of water), followed by nucleophilic addition (addition of the nitrile group), followed by hydrolysis
Coupling constant (J)
- a measure of the degree of splitting caused by other atoms in the molecule - the frequency of the distance between subpeaks - measured in Hertz - is independent of the value of n + 1 and is not changed by calibration with TMS
Thymus
- site of T-cell maturation
Front stage self
- when we are on stage and performing - the persona presented to the audience - requires us to live up to the roles and expectations assumed by our status - part of dramaturgical approach
The solubility product constant (Ksp) ________________ with increasing temperature for non-gas solutes and _________________ for gas solutes
The solubility product constant (Ksp) increases with increasing temperature for non-gas solutes and decreases for gas solutes
Illusion of morality
- Irving Janis - 1 of 8 factors indicative of groupthink - members believe ideas produced by the group are morally and ethically correct, disregarding evidence to the contrary - ex. McCarthy era propaganda
What are the layers (strata) of the epidermis, from superficial to deep?
"Come, Let's Get Sun Burnt" (superficial) stratum corneum stratum lucidum stratum granulosum stratum spinosum stratum basale (deep)
STP (standard temperature and pressure)
- 1 degree C (273 K) and 1 atm - used for ideal gas calculations
Identity vs. Role Confusion (Erikson)
- 12-20 years - "Who am I? Who can I be?" - favorable outcome: fidelity (the ability to see oneself as a unique and integrated person with sustained loyalties) - unfavorable outcome: confusion about one's identity and an amorphous personality that shifts day to day
Kinsey scale
- Alfred Kinsey - based on the idea that sexuality is likely more fluid than we previously believed - 0 to 6 scale of sexuality - 0 being solely heterosexual - 6 being exclusively homosexual - few people actually fall into the categories of 0 and 6, with a significant proportion of the population falling somewhere between the 2 - ex. a young adult male claims to have had sexual relationships mostly with other men, although he has been attracted to women at times. He would most likely score a 5 on the Kinsey scale
Cardinal traits
- Allport - traits around which a person organizes their life - not everyone has a cardinal trait - ex. Mother Teresa's cardinal trait may have been self-sacrifice
Word association testing
- Jung - assesses how unconscious elements may be influencing the conscious mind and thus the self - patients respond to a single word with the first word that comes to mind - Jung believed that patient responses, in combination with evaluating mood and speed of response, would reveal elements of the unconscious
Ventilation/breathing is primarily regulated by:
- a collection of neurons in the medulla oblongata called the ventilation center that fire rhythmically to cause regular contraction of respiratory muscles - these neurons contain chemoreceptors that are sensitive to carbon dioxide and oxygen concentration, dictating the respiratory rate from this
Tonus
- a constant state of low-level contraction in smooth muscle - ex. seen in blood vessels
White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
- a crucial part of the immune system, acting as our defenders against pathogens, foreign cells, cancer, and other materials not recognized as self - 5 basic types of WBC's that are classified into 2 classes: granulocytes and agranulocytes - comprise less than 1% of total blood volume - very small amount in blood compared to RBCs - this # can massively increase under certain conditions when we need more WBCs, such as infection
Charismatic authority
- a leader with a compelling personality - often seen in a theocracy
Blood pressure
- a measure of the force per unit area exerted on the wall of the blood vessels - measured with a sphygmomanometer, which measure the gauge pressure in the systemic circulation, which is the pressure above and beyond the atmospheric pressure (760 mmHg at sea level) - expressed as a ratio of the systolic (ventricular contraction) to diastolic (ventricular relaxation) pressures - pressure gradually drops from the arterial to venous circulation, with the largest drop occurring across the arterioles
Recrystallization
- a method for further purifying crystals in solution - the product is dissolved in a minimum amount of hot solvent and is left to recrystallize as it cools - the solvent chosen for this process should be one in which the product is soluble only at high temperature - thus, when the solution cools, only the desired product will recrystallize out of solution, excluding the impurities
Cross-sectional study
- a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another - examine a specific group of individuals at a specific point in time, primarily answering questions about prevalence of a condition
Ambivalent attachment
- a type of insecure attachment and can lead to deficits in social skills - occurs when a caregiver has an inconsistent response to a child's distress, sometimes responding appropriately, sometimes neglectfully - the child is unable to form a secure base b/c they cannot consistently rely on the caregiver's response - very distressed by departure of caregiver with mixed reactions at return - AKA anxious-ambivalent attachment b/c the child is always anxious about the reliability of the caregiver
Democracy
- allows every citizen a political voice, usually through electing representatives to office (a representative democracy)
Gender stratification
- any inequality in access to social resources that is based on gender - in the presence of gender inequality, gender stratification may occur - ex. if children enrolled in single-gender schools do not receive equal qualities of education and there is a systemic difference in resource allocation between single-gender schools
Type theorists
- attempt to create a taxonomy of personality types - ex: Myers-Briggs Type Inventory - ex. Sheldon's somatotypes - ex. Type A vs Type B personality
Knowledge function (Functional attitudes theory)
- attitudes help provide organization to thoughts and experiences, and knowing the attitudes of others helps predict their behavior - ex. one would predict than an individual who cares about political action would vote in an upcoming election
If diamond is an excellent insulator while graphite exhibits conductive properties, what about their structures would explain these observations?
- carbon atoms in graphite are arranged in fused aromatic rings, while those in diamond are arranged in a tetrahedral lattice - materials with free electrons are better conductors - in graphite, each carbon atom is covalently bonded to 3 other atoms -- since carbon is tetrahedral, this leaves a "sea" of free electrons that can conduct electricity - in diamond, each carbon atom is covalently bonded to four other atoms, leaving no free electrons
World system theory
- categorizes countries and emphasizes the inequalities of the division of labor at the global level - there are core, peripheral, and semi-peripheral nations
Isothermal process
- constant temperature - temperature and internal energy are directly proportional, so if temperature is constant, internal energy (U) is also constant, meaning ΔU = 0 Q = W - appears as a hyperbolic curve on a pressure-volume graph
Medicaid
- covers patients who are in significant financial need (low SES)
Electron-donating groups _______________ organic anions
- destabilize - ex. alkyl groups
Ageism
- discrimination based on age - ex. young professionals entering the workplace are often viewed as being inexperienced, and their opinions and ideas may be ignored or downplayed - ex. older individuals may be perceived as frail, vulnerable, or less intelligent, and thus may be treated with less respect
True or false: sound waves are a prime example of transverse waves
- false - sound waves are the most common example longitudinal waves
Osteocytes
- mature bone cells that eventually become surrounded by their matrix - primary role is bone maintenance
Downward mobility
- negative change in a person's social status where they fall to a lower position - a type of vertical mobility
Complete dominance
- occurs when 1 allele (the dominant one) completely masks the expression of the other (the recessive one)
In bacterial sepsis (overwhelming bloodstream infection), a # of capillary beds throughout the body open simultaneously. What effect would this have on the blood pressure? Besides the risk of infection, why might sepsis be dangerous for the heart?
- opening up more capillary beds (which are in parallel) will decrease the overall resistance of the circuit - the cardiac output will therefore increase in an attempt to maintain constant blood pressure - this is a risk to the heart b.c the increased demand on the heart can eventually tire it, leading to a heart attack or a precipitous drop in BP
Galvanic/voltaic cells
- opposite of electrolytic cells - the redox reactions in these cells are spontaneous (the free energy is decreasing as the cell releases energy to the environment) - as the spontaneous reaction proceeds toward equilibrium, the movement of electrons results in a conversion of electrical potential energy into kinetic energy - emf is positive (free energy change and electromotive force always have opposite signs) - the anode is (-) (b/c the anode is the source of electrons) and the cathode is (+) - thus, electrons move from negative (low electrical potential) to positive (high electrical potential), while the current -- the flow of positive charge -- is from positive (high electrical potential) to negative (low electrical potential) - surrounding each of the electrodes is an aqueous electrolyte solution composed of cations and anions - the cations in the 2 half-cell solutions can be of the same element as the respective metal electrode - connecting the 2 solutions is the salt bridge, which consists of an inert salt - when the electrodes are connected to each other by a conductive material, charge will begin to flow as the result of an oxidation-reduction reaction that is taking place between the 2 half-cells - during the rxn, electrons flow from the zinc anode through the wire and to the copper cathode - a voltmeter can be connected to measure this electromotive force - the anions (Cl-) flow externally from the salt bridge into the ZnSO4, and the cations (K+) flow externally from the salt bridge into the CuSO4 - the electrode with the more positive reduction potential is the cathode and the electrode with the less positive reduction potential is the anode - note: b/c the cells are physically separated, they must be connected by a conductive material to complete the circuit. If they didn't have this, the cations would react directly with the other cations' metal bar and no useful electrical work would be done - ex. household batteries, all nonrechargeable batteries that you own
ΔG and Ecell will always have ____________ signs
- opposite - galvanic cells have negative ΔG and positive Ecell - electrolytic cells have a positive ΔG and negative Ecell ΔG = -nFEcell
Mating system
- organization of a group's sexual behavior - ex. monogamy, polygamy, promiscuity
Self-efficacy
- our belief in our ability to succeed - can lead to overconfidence or learned helplessness - ex. a HS student struggles consistently with math and feels that no matter how hard he studies, he "just doesn't get it". Low self-efficacy is the short-term result of this situation - ex. a person with high self-efficacy would most likely agree with the statement "I am a capable person and typically achieve my goals"
Superego (Psychoanalytic Theory)
- our sense of perfectionism and idealism, judging out actions and responding with pride at our accomplishments and guilt at our failures - focused on the ideal self - 2 subsystems: the conscience (a collection of the improper actions for with a child is punished) and ego-ideal (consists of those proper actions for which a child is rewarded) - ex. a man feels extremely guilty after having an extra-marital affair. The superego is responsible for this moral guilt
Conjugation (chemistry)
- presence of alternating single and multiple bonds - implies that all of the atoms in these bonds are either sp2 or sp hybridized and thus have unhybridized p-orbitals - when these p-orbitals align, they can delocalize pi electrons through resonance, forming clouds of electron density above and below the plane of the molecule - this delocalizes charge - this type of electron sharing makes for very stable compounds b/c these compounds have multiple resonance structures - ex. in carbonyl-containing compounds, conjugation can be established with the carbonyl group itself, alpha-beta-unsaturated carbonyls (enones) for example - ex. a positive charge on a benzene would have greater stability than a positive charge on a straight alkane version of the same molecule
Immunologic function of mucus
- present on mucous membranes and traps incoming pathogens - in the respiratory system, cilia propel the mucus upward so it can be swallowed or expelled
Brush-border enzymes
- present on the luminal surface of cells lining the duodenum and break down dimers and trimers of biomolecules into absorbable monomers - the presence of chyme in the duodenum causes the release of brush-border enzymes - ex. disaccharidases (like maltase, isomaltase, lactase, sucrase), peptidases (like dipeptidase)
Hoarding disorder
- presents as a need to save or keep items - often paired with excessive acquisition of objects - patient believes that kept items will eventually be useful or that they have a responsibility to care for the items
Anticipatory socialization
- process by which a person prepares for future changes in occupations, living situations, or relationships - ex. a premed student shadows physicians to assimilate and practice appropriate behaviors in expectation of one day becoming a doctor - ex. if an inmate is not incarcerated for life, attempts at anticipatory socialization must be made before releasing the inmate in preparation for life outside of prison - ex. an 18 y/o male is completing his final months of high school and begins to wake up early each day to run 5 miles in preparation for joining the army
Endochondral ossification
- process of hardening cartilage to bone - is responsible for the formation of most of the long bones of the body
Tight junctions
- produce an airtight junction between cells to prevent fluid from leaking between them - thus, if tight junctions are nonfunctional, extracellular fluid would appear between the cells
Heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA)
- produced from transcription - the precursor to processed mRNA - converted to mRNA by adding a poly-A tail and 5' cap, and splicing out introns
Hematopoiesis
- production of blood cells and platelets in the bone marrow - triggered by a # of hormones, growth factors, and cytokines - ex. erythropoietin is secreted by the kidney and stimulates mainly RBC development - ex. thrombopoietin is secreted by the liver and kidney and stimulates mainly platelet development
The equilibrium constant of a forward reaction is directly proportional to the concentration of ______________
- products - if the product of a reaction is stable and favored, forming a larger concentration of products, the equilibrium constant will be larger as well
Indirect benefits
- provide advantages to the offspring - promotes better survival of offspring - mate bias can result in this - ex. female great reed warblers are attracted to males with larger song repertoires b/c they tend to produce offspring with higher viability
Immunologic function of skin (integument)
- provides a physical barrier and secrets antimicrobial enzymes (such as defensins) - the first line of defense - prevent most bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites from entering the body - sweat also has microbial properties
Glucose reabsorption in the nephron occurs in the
- proximal convoluted tubule - the filtrate enters Bowman's capsule and then flows into the proximal convoluted tubule, where virtually all glucose, amino acids, and other important organic molecules are reabsorbed via active transport
Object relations theory
- psychodynamic theory of personality - object refers to representation of caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infancy - these objects persist into adulthood & impact our relationships
Hydrostatic pressure
- pushing fluid out - the force per unit area that the blood exerts against the vessel walls - this is generated by the contraction of the heart and the elasticity of the arteries (can be measured upstream via BP) - pushes fluid out of the bloodstream and into the interstitium through the capillary walls - at the arteriole end of a capillary bed, hydrostatic pressure exceeds oncotic pressure and there is a net efflux of water from circulation
Biometric techniques
- quantitative approaches to biological data - genetics is a field in which a # of these methods have been developed - ex. punnet squares, mapping of chromosomes with recombinant frequencies, Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, etc
Suppressor (regulatory) T-cell
- quell the immune response after a pathogen has been cleared and promote self-tolerance - self-tolerance = they turn off self-reactive lymphocytes to prevent autoimmune diseases - also express CD4, but can be differentiated from helper T-cells b/c they also express a protein called Foxp3 - these cells help to tone down the immune response once infection has been adequately contained - many suppressor T-cells were formerly self-reactive T-cells that have been turned off - when a suppressor T-cell inactivates another lymphocyte, it can either target it for destruction or promote its conversion into another suppressor T-cell
Which of the following would be the best method of producing methyl propanoate?
- reacting propanoic acid and methanol in the presence of a mineral acid - the parent chain is propanoate and the esterifying group is a methyl group
Recall vs. Recognition
- recognition = refers to our ability to "recognize" an event or piece of information as being familiar - ex. multiple-choice tests - recall = designates the retrieval of related details from memory - ex. fill-in-the-blank tests
Symbolic ethnicity
- recognition of an ethnic identity that is only relevant on special occasions or in specific circumstances, but not during everyday life - ex. many Irish Americans in the U.S. celebrate their Irishness only one day per year: St. Patrick's Day. But in all other facets of life, these individuals' Irish-American identity does not play a significant role - ex. attending folk festivals, visiting specific cultural locales for holidays, or participating in an ethnic pride rally
What is the purpose of surfactant?
- reduces surface tension at the air-liquid interface in the alveoli, which prevents their collapse - coats each alveolus - premature infants laxk surfactant
Generational status
- refers to the place of birth of a specific person or that person's parents - ex. first generation refers to someone who is born outside of their place of residence - ex. second generation refers to a person that has at least 1 parent that is foreign-born
Active immunity
- refers to the stimulation of the immune system to produce antibodies against a pathogen (whether natural or artificial) - through natural exposure, antibodies are generated by B-cells once an individual becomes infected - artificial exposure (ex. vaccines) also results in the production of antibodies. However, the individual never experiences true infection - instead, they receive an injection or intranasal spray containing an antigen that will activate B-cells to produce antibodies to fight the specific infection - the antigen may be a weakened or killed form of the microbe, or it may be a part of the microbe's protein structure - requires weeks to build
Passive immunity
- refers to the transfer of antibodies to prevent infection, without stimulation of the plasma cells that produce these antibodies - the immunity is transient b/c only the antibodies, and not the plasma cells that produce them, are given to the individual - natural examples: the transfer of antibodies across the placenta during pregnancy to protect the fetus, the transfer of antibodies from a mother to her nursing infant through breast milk - in some cases of exposure (ex. rabies or tetanus), intravenous immunoglobulin may be given to prevent the pathogen from spreading - acquired immediately
Locus of control
- refers to the way we characterize the influences in our lives - can be internal or external
Aminopeptidase
- removes the N-terminal amino acid from a peptide - secreted by glands in the duodenum - site of production: intestinal glands - site of function: duodenum - function: hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at amino end
Echolalia
- repeating another's words - example of disorganized behavior seen in psychotic disorders - ex. during an interview with a schizophrenic patient, a psychiatrist notices that the patient keeps repeating what the psychiatrist says
Negative control system
- require the binding of a protein to the operator site to decrease transcription
Keratin
- resistant to damage and provides protection against injury, water, and pathogens - calluses form from excessive keratin deposition in areas of repeated strain due to friction. they provide protection to avoid damage in the future - fingernails and hair are also formed from keratin and are produced by specialized cels in the skin
The catalytic production of dihydroxyacetone and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (2-hydroxy-3-oxopropyl dihydrogen phosphate) from fructose-1,6-bisphosphate ({[(2S,3S,4S,5R)-3,4-dihydroxy-5-[(phosphonooxy)methyl]oxolan-2-yl]methoxy}phosphonic acid) is what type of reaction?
- retro-aldol reaction - ignore all the big words!!! - we are forming a ketone and an aldehyde from a single molecule - the hallmark of a reverse aldol reaction is the breakage of a C-C bond, forming 2 aldehydes, 2 ketones, or 1 of each
Lateral rotator
- rotates the axis of the away from the midline - ex. infraspinatus
(Pro)carboxypeptidases A and B
- site of production: pancreas (acinar cells) - site of function: duodenum - function: hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at carboxy end; activated by enteropeptidase
Salivary amylase (ptyalin)
- site of production: salivary glands - site of function: mouth - function: hydrolyzes starch to maltose and dextrins
AV node
- sits at the junction of the atria and ventricles (between the 2 AV valves) - the signal from the SA node is delayed here to allow the ventricles to fill completely before they contract - the signal then travels down to the Bundle of His and its branches
The Thomas Theorem
- situations that are defined as real are real in their consequences - ex. Ex. child thinks ghosts are real. Child is then unable to sleep because he's on the lookout for ghosts - about real life consequences of an imagined cause. The kid is genuinely afraid of the monster in the closet and feels real fear even though the cause is totally imaginary
Fast-twitch fibers
- skeletal muscle - "white fibers" - contain much less myoglobin than slow-twitch fibers - b/c there is less myoglobin and thus less iron, the color is lighter, hence the name - also has less mitochondria - muscles that contract rapidly but fatigue quickly contain mostly white fibers - derive more of their energy anaerobically, must rely on glycolysis and fermentation to make ATP under most circumstances
Lacteals
- small lymphatic vessels that are located at the center of each villus in the small intestine - fats, packaged into chylomicrons by intestinal mucosal cells, enter the lacteal for transport - lymphatic fluid carrying many chylomicrons takes on a milky white appearance and is called chyle
What are some groups that suffer disproportionate social inequality?
- social inequality is highest among racial and ethnic minorities (especially African Americans and Hispanics), female-headed families, and the elderly - it is also most prevalent among those living in poverty
What is the relationship between merit and social mobility?
- social mobility can be dependent on intellectual talent and achievement (meritocratic competition) but can also be obstructed by concentrated power as well as discrimination based on ethnicity, gender, age, or other identifiable characteristics
Taboo
- socially unacceptable, disgusting, or reprehensible
Norms
- societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior - norms are not laws, but they do provide a mechanism for regulating the behavior of individuals and groups, thus serving as a means of social control - norms provide us with a sense of what is appropriate, what we should do, and what is considered taboo - exist for behavior, speech, dress, home life, etc - ex. Americans tend to be extraverted and talkative even among strangers, while Japanese culture teaches that showing too much of oneself in a public setting is a sign of weakness - ex. we do not say "I love you" and hug our doctor after every routine visit. This would be violating social norms
Solubility vs saturation
- solubility = the amount of solute contained in a solvent - saturation = the maximum solubility of a compound at a given temperature; one cannot dissolve any more of the solute just by adding more at this temperature
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures
- states that the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures of all the gases in the mixture (P total = P1 + P2 + P3 . . .) - when 2 or more gases that do not chemically interact are found in one vessel, each gas will behave independently of the others - each gas will behave as if it were the only gas in the container - thus, the pressure exerted by each gas in the mixture will be equal to the pressure that the gas would exert if it were the only one in the container
Implicit personality theory
- states that there are sets of assumptions people make about how different types of people, their traits, and their behavior are related - the categories we place others in during impression formation
Stereotype vs prejudice vs discrimination
- stereotype = occur when attitudes and impressions are made based on limited and superficial information about a person or a group of individuals are cognitive - prejudice = an irrational negative, or occasionally positive, attitude toward a person, group, or thing, which is formed prior to an actual experience and is affective - discrimination = when prejudicial attitudes cause individuals of a certain group to be treated differently than others and is behavioral
Gallbladder
- stores and concentrates bile - common site of cholesterol or bilirubin stone formation - located just beneath the liver - upon release of CCK, the gallbladder contracts and pushes bile out into the biliary tree - the bile duct system merges with the pancreatic duct before emptying into the duodenum
The dipole of the carbonyl is ______________ than the dipole of an alcohol
- stronger - this is b/c the double-bonded O is more electron-withdrawing than the single bond to O in the hydroxyl group
How do strongly acidic and strongly basic conditions catalyze the hydrolysis of an amide?
- strongly acidic conditions: catalyze amide hydrolysis by protonating the O of the carbonyl, increasing the electrophilicity of the carbon, making it more susceptible to nucleophilic attack - strongly basic conditions: greatly increase the concentration of OH-, which can act as a nucleophile on amide carbonyls
Why is succinate able to induce the ETC in the presence of a complex I inhibitor?
- succinate is a substrate for complex II - complex II (AKA succinate dehydrogenase) converts succinate to fumarate while passing electrons to complex III in the ETC, bypassing complex I
Self-verification
- suggests people will seek the companionship of others who see them as they see themselves, thereby validating a person's self-serving bias
Diathesis-stress model
- suggests that a person may be predisposed for a mental disorder that remains unexpressed until triggered by stress - integrates the influence of biological predispositions and the environment - ex. A patient experiences a debilitating depressive episode after the loss of a job. A psychologist suggests that the patient had a genetic predisposition to depression and that unemployment acted as a trigger
The presence of bacteria in the colon represents a _____________ relationship
- symbiotic - the bacteria are provided with a steady source of food, and the byproducts produced by the bacteria are beneficial to humans
Hypomanic episode
- symptoms are present for at least 4 days and include at least 3 or more of the 7 defined manic symptoms - note: the symptoms are not severe enough to impair the person's social or work activities
RNA Polymerase III
- synthesizes tRNA and some rRNA - responsible for tRNA and 5S rRNA
Interaction process analysis
- technique for observing, classifying, and measuring the interactions within small groups - later revised to SYMLOG
For strings attached at both ends, the number of _____ present will tell you which harmonic it is
- the # of antinodes will tell you which harmonic it is - 1 antinode = fundamental frequency = λ = 2L - 2 antinodes = second harmonic = λ = L - 3 antinodes = third harmonic = λ = 2L/3
Birth rate
- the # of births in a population per unit time - usually measured as births per 1000 people per year
Mortality rate
- the # of deaths in a population per unit time - usually measured as deaths per 1000 people per year - can be a significant brake on population growth in many parts of the world - ex. with advancements in healthcare and access, the mortality rate in the U.S. has dropped significantly, increasing the average age of the population
Incidence
- the # of new cases of an illness per population at risk in a given amount of time - new cases / population at risk / time - note: if you already have the illness, you are no longer at risk - ex. the # of new cases of lung cancer per 1000 at-risk people per year
Age dependency ratio
- the # of people over 65 divided by the number of people aged 15-65 - quantifies the economic burden felt by the working population (15-64) in order to support the portion of the population outside of the workforce (under 15 and over 65)
What must be true about the 2 solvents used for an extraction to work?
- the 2 solvents must be immiscible and must have different polarity or acid-base properties that allow a compound of interest to dissolve more easily in 1 than the other
Which zone or band in the sarcomere does NOT change its length during muscle contraction?
- the A band - b/c it is the entire length of the myosin filament - the filaments do not change length, but rather slide over each other - thus, the A band should remain a constant length during contraction
In an IR spectrum, how does extended conjugation of double bonds affect the absorbance band of carbonyl stretches compared with normal absorption?
- the absorbance band will occur at a lower wavenumber - carbonyl groups in conjugation with double bonds tend to absorb at lower wavenumbers b/c the delocalization of pi electrons causes the C-O double bond to lose double-bond character, shifting the stretching frequency closer to C-O stretches - remember that higher-order bonds tend to have higher absorption frequencies, so loss of double bond character should decrease the absorption frequency of the group
Bond dissociation energy
- the average energy that is required to break a particular type of bond between atoms in the gas phase ΔH = SUM OF BONDS BROKEN (total energy absorbed) - SUM OF BOND FORMED (total energy released)
Role performance
- the carrying out of behaviors associated with a given role - people can vary in how successful they are at performing a role - ex. part of a doctor's role is translating medical information into language their patients can understand. some are good at this, some are bad at this - can change depending on the social situation and context of the interaction - ex. doctors and their roles with each other vs patients
A glycolytic reaction is spontaneous under standard conditions. During gluconeogenesis, this reaction is run in reverse. This can be thermodynamically accomplished in cells b/c:
- the cell alters the concentration of the substrates - if the reaction is spontaneous under standard conditions then it has a negative ΔG - in contrast, running the process backward would have a positive ΔG and would not be thermodynamically possible - the only way for the cell to alter the free energy is to change the concentration of the substrates away from those at standard conditions - we can switch the direction the reaction will want to proceed by taking advantage of Le Chatelier's principle
Sarcolemma
- the cell membrane of a myocyte (muscle cell/fiber) - capable of propagating an action potential and can distribute the action potential to all sarcomeres in a muscle using a system of transverse tubules (T-tubules) that are oriented perpendicularly to the myofibrils
Chelation
- the central cation can be bonded to the same ligand in multiple places - it generally requires large organic ligands that can double back to form a second (or even third) bond with the central cation - chelation therapy is often used to sequester toxic metals (lead, arsenic, mercury, etc)
Transverse wave
- the direction of particle oscillation is perpendicular to the propagation (movement) of the wave - you can form a transverse wave by attaching a string to a fixed point and then moving your arm up and down - ex. think of "The Wave" in a stadium. The people (particles) move perpendicular to the direction of the wave - ex. electromagnetic waves, such as visible light, microwaves, and x-rays
What causes the powerstroke in muscle contraction?
- the dissociation of ADP and Pi from myosin - note: NOT the hydrolysis of ATP !!!! (binding of ATP is required for releasing the myosin head from the actin filament)
High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), previously known as high-pressure liquid chromatography
- the eluent is a liquid, and it travels through a column of a defined composition - fairly similar to column chromatography b/c the various compounds in solution will react differently with the adsorbent material - in the past, very high pressures were used (hence the old name), but recent advances allow for much lower pressures (hence the new name) - a small sample is injected into the column, and separation occurs as it flows through - the compounds pass through a detector and are collected as the solvent flows out of the end of the apparatus - similar to apparatus of gas chromatography b/c the entire process is computerized, but it uses liquid under pressure instead of gas - b/c the whole process is under computer control, sophisticated solvent gradients and temperature can be applied to the column to help resolve the various compounds in the sample -- hence the "high performance" in the name
Insertion
- the end of the muscle with the smaller attachment to bone (usually the distal connection)
What is the best explanation for the fact that a larger mass of electrodes are required for lead-acid batteries, as compared to other batteries, to produce a certain current?
- the energy density of lead-acid electrodes is lower than that of other batteries
Ideal solution
- the enthalpy of dissolution is 0 - the overall strength of the new interactions after dissolution is about equal to the overall strength of the original interactions
Sympatric speciation
- the formation of new species in populations that live in the same geographic area - occurs when 2 populations of 1 species diverge into 2 species while occupying the same physical environment - ex. tetraploid plants in a population of T. officinale become increasingly specialized to produce large quantities of nectar that attract particular pollinating insects, which then largely ignore diploid and triploid plants -- since the tetraploids are physically separated from the other T. officinale plants, the 2 populations are considered sympatric and not allopatric
Adaptation function (Functional attitudes theory)
- the idea that expressed socially acceptable attitudes will lead to acceptance - ex. a person declaring to a social group that they enjoyed a popular movie can help to build social bonds
Teacher expectancy
- the idea that teachers tend to get what they expect from students - a teacher who places high demands on students -- but also believes that their students can rise to the challenge -- will more often see students succeed than a teacher who places the same demands but doubts that the student can achieve them - an example of self-fulfilling prophecy
Horizontal segments of the nephron are primarily focused on:
- the identity of the particles in the urine ("keep what the body needs and lose what it doesn't") - ex. Bowman's capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, and distal convoluted tubule
Recombination frequency
- the likelihood that 2 alleles are separated from each other during crossing over - tightly linked genes have recombination frequencies close to 0% - weakly linked genes have recombination frequencies approaching 50% (as expected from independent assortment) - tightly linked genes = closer together = are not likely to undergo crossing over and separate from each other - recombination frequencies can be analyzed on a genetic map to determine the order of genes in a chromosome - one map unit or centimorgan = 1% change of recombination occurring between 2 genes (ex. if 2 genes were 25 map units apart, we would expect 25% of the total gametes examined to show recombination somewhere between these 2 genes)
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
- the loss of CD4+ T-cells (helper T-cells) prevents the immune system from mounting an adequate response to infection - acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is advanced HIV infection, and even weak pathogens can cause devastating consequences as opportunistic infections
Fundamental frequency (first harmonic)
- the lowest frequency (longest wavelength) of vibration of a standing wave
Amplitude
- the maximal displacement of a wave from the equilibrium position to the top of a crest or bottom of a trough - note: it is not the total displacement between a crest and a trough
How does applying a force at the natural frequency of a system change the system?
- the object will resonate b/c the force frequency equals the natural (resonant) frequency - the amplitude of the oscillation will increase
Osmolarity trends in the nephron
- the osmolarity in the cortex is approximately the same as that of the blood and remains at that level - deeper in the medulla, the osmolarity in the interstitium can range from isotonic with blood (when trying to excrete water) to 4x as concentrated (when trying to conserve water) - if the concentration is the same in the tubule and in the interstitium, there is no driving force (gradient), and the water will be lost in urine - if the interstitium is more concentrated, then water will move out of the tubule, into the interstitium, and eventually back into the blood
What direction does the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve shift as a result of exercise? What physiological changes cause this shift and why?
- the oxyhemoglobin curve shifts to the right during exercise in response to increased arterial CO2, increasing [H+], decreased pH, and increased temperature - this right shift represents hemoglobin's decreased affinity for O2, which allows more O2 to be unloaded at the tissues
A patient presents to the ER with a stab wound to the left side of the chest. On a chest x-ray, blood is noted to be collecting in the chest cavity, causing collapse of both lobes of the left lung. The blood is most likely located between:
- the parietal and visceral pleura (in the intrapleural space) - it is normally collapses and contains a small amount of fluid - however, introduction of fluid or air into the intrapleural space can fill the space, causing collapse of the lung
Longitudinal wave
- the particles of the wave oscillate parallel to the direction of propagation - the wave particles are oscillating in the direction of energy transfer - ex. sound waves - ex. laying a slinky flat on a table top and tapping it on the end
Self-presentation
- the process of displaying ourselves to society both visually (through clothing, grooming, etc) and through our actions, often to make sure others see us in the best possible light - one form of impression management
Globalization
- the process of merging of the separate nations of the world into a single sociocultural entity - a relatively recent phenomenon spurred on by improvements in global communication technology and economic interdependence - leads to a decrease in the geographical constraints on social and cultural exchanges, which can have both positive and negative effects - 4 major hallmarks: international trade, cross-border investment, migration of individuals, and the free flow of information - positive effects: increased availability of foods from around the world, increased social interaction - negative effects: significant worldwide unemployment, rising prices, increased pollution, increased transmission of infectious disease, civil unrest, global terrorism, and further inequalities of space, food, water, energy, housing, and education
A researcher runs a 50 kDa protein on a native gel and observed a single band. The same protein is then run on a reducing gel with an identical band observed. Finally, the protein is run on an SDS reducing gel and a single band is observed at 25 kDa. What is true of the protein?
- the protein is a homodimer without disulfide bonds - a reducing gel will disrupt disulfide bonds while an SDS gel will disrupt non-disulfide interactions that contribute to secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures - when the protein is run on a reducing gel, the same band is observed as on the native gel, which indicates that the protein does not contain disulfide bonds - when run on an SDS reducing gel, a band appears that is 1/2 the molecular weight of the original protein - this indicates that the protein was made of 2 identical subunits (a homodimer)
Wave speed
- the rate at which a wave transmits the energy or matter it is carrying frequency * wavelength f * λ
The rate of evolution is measured by ____________ and related to _________________?
- the rate of evolution is measured by the rate of change of a genotype over a period of time and is related to the severity of the evolutionary pressures on the species - if a species is already perfectly suited to its habitat and there are no changes to the conditions in which it lives, the rate of evolution will be exceedingly slow -- although there will still be some small base rate of genetic mutation - if an organism lives in a rapidly changing environment, the rate of evolution will be greater, as selection for and against certain traits will be actively occurring within that population
When nitrogen or nitrogen-containing derivatives react with aldehydes and ketones, what type of reaction happens, and what function group is formed?
- the rxn that occurs is a condensation rxn b/c a small molecule is lost - it is also a nucleophilic substitution reaction - results in the formation of an imine (or, for nitrogen-containing derivatives: oximes, hydrazones, or semicarbazones)
After one round of replication in the Meselson-Stahl experiment, all DNA has an intermediate density. Which of the 3 initial models of DNA are viable hypothesis?
- the semiconservative and dispersive model only - semiconservative model is viable b/c if one strand of DNA is heavy (old) and one strand is light (new) then the molecule as a whole will have an intermediate density - dispersive is viable b/c if the daughter strands are composes of partially new and old DNA then we would expect the new molecules to have an intermediate density. The dispersive model is disproved only after the results of subsequent replications are analyzed - conservative is not viable b/c if 1 molecule is heavy (old) and 1 molecule is light (new), then the results of the experiment would have showed 2 different densities after 1 round of replication
Vertical segments of the nephron are primarily focused on:
- the volume and concentration of the urine ("concentrate the urine to conserve water") - ex. loop of Henle and collecting duct
Effect of vasoconstriction
- thermoregulation - The arteries that supply the internal organs constrict, to reduce blood flow to these areas so that it can re-directed to other priorities. - as capillaries contract, less blood can pass through them, conserving thermal energy
Effect of vasodilation
- thermoregulation - The arteries that supply the working muscles dilate, to increase blood flow and oxygen supply - capillaries expand, more blood can pass through these vessels, and a larger amount of thermal energy can be dissipated
Why is it difficult to isolate hemiacetals and hemiketals?
- these molecules are unstable - the OH group is rapidly protonated and lost as water under acidic conditions, leaving behind a reactive carbocation that is very susceptible to the attack by an OH
How are carbohydrates and amino acids absorbed into the bloodstream?
- they are absorbed into capillaries of the small intestine and enter the systemic circulation via the hepatic portal system
How are fats absorbed into the bloodstream?
- they are absorbed into lacteals in the small intestine, bypassing the hepatic portal circulation to enter systemic circulation via the thoracic duct - when released from intestinal cells, fats are packaged into lipoproteins, which are water-soluble
Why are the alpha-hydrogens of aldehydes and ketones acidic?
- they are acidic (deprotonate easily) due to inductive and resonance effects - the electronegative O atom pulls electron density from the C-H bond, weakening it - once deprotonated, the resonance stabilization of the negative charge between the alpha-carbon, carbonyl carbon, and electron-withdrawing carbonyl O increases the stability of this form
Atria
- thin-walled upper chambers of the heart - the right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the venae cavae - the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins - the atria contract to push blood into the ventricles - atria are separated by atrioventricular valves
Where are most self-reactive T-cells eliminated?
- thymus - T-cells mature in the thymus where they are "educated" - this education involves the elimination of T-cells with improper binding to MHC-antigen complexes (positive selection) and self-reactive T-cells (negative selection)
Regulator gene (operon)
- transcribed to form repressor protein
With which molecule does Ca2+ bind after its release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum to regulate muscle contraction?
- troponin (on actin) - this causes tropomyosin to shift, exposing the myosin-binding sites on the actin
Intramembranous ossification
- undifferentiated embryonic connective tissue (mesenchymal tissue) is transformed into, and replaced by, bone - occurs in the bones of the skull - ex. to facilitate the process of birth, an infant's head is somewhat flexible. This flexibility is due in part to fontanelles, which are soft spots of connective tissue in the infant's skull. With time, the fontanelles will close through this process
Latent functions
- unintended, unstated, or unrecognized positive consequences of these actions on society - when an organization or institution has unintended but beneficial consequences - an unintended positive effect on a system - ex. annual meetings of medical societies may have the latent function of creating stronger interpersonal bonds between physicians and providing a sense of identity for the group
__________ blood is almost never given in a transfusion
- whole blood - rather, packed RBC's with no plasma are generally given - thus, we only care about the donor's red blood cell antigens (not their plasma antibodies) when determining whether hemolysis will occur
Under what conditions will a carboxylic acid spontaneously decarboxylate?
1,3-dicarboxylic acids (ex. beta-dicarboxylic acids, beta-keto acids) will spontaneously decarboxylate when heated due to the stable cyclic intermediate step
For redox reactions with an equilibrium constant greater than 1: 1. Is the Ecell (+) or (-)? 2. Is the natural logarithm (+) or (-)? 3. what type of electrochemical cell is this?
1. Ecell will be positive 2. the logarithm of any # greater than 1 is positive 3. galvanic - if Ecell is (+), lnKeq is (+) - this means that Keq must be greater than 1 and that the equilibrium lies to the right (products are favored)
Gamma decay occurs when a nucleus emits: A. a photon. B. a proton. C. a neutron. D. an electron.
A. a photon.
The 3 primary components of attitude:
ABC 1) Affective 2) Behavioral 3) Cognitive
Mnemonic for the type of T-cell and the MHC they correspond to:
CD x MHC = 8 CD4+ (Helper T-Cells) cells respond to MHC-II b/c 4 x 2 = 8 CD8+ (Killer T-Cells) cells respond to MHC-I b/c 8 x 1 = 8
Butanoic acid + NaBH4 ----->
NO REACTION! NaBH4 is not strong enough to reduce carboxylic acids
When a bond is created between two nucleotide triphosphates in DNA synthesis, the small molecule released from this reaction is:
Pyrophosphate
The speed of sound is ____________ in a solid and ___________ in a gas
The speed of sound is fastest in a solid with low density and slowest in a very dense gas
Thrombus formation (blood clotting) occurs when
blood vessels are injured
Differences in amplitude between visual stimuli are perceived as differences in
brightness
Most sensory receptors are found in and sweat glands, blood vessels, and hair follicles originate in the ____________
dermis
Interstrand DNA damage
double-stranded damage
The valve that separates the right ventricle from the pulmonary circulation is the
pulmonary (semilunar) valve (3 leaflets)
If blood levels of CO2 become too low, how does the brain alter the respiratory rate to maintain homeostasis?
when CO2 levels become too low, the brain can decrease the respiratory rate in order to raise CO2 levels
What are the only 2 equations involving standard change in free energy in electrochemical cells?
ΔG = -nFEcell ΔG = -RTln(Keq)
For an Ni-Cd battery charging: Galvanic or electrolytic? = Anode material = Anode charge = Cathode material = Cathode charge =
Galvanic or electrolytic? = electrolytic Anode material = Cd(OH)2 Anode charge = (+) Cathode material = Ni(OH)2 Cathode charge = (-)
For a molten NaCl battery discharging: Galvanic or electrolytic? = Anode material = Anode charge = Cathode material = Cathode charge =
Galvanic or electrolytic? = electrolytic Anode material = any Anode charge = (+) Cathode material = any Cathode charge = (-)
Paternalism (medicine)
- "doctor knows best" mentality - we want to decrease this - centers around the idea that people with authority or high status have better information and more right to make decisions than other people - ex. if doctors, who are generally high SES, apply this mindset to patients with lower SES, they may believe that they already know what is best for those patients. High SES patients on the other hand will be seen as having more right to make their own decisions. Thus, a doctor may discuss fewer potential treatments with low SES patients, opting instead to merely explain the one treatment already chosen by the doctor, while patients with higher SES will be offered more treatment options
Postconventional (Kohlberg)
- "expected in a smaller subset of adults with more advanced moral reasoning skills than the average population" - seen in adulthood (if at all) - not everyone is capable of this stage - reasoning is based on abstract principles - stages: social contract (views moral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure the greater good, ex. "everyone has a right to live, and businesses have a right to profit from their products") and universal human ethics (reasons that decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principles, "it is wrong for one person to hold another's life for ransom")
Conventional (Kohlberg)
- "normal adult moral reasoning" - seen in adolescence to adulthood - reasoning based on the relationship of the individual to society - based on understanding and accepting social rules - stages: conformity (places emphasis on the "good boy, nice girl" orientation in which a person seeks the approval of others, ex. "I should not steal the drug b/c stealing is wrong") and law & order (maintains the social order in the highest regard, ex. "if everyone stole things they couldn't afford, people who produce those items would not be able to continue their business") - ex. avoiding driving above the speed limit b/c speeding is dangerous and if everyone did it, there would be more accidents and people would get hurt (law and order)
Translation
- "when translating a foreign language we are changing the language" -- RNA translation changes the language from nucleotides to amino acids - RNA -----> proteins - occurs in the cytoplasm with ribosomes 1. Initiation 2. Elongation 3. Termination
5' Cap
- 1 of the 3 major posttranscriptional modifications that turn hnRNA into mature mRNA - at the 5' end of the hnRNA molecule (formed from transcription), a 7-methylguanylate triphosphate cap is added - the cap is added during the process of transcription and is recognized by the ribosome as the binding site - it also protects the mRNA from degradation in the cytoplasm
Admiration stereotype
- 1 of the 4 categories of the stereotype content model - high competence, high warmth - high status, not competitive - the group is viewed with pride and other positive feelings - ex. in-group, close allies
Envious stereotype
- 1 of the 4 categories of the stereotype content model - high competence, low warmth - high status, competitive - the group is viewed with jealousy, bitterness, or distrust - ex. asians, jews, rich people, feminists
The 3 components of social perception (making judgements/impressions about other people):
- 1) perceiver = influenced by experience, motives, and emotional state (ex. past experiences affect our attitudes/expectations of an event) - 2) target = the person about which the perception is made. Knowledge of the target can include past experiences or specific information that affect perception - 3) situation = a given social context can determine what information is available to the perceiver
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Erikson)
- 1-3 years - "Is it okay to be me?" - favorable outcome: feeling able to exert control over the world and to exercise choice and self-restraint - unfavorable outcome: if overly controlled and criticized, the child will have doubt and a persistent external locus of control
Anal Stage (Freud's Psychosexual Stages)
- 1-3 years - gratification is gained through the elimination and retention of waste materials - toilet training occurs during this time - fixation can lead to excessive orderliness (anal-retentiveness) or messiness
Aldol condensation
- 2 aldehydes, 2 ketones, or 1 aldehyde + 1 ketone -----> α,β-unsaturated carbonyl - 2 steps - 1st step: the alpha-carbon of an aldehyde or ketone is deprotonated, generating the enolate carbanion - this carbanion can then attack another aldhyde or ketone, generating an aldol (aldehyde + alcohol, ald + ol) - 2nd step: the aldol is dehydrated, forming a double bond between the alpha and beta carbons - is a condensation reaction (2 molecules are joined by the loss of a small molecule), dehydration reaction (water is lost), and a nucleophile-electrophile reaction (a nucleophile pushes an electron pair to form a bond with an electrophile) - the enolate carbanion (aldehyde or ketone is deprotonated to form this) acts as the nucleophile - the keto form of the aldehyde or ketone acts as the electrophile - note: the reaction is still called an aldol condensation even when the reactants are ketones - this reaction is also most useful when we only use 1 type of aldehyde or ketone. If there are multiple aldehydes or ketones, we cannot easily control which will act as the nucleophile vs electrophile, so a mixture of products will be formed
Divergent evolution
- 2 species with a common ancestor become less familiar b/c of different evolutionary pressures - ex. seals and cats are both mammals in the order Carnivora, yet they differ markedly in general appearance. These 2 species live in very different environments and adapted to different selection pressures while evolving
Freud Instinct theories
- 2 types: life and death instincts - life instincts (eros) = promote an individual's quest for survival through thirst, hunger, and sexual needs - death instincts (thanatos) = represent an unconscious wish for death and destruction
Active Phase of Schizophrenia
- 2nd phase - pronounced psychotic symptoms are displayed - symptoms are apparent - this is when diagnosis usually occurs - if schizophrenia development is slow, correct diagnosis is difficult and the prognosis is especially poor - if the onset of symptoms is intense and sudden, the diagnosis is readily made and the prognosis is better
What characteristics of phosphoric acids make them good buffers?
- 3 H's in phosphoric acid have very different pKa values - this allows phosphoric acid to pick up or give off protons in a wide pH range, making it a good buffer over most of the pH scale
Phallic Stage (Freud's Psychosexual Stages)
- 3-5 years - Oedipal (male) or Electra (female) conflict is resolved during this stage - Oedipal: the male child envies his father's intimate relationship with his mother, the child will de-eroticize or sublimate his libidinal energy to deal with this guilt - Electra: "penis envy", girls are expected to exhibit less stereotypically female behavior and to be less morally developed
Initiative vs. Guilt (Erikson)
- 3-6 years - "Is it okay for me to do, move, and act?" - cause and effect - favorable outcome: gain a sense of purpose, the ability to initiate activities, and the ability to enjoy accomplishment - unfavorable outcome: if guilt and fear of punishment win, may excessively restrict themselves or overcompensate by showing off
Generativity vs. Stagnation (Erikson)
- 40-65 years - "Can I make my life count?" - focus is on advancing present and future society - favorable outcome: capable of being productive, caring, and being a contributing member of society - unfavorable outcome: being stagnant, self-indulgent, bored, and self-centered
By volume, blood is about 55% ________ and 45% _________
- 55% liquid and 45% cells - liquid = plasma - cells = erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets
Adipic acid
- 6 carbon dicarboxylic acid - AKA hexanedioic acid
Industry vs. Inferiority (Erikson)
- 6-12 years - "Can I make it in the world of people and things?" - becoming aware of oneself - favorable outcome: will feel competent, be able to exercise their abilities and intelligence, and be able to affect the world in the way the child desires - unfavorable outcome: sense of inadequacy, incompetence, and low self-esteem
Integrity vs. Despair (Erikson)
- 65 years-death - "Is it okay to have been me?" - focus is being reflective and contemplative - favorable outcome: wisdom, assurance in the meaning of life, dignity, an acceptance of the one's life being worthwhile, and readiness to face death - unfavorable outcome: bitterness, feeling that life has been worthless, and fearing over one's impending doom
The fastest-growing age cohort in the U.S. is the _________ group
- 85 or older - this has profound effects on healthcare: more than 40% of adult patients in acute care hospital beds are 65 or older - government programs such as Medicare and Social Security will experience increased demand, which may result in the collapse of these programs
Solvation
- AKA dissolution (and specifically when water is the solvent, hydration) - involves breaking intermolecular interactions between solute molecules and between solvent molecules and forming new intermolecular interactions between solute and solvent molecules together - when the new interactions are stronger than the original ones, solvation is exothermic and the process is favored at low temps - ex. the dissolution of gases in liquids, like CO2 in H2O, is exothermic b/c the only significant interactions that must be broken are those between water molecules - when the new interactions are weaker than the original ones, solvation is endothermic and heat/energy must be supplied to facilitate the formation of these weaker, less stable interactions. This process is thus favored at high temps - ex. ammonium nitrate or sugar dissolving in water - ex. ionic bonds between Na+ and Cl- must be broken, and hydrogen bonds between water molecules must be broken. This step requires energy and is thus endothermic. B/c water is polar, it can interact with each of the component ions through ion-dipole interactions. As a result, the overall dissolution of table salt into water is endothermic and favored at high temps
Energy reserves in muscles:
- ATP is the primary source of energy in muscle contraction - very little ATP is stored; other forms of energy must be stored and converted into ATP - creatine phosphate can be converted to ATP - myoglobin provides O2
Biological markers of depression:
- Abnormally high glucose metabolism in amygdala - Hippocampal atrophy after long illness - Abnormally high levels of glucocorticoids (cortisol) - Decreased norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine (monamine theory of depression)
Inferiority complex
- Adler - an individual's sense of incompleteness, imperfection, and inferiority both physically and socially - according to Adler, striving for superiority drives the personality
Style of life
- Adler - represents the manifestation of the creative self and describes a person's unique way of achieving superiority - family environment is crucial to molding this
Creative self
- Adler - the force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and establishes his personality
Infrasonic waves
- sound waves with frequencies less than 20 Hz - outside the range of normal human hearing
Fictional finalism
- Adler - the notion that an individual is motivated more by their expectations of the future than by the past - ex. "Life would be perfect if only . . . " - ex. "If I won the lottery, I'd finally have the life I've always wanted. All my stress would go away and I could live comfortably"
Functional autonomy
- Allport - a behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created the behavior - ex. a hunter originally hunted to obtain food to eat. however, the hunter may continue even after there is enough food simply for the enjoyment of the hunt
Secondary traits
- Allport - personal characteristics that are more limited in occurrence - aspects of one's personality that only appear in close groups or specific social situations
Central traits
- Allport - represent major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer - ex. honestly and charisma
Amide hydrolysis
- Amide + Water --> Carboxylic Acid + ammonia - strong acid or base is needed to catalyze these reactions, but is favored in strong acid - acidic conditions allow the carbonyl O to become protonated, making the molecule more susceptible to nucleophilic attack by a water molecule - with basic conditions, the carbonyl O is not protonated and the nucleophile is a hydroxide ion. The product of this reaction would be the deprotonated carboxylate anion - this is the reverse reaction of the condensation reaction by which amides are formed
Basic anxiety/Basic hostility
- Horney - inadequate parenting can cause vulnerability and helplessness: basic anxiety - neglect and rejection can cause anger: basic hostility - to overcome these, children uses 3 strategies: 1) moving toward people to obtain the goodwill of people who provide security, 2) moving again people or fighting people to obtain the upper hand, 3) moving away or withdrawing from people - healthy people use all 3 strategies, but a highly threatened child will use one of these strategies exclusively and carry this into adulthood
Neurotic needs
- Horney - individuals with neurotic personalities are governed by 1 of 10 neurotic needs - ex. need for affection and approval, need to exploit others, need for self-sufficiency and independence - healthy people have these needs to some degree, but they become problematic if: 1) these needs are disproportionate in intensity, 2) they are indiscriminate in application, 3) they partially disregard reality, or 4) they have a tendency to provoke intense anxiety - ex. someone with a neurotic need for self-sufficiency and independence would go to great extremes to avoid being obligated to someone else in any way
Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a disease in which scar tissue forms in the alveolar walls, making the lung tissue significantly more stiff. Which of the following findings would likely be detected through spirometry in a patient with IPF? I. Decreased total lung capacity II. Decrease inspiratory reserve volume III. Increased residual volume
- II only - increased stiffness of the lungs would likely decrease the volume of air the individual could inhale, which would decrease both the total lung capacity and inspiratory reserve volume - however, spirometry cannot measure the total lung capacity accurately b/c it cannot determine the residual volume - thus, while both I and II are true about patients with IPF, only II can be measured with a spirometer - note: increased stiffness the lungs would be expected to decrease the residual volume and cannot be measured by a spirometer
Excessive stereotyping
- Irving Janis - 1 of 8 factors indicative of groupthink - members construct stereotypes of those expressing outside opinions - ex. McCarthy era propaganda
Illusion of invulnerability
- Irving Janis - 1 of 8 factors indicative of groupthink - members encourage risks, ignore possible pitfalls and are too optimistic
Pressure for conformity
- Irving Janis - 1 of 8 factors indicative of groupthink - members feel pressured not to express opinions that disagree with the group, and view opposition as disloyal - ex. McCarthy era propaganda - ex. "If you aren't with us, you're against us"
Collective rationalization
- Irving Janis - 1 of 8 factors indicative of groupthink - members ignore expressed concerns about group approved ideas
Self-censorship
- Irving Janis - 1 of 8 factors indicative of groupthink - members withhold ideas and opinions that disagree with the group
Mindguards
- Irving Janis - 1 of 8 factors indicative of groupthink - some members may decide to take on a role protecting the group against opposing views - ex. McCarthy era propaganda
Capitalism
- Karl Marx - focus on free market trade and laissez-faire policies, where success or failure in business is primarily driven by consumerism with as little intervention from central governing bodies as possible - an economic system in which individuals and corporations, rather than governments, own and control the means of production (property, machinery, factories, services, etc) - this private ownership leads to a small, wealthy capitalist (bourgeoisie) class that controls the means of production - the rest of society is in the lower worker (proletariat) class that performs manual labor - eventually, the worker class will rise up and overthrow the capitalist class to form a new, classless society (conflict theory) by developing class consciousness - encourage division of labor, where specific components of a larger task are separated and assigned to skilled and trained individuals - this promotes specialization and efficiency
Personal construct psychology
- Kelly - humanistic theory -people are scientists that devise & test predictions about behavior of significant people in their lives - the individual constructs a scheme of anticipation of what others will do, based on their knowledge, perception, and relationship with these other people - people experience anxiety when they have difficulty constructing & understanding variables in environment - psychotherapy is a process of insight whereby the individual acquires new constructs that will allow them to successfully predict troublesome events
What best describes why overcharging a Ni-Cd battery is not detrimental?
- Ni-Cd batteries have a high surge current and can dissipate the overcharge before damage can occur to electrodes - during the recharge cycle, Ni-Cd cells will accept current from an outside source until the Cd and NiO(OH) electrodes are pure - at this point, the reaction will stop b/c Cd(OH)2 runs out and no more electrons can be accepted
IR absorptions you should know:
- O-H = broad peak around 3300 cm^-1 for alcohols and 3000 cm^-1 for carboxylic acids (lower wavenumber for carboxylic acid b/c the carbonyl pulls some of the electron density out of the O-H) - N-H = sharp peak around 3300 cm^-1 - carbonyl = sharp, deep peak 1700-1750 cm^-1 - note: the bond between any atom and hydrogen always has a relatively high absorption frequency, and as we add more bonds between carbon atoms, the absorption frequency increases
When gases initially arrive at the alveoli . . .
- O2 in the alveoli flows down its partial pressure gradient from the alveoli (high pressure of O2) to the pulmonary capillaries (low pressure of O2) - CO2 flows down its partial pressure gradient from the capillaries (high pressure of CO2) to the alveoli for expiration (low pressure of CO2) - b/c of these gradients, no energy is required for gas transfer
What are the Big Five personality traits?
- OCEAN - PEN theory expanded into this - openness = describes openness to experience, or willingness to engage with the world and desire to try new things - conscientiousness = self control, high conscientiousness is associated with high impulse control/organized, low conscientiousness is associated with spontaneity/impulsive - extraversion = a measure of tolerance for social interaction and stimulation (ex. highly sociable) - agreeableness = refers to the degree to which a person is concerned about maintaining peace and harmony in their interactions with others - neuroticism = a measure of emotional arousal in stressful situations (ex. not keeping calm in stressful situations)
rRNA
- Ribosomal RNA - forms much of the structural and catalytic component of the ribosome - many rRNA molecules act as ribozymes (enzymes made of RNA molecules instead of peptides) to create peptide bonds between amino acids and splice out its own introns within the nucleus - synthesized in the nucleolus
Langerhans cells
- special macrophages that reside within stratum spinosum - capable of presenting antigens to T-cells in order to activate the immune system
SDS is normally required when using ___________________ but not ______________________
- SDS is normally required when using electrophoresis but not isoelectric focusing - electrophoresis is separation of proteins based primarily on size - SDS is used in electrophoresis to make sure that all proteins have a uniform size-to-charge ratio so the only factor determining their motion is size - isoelectric focusing depends on the charges of the surface of the protein, so it does not use SDS
How is socioeconomic status (SES) determined?
- SES is determined by two factors: it can be ascribed according to physical or external characteristics (such as age, gender, or skin color) or acquired through direct efforts (such as hard work or merit) - determined by achieved and ascribed status
Somatotypes (somatoform disorder)
- Sheldon - personality traits based on body type - all short stocky people were jolly, all tall people were high-strung and aloof, and people in between were strong and well-adjusted
What compound is the reference peak of NMR?
- Tetramethylsilane (TMS) - it is used as the calibration standard to mark 0 ppm - it is an electron-donating group, so it will help shield the H nuclei and give it a position further upfield - everything else in proton NMR will be more deshielded than it - note: when counting peaks, make sure to skip the TMS peak
A patient presents to the ER with an asthma attack. The patient has been hyperventilating for the past hour and has a blood pH of 7.52. The patient is given treatment and does not appear to response, but a subsequent blood pH reading is 7.41. Why might this normal blood pH NOT be a reassuring sign?
- The patient may be descending into respiratory failure - when a patient with an asthma attack does not respond to treatment and has been hyperventilating for over an hour, they may become fatigued and may not be able to maintain hyperventilation - the patient begins to decrease their breathing rate and is not receiving adequate O2 - by extension, CO2 is trapped in the blood, and pH begins to drop - despite the fact that pH is normal at the moment, this patient is crashing and may start demonstrating acidemia in the near future
Organization
- a body with a specific set of goals, a structure, and a culture - complex secondary groups that are set up to achieve specific goals - ex. schools, companies, music groups, sports teams, fraternities, sororities, political organizations, and community action committees - ex. bureaucracy
Social class
- a category of people who share a similar socioeconomic position in society, and can be identified by looking at the economic opportunities, job positions, lifestyles, attitudes, and behaviors of a given slice of society
Flashbulb memory
- a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event - people claimed to remember detail of what they were doing when they received news about an emotionally arousing event - ex. Under certain circumstances, such as having received news about something traumatic on a particular day, many people claim that they remember every detail of what they were doing when they received the news
Enteric nervous system
- a collection of 100 million neurons that govern the function of the GI system - these neurons present in the walls of the digestive tract trigger peristalsis, or rhythmic contractions of the gut tube in order to move materials through the system - this system can function independently of the brain and spinal cord, although it is heavily regulated by the autonomic nervous system
Social group
- a collection of at least 2 individuals (smallest size a group can be is 2) who share any # of similar characteristics as well as a sense of unity - dyad = 2 people - triad = 3 people - as group size increases, the group trades intimacy for stability - ex. a triadic group is a more stable arrangement than a dyadic group. From the perspective of basic group dynamics in sociology, larger groups are generally considered more stable but less intimate, whereas smaller groups are usually considered less stable but more intimate. Dyads are unstable because either party can break the single social tie. The triad is considered relatively more stable because of the additional social tie. As a result, the triadic group provides the advantage of added stability in group dynamics. HOWEVER, larger groups do not necessarily transfer information more effectively than smaller groups, and can actually lead to less effective information transfer at times. The advantage of larger group size is related to group stability rather than to the transfer of information.
Split-brain
- a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them - the right hemisphere of a split-brain patient has no access to the left hemisphere and vice versa - a split-brain patient's left and right cerebral hemispheres are unable to communicate with one another -- other functions such as frontal lobe and vision are not impacted - ex. presenting the target colors to the left half of a split-brain patient's visual field would allow the researchers to determine whether categorical perception occurs even in absence of linguistic information, including color names
Learned helplessness
- a condition that occurs after a period of negative consequences where the person begins to believe they have no control - strongly related to clinical depression - uncontrollable exposure to an aversive stimulus results in learned helplessness, independently of the intensity of the punishment - ex. giving a participant a moderate electric shock that the participant cannot escape
When HCN reacts with an aldehyde or ketone, what functional group is produced? Is the product stable?
- a cyanohydrin is produced (once the O has been reprotonated) - this is a stable product b/c of the newly formed C-C bond
Damping/attenuation of sound
- a decrease in amplitude of a wave caused by an applied or nonconservative force - this causes measurements of sound to be lower than expected from calculations - oscillations are a form of repeated linear motion, so sound is subject to the same nonconservative forces as any other system, such as friction, air resistance, and viscous drag
Rotary evaporator (rotovap)
- a device used in chemical laboratories for the efficient and gentle removal of solvents from samples by evaporation - used after extractions to evaporate the solvent and leave behind only the desired product
Erythroblastosis fetalis
- a disorder that results from the incompatibility of a fetus with Rh-positive blood and a mother with Rh-negative blood, causing red blood cell destruction in the fetus; a blood transfusion is necessary to save the fetus - can be fatal to the fetus - if a woman is Rh- and her fetus is Rh+, she will become sensitized to the Rh factor, and her immune system will begin making antibodies against it - this isn't a problem for the first child b/c by the time the mother starts producing antibodies, the child has already been born - any subsequent pregnancy in which the fetus is Rh+ will present a problem b/c maternal anti-Rh antibodies can cross the placenta and attack the fetal blood cells, resulting in hemolysis of the fetal cells - can usually be avoided by giving the Rh- mother RhoGAM, which will absorb the fetus's Rh+ cells, preventing the production of anti-Rh antibodies by the mother
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
- a disproportionate and persistent worry about things for 6 months - can be triggered by many stimuli - the worrying is difficult to control, even when the patient knows their worrying and fear is irrational - ex. making mortgage payments, doing a good job at work, returning emails, political issues, etc
Periosteum
- a fibrous sheath that surrounds the long bone - protects long bone as well as serves as a site for muscle attachment - some periosteal cells are capable of differentiating into bone-forming cells (osteoblasts) - a healthy periosteum is necessary for bone growth and repair
Agranulocytes
- a kind of leukocyte that do not contain granules that are released by exocytosis - includes lymphocytes and monocytes - precursor: hematopoietic stem cells
Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)
- a layer of connective tissue that connects the skin to the rest of the body - contains fat and fibrous tissue
Inclusive fitness (theory of evolution)
- a measure of an organism's success in the population - based on the # of offspring, success in supporting offspring, and the ability of the offspring to then support others - explains that the reproductive success of an organism is not only due to the # of offspring it creates, but also the ability to care for young (that can then care for others) - promotes the idea that altruistic behavior can improve the fitness and success of a species as a whole - it explains changes not only at the individual level, but changes based on the survival of the species (and that individual's alleles within the species, including in other related species) - ex. protecting the offspring of the group at large -- by sacrificing themselves to protect the young, these organisms ensure the passing of genes to future generations - ex. in several species of shrimp, the larger adults will sacrifice themselves to protect the younger, smaller shrimp - ex. a mother gazelle sacrifices herself to prevent a cheetah from catching her children
Frequency
- a measure of how often a waveform passes a given point in space - units: Hz (cycles/second)
Complex ion (AKA coordination compound)
- a molecule in which a cation is bonded to at least 1 electron pair donor (which could include the water molecule) - the electron pair donor molecules are called ligands - complexes are held together with coordinate covalent bonds - the formation of complex ions increases thee solubility of a salt in solution - complexes are more stable in solution than isolated - think of it like this: if a complex ion contains multiple polar bonds between the ligands and the central metal ion, it should be able to engage in a very large amount of dipole-dipole interactions - this stabilizes the dissolution of the complex ion and thus, complexes tend to have very high Ksp values - note: the formation constant of a complex ion is significantly larger than the Ksp of the compound providing the metal ion. This is why the initial dissolution of the metal ion is the rate-limiting step of complex ion formation - many coenzymes/vitamins and cofactors also contain complexes of transition metals - the presence of a transition metal allows coenzymes and cofactors to bind other ligands or assist with electron transfer - ex. the iron cation in hemoglobin, which can carry O2, CO2, and CO as ligands
Founder effect
- a more extreme case of genetic drift in which a small population of a species finds itself in reproductive isolation from other populations as a result of natural barriers, such as catastrophic events, or other bottlenecks that drastically reduce the size of the population available for breeding - b/c the breeding group is small, inbreeding, or the mating between 2 genetically related individuals, may occur in later generations - inbreeding encourages homozygosity, which increases the prevalence of both homozygous dominant and recessive genotypes - genetic drift, the founder effect, and inbreeding cause a reduction in genetic diversity, which is often the reason why a small population may have increased prevalence of certain traits and diseases
Network
- a more formal illustration of the relationships between individuals, usually through graphic representation - observable pattern of social relationships among individuals or groups - can be determined by mapping the interactions between individual units - analysis can be used to gain understanding of the actions of individuals and groups to study the broader social structure - people in networks face the demands and expectations of other members, constraining what they are able to do - they also may have access to resources through the network - ex. a university's alumni association -- the members are held to certain standards and commitments, but also may reap the benefits of the network when searching for a job
A more positive Ered means a greater relative tendency for ____________ to occur A less positive Ered means a greater relative tendency for _____________ to occur
- a more positive Ered means a greater relative tendency for reduction to occur - a less positive Ered means a greater relative tendency for oxidation to occur
Muscle fiber (AKA myocyte or muscle cell)
- a muscle fiber (muscle cell/myocyte) contains many myofibrils in it, arranged in parallel - parallel muscle fibers make up a muscle - the cell membrane is known as the sarcolemma - the nuclei (of which there are many) are usually found at the periphery of the cell
Extensor
- a muscle that increases or straightens the angle across a joint - ex. triceps brachii
Esophagus
- a muscular tube that connects the pharynx (throat) to the stomach - there is an upper and lower esophageal sphincter - top third is composed of skeletal muscle, bottom third is composed of smooth muscle, and middle third is a mix of both - note: the top third is under somatic (voluntary) motor control while the bottom and the rest of the GI tract is under autonomic (involuntary) control - peristalsis squeezes, pushes, and propels the bolus toward the stomach
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
- a noninvasive diagnostic tool that uses proton NMR - multiple cross-sectional scans of the patient's body are taken, and the various chemical shifts of absorbing protons are translated into specific shades of grey - this produces a picture that shows the relative density of specific types of protons
Body dysmorphic disorder
- a person has an unrealistic negative evaluation of their personal appearance and attractiveness, usually directed toward a certain body part - this is (body-focused) preoccupation, a type of worry which lacks the disastrous ideation that accompanies obsession - this belief persists even with clear evidence to the contrary - this disrupts daily life and the patient may even seek multiple plastic surgeries or other extreme interventions
Upward mobility
- a positive change in a person's social status, resulting in a higher position - a type of vertical mobility - ex. professional athletes, professional musicians, and entrepreneurs
Mechanism of mate bias: Fisherian or runaway selection
- a positive feedback mechanism in which a trait that has no effect or a negative effect on survival becomes more and more exaggerated over time - the attractiveness of a trait that imparts a survival disadvantage leads to its continuation and exaggeration within the species - a trait is deemed sexually desirable and thus is more likely to be passed on - ex. the bright plumage of the peacock
Non-homologous end-joining
- a quick-and-dirty mechanism for repairing double-strand breaks in DNA that involves quickly bringing together, trimming, and rejoining the two broken ends - results in a loss of information at the site of repair - fixes double-stranded damage
Crude rate
- a rate in which the denominator includes the total population - birth and mortality rates can be reported in this way
Bureaucracy
- a rational system of political organization, administration, discipline, and control - a specific example of an organization - 6 characteristics: 1) paid, non-elected officials on a fixed salary 2) officials who are provided rights and privileges as a result of making their careers out of holding office 3) regular salary increases, seniority rights, and promotions upon passing exams or milestones 4) officials who enter the organization by holding an advanced degree or training 5) responsibilities obligations privileges, and work procedures rigidly defined by the organization 6) responsibility for meeting the demands of one's position
Bottleneck effect
- a reduction in the genetic diversity of a population caused by a reduction in its size - the diminuation and skewing of the gene pool of a very small, statistically unrepresentative group of survivors from a much large population
Self-schema
- a self-given label that carries with it a set of qualities - ex. the athlete self-schema usually carries the qualities of youth, physical fitness, and dressing/acting in certain ways
Identity
- a set of behaviors and labels we take on when in a specific group - component of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong
The IR spectrum of a fully protonated amino acid would most likely contain which peaks?
- a sharp peak at 1750 cm-1 - a sharp peak at 3300 cm-1 - a broad peak at 3000cm-1 (NOTE: the peak for the OH is NOT at its normal peak, 3300cm-1. This is b/c the C-O double bond in the carboxylic acid withdraws electron density from the OH bond, shifting the absorption frequency down to about 3000cm-1)
What constitutes a motor unit?
- a single motor neuron and all of the fibers that it innervates - the nerve terminal and its myocytes
Zero-sum game
- a situation in which multiple players interact, and winners win only by taking from other players - one person's gain is another's loss
A student has a thin copper beaker containing 100 g of a pure metal in the solid state. The metal is at 215°C, its exact melting temperature. If the student lights a Bunsen burner and holds it for a fraction of a second under the beaker, what will happen to the metal?
- a small amount of the metal will turn to liquid, with the temperature remaining the same - melting occurs at a constant temperature because a certain amount of energy, the latent heat of fusion, is needed to convert a substance from its solid to liquid state. The temperature of the metal will not increase above its melting point until all of the metal has melted. The small amount of heat supplied by the bunsen burner is insufficient to melt 100 g of the metal but could melt a small amount of the metal at the constant temperature of the melting point.
Concentration cell
- a special type of galvanic cell - the electrodes are chemically identical - current is generated as a function of a concentration gradient established between the 2 solutions surrounding the electrodes - the concentration gradient results in a potential difference between the 2 compartments and drives the movement of electrons in the direction that results in equilibration of the ion gradient - the current will stop when the concentrations of ionic species in the half-cells are equal - this implies that the voltage (V) or electromotive force (emf) of a concentration cell is 0 when the concentrations are equal - the voltage can be calculated using the Nernst equation - note: the concentrations of the ions in the 2 compartments must be different for there to be a measurable voltage and current - ex. best represented by the cell membrane of a neuron
Lead-acid battery (AKA lead storage battery)
- a specific type of rechargeable battery (can function as both a galvanic and electrolytic cell) - as a voltaic cell, when fully charged, it consists of 2 half cells -- a Pb anode and a porous PbO2 cathode -- connected by a conductive material (4 M H2SO4) - both half-reactions cause the electrodes to plate with lead sulfate (PbSO4) and dilute the acid electrolyte when discharging - the lead anode is negatively charged and attracts the anionic bisulfate - the lead (IV) oxide cathode is porous, which allows the electrolyte (sulfuric acid) to solvate the cathode into lead and oxide ions - then, the hydrogen ions in solution react with the oxide ions to produce water, and the remaining sulfate ions react with the lead to produce the electroplated lead sulfate - compared to other cells, have the lowest energy-to-weight ratios (energy density) - energy density = a measure of a battery's ability to produce power as a function of its weight - thus, lead-acid batteries require a heavier amount of battery material to produce a certain output Cell diagram (cell notation) for the discharging state of a lead-acid battery: Pb(s) | H2SO4 (4M) || H2SO4 (4M) | PbO2 (s)
Nickel-cadmium batteries
- a specific type of rechargeable battery (can function as both a galvanic and electrolytic cell) - consist of 2 half-cells made of solid cadmium (anode) and nickel (III) oxide-hydroxide (cathode) connected by a conductive material (typically KOH) - have a higher energy density than lead-acid batteries - energy density = a measure of a battery's ability to produce power as a function of its weight - tend to provide higher surge current - surge currents = periods of large current (amperage) early in the discharge cycle - once charged, the surge current will not increase even if the power source continues to be run b/c no additional charge will be stored on the electrodes - ex. AA and AAA cells are made up of Ni-Cd materials - NOTE: Ni-Cd batteries have been largely replaced by Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries which have more energy density, are more cost effective, and are significantly less toxic
Rh factor
- a surface protein expressed on RBCs - was at one time thought to be a single antigen, but it has been found to exist as several variants - Rh+ or Rh- refers to the presence or absence of a specific allele called D - Rh-positivity follows autosomal dominant inheritance, 1 positive allele is enough for the protein to be expressed - eryhtroblastosis fetalis is a disorder concerning this
Dictatorship
- a system where a single person holds power, and usually includes mechanisms to quell threats to this power
Theocracy
- a system where power is held by religious leaders - many of these systems are based around a charismatic authority (= a leader with a compelling personality)
Mass spectrometry
- a technique that separates particles according to their mass - involves the ionization and fragmentation of compounds - these fragments are then run through a magnetic field, which separates them by mass-to-charge ratio - the total molecular weight can thus be determined, or the relative concentrations of the different fragments can be calculated and compared against reference values to identify the compound - it is common to separate molecules using GC and then to inject the pure molecules into a mass spectrometer for molecular weight determination
Lymphatic system
- a type of circulatory system - main function is to collect excess interstitial fluid and return it to the circulatory system, maintaining the balance of body fluids - transports fats from the digestive system into the bloodstream via lacteals -- transports chylomicrons from the small intestine to the circulatory system - if any fluid is left in the tissues (from a low oncotic pressure due to decreased plasma proteins in the bloodstream for example), lymphatic channels will return the fluid to the bloodstream - edema occurs when the lymphatics are overwhelmed and swelling occurs due to fluid collecting in the tissue - made up of one-way vessels that become larger as they move toward the center of the body - these vessels carry lymphatic fluid (lymph) and most join to form a large thoracic duct in the posterior chest, which then delivers the fluid into the left subclavian vein (near the heart) - lymph nodes are found along the lymphatic vessels
Avoidant attachment
- a type of insecure attachment and can lead to deficits in social skills - results when the caregiver has little or no response to a distressed child - shows no preference for a stranger or caregiver - shows little or no distress at departure and little or no relief by return of caregiver
Harmonic
- a whole-number multiple of the fundamental frequency - corresponds to the # of 1/2 wavelengths supported by the string
Theory of mind
- ability to reason about what other people know or believe - the ability to sense how another's mind works - ex. understanding how a friend is interpreting a story while you tell it - once we develop this, we begin to recognize and react to how others think about us
Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRRs)
- able to recognize the category of the invader (bacterium, virus, fungus, or parasite) - this allows for the production of appropriate cytokines to recruit the right type of immune cells - macrophages and dendritic cells have these - ex. toll-like receptors (TLR)
Appraisal model
- accepts that there are biologically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced, but that there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression - closely related to the basic model of emotional expression
Which gas will exert a higher pressure under the same, nonideal conditions: methane or chloromethane?
- according to the van der Waals equation, if a is increased while b remains negligible, the pressure will drop to compensate - thus, methane will behave more ideally than chloromethane b/c a is smaller for methane - the real pressure of methane will thus be higher (closer to idea)
Aldehyde or ketone + 2 equivalents of alcohol ----->
- acetals and ketals - the OH group of a hemiacetal or hemiketal is protonated under acidic conditions and lost as a water molecule
Manifest functions
- actions that are intended to help some part of a system - an intended positive effect on a system - ex. annual meetings of medical societies have the manifest function of educating a group of physicians, sharing research findings, and seeing goals for the next year
All 5 criteria of the Hardy-Weinberg principle are required to imply what characteristics of the study population?
- the criteria all imply that the study population is NOT undergoing evolution - thus, the allele frequencies will remain stable over time
Ventricles
- after the ventricles fill, the right ventricle sends blood to the lungs and the left ventricle sends blood to the systemic circulation - ventricles are far more muscular than the atria, allowing for more powerful contractions that are necessary to push blood throught the rest of the body - ventricles are separated by semilunar valves
Chemical shifts in HNMR to know:
- alkyl groups = 0-3 ppm (higher if electron-withdrawing groups are present) - alkynes = 2-3 ppm - alkenes = 4.6-6 ppm - aromatics = 6-8.5 ppm - aldehydes = 9-10 ppm - carboxylic acids = 10.5-12 ppm
Glucogenic amino acids
- all amino acids except leucine and lysine - can be converted into intermediates that feed into gluconeogenesis to form glucose
What makes glycine unique among the amino acids?
- all amino acids, except glycine, have chiral alpha-carbons - b/c the R group of glycine is a hydrogen atom, it is not chiral and thus is not optically active -
Defense mechanisms
- all defense mechanisms 1) deny/falsify/distort reality and 2) operate unconsciously - there are 8: repression, suppression, regression, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, displacement, and sublimation
Movable joints
- allow the body to make a wide range of movements - they permit bones to shift relative to one another - include hinge joints (ex. elbow or knee) and ball-and-socket joints (ex. shoulder or hip)
Ego-expressive function (Functional attitudes theory)
- allows us to communicate and solidify our self-identity - ex. if a person strongly identifies with a sports team, they may wear a hat that helps identify her as having a positive attitude towards that team
Myofibrils
- an arrangement of many sarcomeres in series - a muscle fiber (muscle cell/myocyte) contains many myofibrils in it, arranged in parallel - surrounded by a covering known as the sarcoplasmic reticulum which contains a high concentration of Ca2+ ions -- tightly controls intracellular Ca2+ so that the muscles are contracted only when necessary - the sarcoplasm is a modified cytoplasm located just outside the sarcoplasmic reticulum
Attachment
- an emotional bond between a caregiver and a child that begins to develop during infancy - parental figures are most common, but emotional bonds can occur with any caregiver who is sensitive and responsive during social interaction - infants need a secure base in the form of a consistent caregiver during the 1st 6 months to 2 years of life, from which to explore the world and develop appropriately - 4 types of attachment styles: 1) secure 2) avoidant 3) ambivalent 4) disorganized
Michael addition
- an enolate carbanion attacks an α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compound (a molecule w/ amultiple bond between the alpha and beta carbons nect to a carbonyl) - first, a strong base will deprotonate the alpha carbon, forming an enolate carbanion, a good nucleophile - next, the carbanion attacks the double bond of the α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compound, resulting in a Michael addition (the 2 compounds are added together)
Doppler effect
- an observed change in the frequency of a wave when the source or observer is moving - describes the difference between the actual frequency of a sound and its perceived frequency when the source of the sound and the sound's detector are moving relative to one another - the sound waves in front of a moving object are being compressed, while the sound waves behind the object are stretched out - if the source and detector are moving toward each other, the perceived frequency is greater than the actual frequency - if the source and detector are moving away from each other, the perceived frequency is less than the actual frequency - ex. as an ambulance or fire truck with its sirens blaring passes you, you can hear a distinct drop in the pitch of the siren - sign convention for the equation: top sign = toward; bottom sign = away
Deviance
- any violation of norms, rules, or expectations within a society - although it's associated with strongly negative connotations, it simply refers to any act that goes against societal norms - also includes any act that meets with disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society - ex. varies in severity, such as jaywalking and murder
Raoult's Law
- as solute is added to a solvent (and more solute is dissolved into solvent), the vapor pressure of the solvent decreases proportionately - accounts for vapor pressure depression - thus, this coincides with boiling point elevation -- the lowering of a solution's vapor pressure would mean that a higher temperature is required to match atmospheric pressure thereby raising the boiling point - on a molecular level, the presence of the solute molecules can block the evaporation of solvent molecules but not their condensation -- this reduces the vapor pressure of the solution compared to the pure solvent - note: this law only holds when the attraction between the molecules of the different components of the mixture is equal to the attraction between the molecules of any one component in its pure state - solutions that obey this law are called ideal solutions - ideal solution behavior is observed when solute-solute, solvent-solvent and solute-solvent interactions are all very similar P = XPo vapor pressure of solvent = mole fraction of the solvent x vapor pressure of solvent in its pure state
Social construction model
- assumes that there is no biological basis for emotions - states that emotions are solely based on experience and the situational context alone - suggests that certain emotions only exist within social encounters and that emotions are expressed differently -- and thus play different roles -- across cultures - one must be familiar with social norms for a certain emotion to perform the corresponding emotional behaviors
Epiphyseal (growth) plate
- at the internal edge of the epiphysis - a cartilaginous structure and the site of longitudinal growth - prior to adulthood, the epiphyseal plate is filled with mitotic cells that contribute to growth - during puberty, these epiphyseal plates close and vertical growth is halted
A mercury barometer is primarily affected by atmospheric pressure. What would happen to the level of mercury in the column if the barometer was moved to the top of a mountain vs placed ten meters underwater?
- at the top of the mountain, atmospheric pressure is lower, causing the column to fall - under water, hydrostatic pressure is exerted on the barometer in addition to atmospheric pressure, causing the column to rise
Atrial systole
- atrial contraction - results in an increase in atrial pressure that forces a little more blood into the ventricles - this additional volume is known as the atrial kick and accounts for 5-30% of cariac output - on the other hand, most ventricular filling is passive (blood moves from the atria to the ventricles based solely on ventricular relaxation)
In vivo, after an E coli cell undergoes DNA replication, it is morst common for the new copy of DNA to be:
- attached to a new part of the cell membrane during binary fission - E coli is a type of bacteria and is prokaryotic - when 1 cell replicates, it does so via binary fission where the new copy of DNA is attached ti the cell membrane and the cell then splits in half in between the 2 copies of DNA
Stereotype content model
- attempts to classify stereotypes with respect to a hypothetical in-group using two dimensions: warmth and competence - warm groups are those that are not in direct competition with the in-group for resources - competent groups are those that have high status within society - 4 categories: 1) Paternalistic (low competence, high warmth) 2) Admiration (high competence, high warmth) 3) Contemptuous (low competence, low warmth) 4) Envious (high competence, low warmth)
Game theory
- attempts to explain decision-making behavior - originally used in economics and mathematics to predict interaction based on game characteristics, including strategy, winning and losing, rewards and punishments, and profits and cost - a game is defined by its players, the information and actions available to each player at decision points, and the payoffs associated with each outcome - lead to the concept of evolutionary stable strategy (ESS) - ex. rock-paper-scissors, chicken, Hawk-Dove game (centered upon a struggle between 2 parties for the same food source), etc can be explained by game theory
Ego-defensive function (Functional attitudes theory)
- attitudes that protect our self-esteem or justify actions that we know are wrong - ex. a child who has difficulty doing math may develop a negative attitude toward the subject
Projection (defense mechanism)
- attribution of wishes, desires, thoughts, or emotions to someone else - ex. a man who has committed adultery is convinced his wife is cheating on him, despite a lack of evidence - ex. "I hate my parents" might turn into "my parents hate me" - ex. An employee is concerned with making a good impression at a new job. Struggling with feelings of being overly challenged by having to learn new office software, he repeatedly calls his computer "dumb" and "stupid." According to psychoanalytic theory, the employee is "projecting" (or imposing) his own feelings of inadequacy onto his computer. - tests that make use of projection to gain insight into a client's mind are common in psychoanalytic therapy (ex. Rorschach inkblot test and thematic apperception test)
Why is the C-N bond of an amide planar?
- b/c it has partial double bond character due to resonance - amides have 2 resonance structures - the true structure of the amide bond us thus a hybrid of these 2 structures, with partial double bond character between the N atom and carbonyl C - double bonds exist in a planar conformation and restrict movement, limiting rotation about the C-N bond and adding rigidity and stability of the backbone of proteins - the single bonds on either side of the peptide bond, however, permit free rotation
System for multiple level observation of groups (SYMLOG)
- based on the belief that there are 3 fundamental dimensions of interaction: 1) dominance vs submission 2) friendliness vs unfriendliness 3) instrumentally controlled vs emotionally expressive
Structural poverty
- based on the concept of "holes" in the structure of society rather than poverty due to the actions of the individual - argue that the same individuals do not by necessity occupy these "holes" from year to year, but the percentage of society that falls under the poverty line stats relatively constant due to their existence
When succinaldehyde is treated with lithium diisopropylamide (LDA), it becomes __________ nucleophilic and generates a ___________
- becomes more nucleophilic and generates a carbanion - when succinaldehyde (or any aldehyde or ketone with alpha hydrogens) is treated with a strong base like LDA, it forms the more nucleophilic enolate carbanion
What are the 3 major posttranscriptional modifications that turn hnRNA into mature mRNA?
- before the hnRNA can leave the nucleus and be translated to protein, it must undergo 3 specific processes to allow it to interact with the ribosome and survive the conditions of the cytoplasm 1. splicing = removal of introns, joining of exons, uses snRNA and snRNPs in the spliceosome to create a lariat, which is then degraded. exons are ligated together 2. 5' cap = addition of a 7-methylguanylate triphosphate cap to the 5' end of the transcript 3. 3' poly-A tail = addition of adenosine bases to the 3' end to protect against degradation
Genital Stage (Freud's Psychosexual Stages)
- begins at puberty and lasts through adulthood - if previous stages have been successfully resolved, the person will enter into normal heterosexual relationships - if they haven't been resolved, homosexuality, asexuality, and fetishism may results
Antinormative behavior
- behavior against the norm - behavior that is not socially acceptable in most situations - can be caused by deindividuation - ex. violence seen in crows and riots - ex. group uniforms/masks can further enhance this behavior due to increased anonymity
Aggression
- behavior that intends to cause harm or increase social dominance - can be physical, verbal, or nonverbal - note: most displays of aggression are settled by threat and withdrawal without actual bodily harm - alcohol has been shown to increase aggressive behavior - increased activity in the amygala and decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex has been linked with increased aggressive behavior - higher levels of testosterone have been linked to more aggressive behavior in both males and females - ex. a bully hurling insults at another child - ex. a teenage gang member making threatening gestures to a member of another gang - ex. a high school student spreads embarrassing rumors about a classmate - ex. a parent criticizes a child with the intent to cause distress - ex. one driver yells at another who nearly caused an accident
Role
- behaviors and expectations associated with a status in a particular context - sets of beliefs, values, attitudes, and norms that define expectations for those who hold the status
Delusions of grandeur
- belief that the person is remarkable in some significant way - ex. inventor, historical figure, or religious icon - common in bipolar I disorder
The social institution of government/economy is ____directional
- bidirectional - b/c of the economic downturn and changes in family, education, or health, an individual may choose to vote a new political candidate into office, or to support/oppose a particular piece of legislation
Over the last few decades, the United States population has become:
- bigger, older, and more diverse - b/c of a decrease in mortality rate and higher immigration than emigration rate
Proper far digestion depends on both __________ and ____________
- bile and lipase - bile gets the fats into the solution and increases their surface area by placing them in micelles mechanical digestion) - then, lipase can come in to hydrolyze the ester bonds holding the lipids together (chemical digestion)
What is the major pigment in bile?
- bilirubin, a byproduct of the breakdown of hemoglobin - bilirubin travels to the liver, where it is conjugated (attached to a protein) and secreted into the bile for excretion - if the liver is unable to process or excrete bilirubin (due to liver damage, excessive RBC destruction, or blockage of the bile ducts) jaundice or yellowing of the skin may occur
Methods of animal communication:
- body language: ex. cat crouching + motionless to show scared/surprised, ex. dogs put their tail between their legs when scared - facial expressions: ex. baring teeth and lunging forwards to show an animal attack - visual displays: ex. males being brighter to attract mates - scents: ex. pheromones to communicate intraspecies - vocalizations: ex. birds use birdcalls
Long bones
- bones longer than they are wide - bones in the appendicular skeleton are typically long - characterized by cylindrical shafts called diaphyses that swell at each end to form metaphyses and terminate in epiphyses - the outermost portions are composed of compact bone - the internal core is made up of spongy bone - long bone diaphyses and metaphyses are full of bone marrow - the epiphyses, however, use their spongy cores for more effective dispersion of force and pressure at the joints - at the internal edge of the epiphysis is an epiphyseal (growth) plate - the periosteum surrounds the long bone to protect it and serves as a muscle attachment site - ex. bones of the hands, feet, arms, and legs
NADH vs NADPH
- both are electron carriers - NADH = used for the breakdown of glucose to form ATP, transfers electrons to the electron transport chain - NADPH = used for biosynthesis --> enzymes for amino acid biosynthesis use NADPH, not involved in the ETC
Carboxylic acids display particularly strong intermolecular attractions b/c . . .
- both the hydroxyl O and carbonyl O can participate in H bonding - thus, carboxylic acids tend to form dimers (pairs of molecules connected by 2 H bonds
Acetylcholinesterase
- breaks down acetylcholine in the synapse - results in the termination of the signal at the neuromuscular junction and allows the sarcolemma to repolarize
What are the expected products of butanal + PCC and butanal + KMnO4?
- butanal is oxidized by KMnO4 to butanoic acid - but butanal does not react with PCC b/c it is not a strong enough oxidant - PCC will oxidize alcohols to aldehydes, but will stop there
Social Exclusion
- can arise from the sense of powerlessness when poor individuals feel segregated and isolated from society - this attitude can create further obstacles to achieving self-help, independence, and self-respect - similar to feelings in anomic conditions
Rechargeable cell/battery
- can function as both a galvanic and electrolytic cell - ex. Lead-acid battery (AKA lead storage battery) - ex. nickel-cadmium batteries
Carboxylic acids can be reduced to alcohols via ________, but not via ________
- carboxylic acids can be reduced to alcohols via LiAlH4, but not via NaBH4 - NaBH4 is not strong enough to reduce carboxylic acids, it is less reactive - LiAlH4 rxn occurs by nucleophilic addition of the H to the carbonyl group
Arteries
- carry blood away from the heart - thick walls - lots of smooth muscle is present, arteries have much more smooth muscles than veins - does not contain valves - highly muscular and elastic, creating tremendous resistance to flow of blood - this is one of the reasons why the left side of the heart must generate much higher pressures: to overcome the resistance caused by systemic arteries - after arteries are filled with blood, the elastic recoil from their walls maintains a high pressure and forces blood forward - the largest artery is the aorta - most arteries carry oxygenated blood -- exceptions: only the pulmonary arteries and umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood
Capillaries
- carry blood from arterioles to venules - very thin walls (1 endothelial cell layer) - are so small that RBC's must pass through capillaries in a single-file line - their thin walls allow easy diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2), nutrients (glucose), wastes (ammonia and urea), and allow endocrine signals to arrive at their target tissues - capillaries are the interface for communication of the circulatory system with the tissues - no smooth muscle is present - does not contain valves - capillaries are delicate, so when they are damaged, blood can leave the capillaries and enter the interstitial space, forming a bruise
Borderline personality disorder (BPD)
- cluster B - there is pervasive instability in interpersonal behavior, mood, and self-image - interpersonal relationships are often intense and unstable - there may be profound identity disturbance with uncertainty about self-image, sexual identity, long-term goals, or values - there is often an intense fear of abandonment - patients may use splitting (they view others as either all good or all bad, an angel vs devil mentality) as a defense mechanism - suicide attempts and self-mutilation are common - 2x more common in females
Dependent Personality Disorder
- cluster C - characterized by a continuous need for reassurance - tend to remain dependent on one specific person to take actions and make decisions
Native American health profiles compared to white Americans
- higher rates of death from diabetes, alcohol and drug use, and infant mortality rates - lower morality rates from cancer, heart disease, and HIV/AIDS - Native Americans also show some of the highest rates of death by suicide - has the highest mortality rates linked to diabetes
Veins
- carry blood toward the heart - thin walls - a little bit of smooth muscle is present, thus are inelastic and have less recoil than arteries - however, veins are able to stretch to accommodate larger quantities of blood -- 3/4 of our total blood volume may be in venous circulation at any one time - note: even though the volume of arterial blood is normally much less than the volume of venous blood, the total volume passing through either side of the heart per unit time (cardiac output) is the same - contain valves -- this is b/c bloodflow in most veins is upward from the lower body back to the heart, against gravity - thus, veins must have structures to push the blood forward and prevent backflow - larger veins have valves -- as blood flows forward in the veins, the valves open. When blood tries to move backward, the valves will slam shut - failure of the venous valves can result in the forming of varicose veins, which are distended where blood has pooled. Pregnant women are especially susceptible to the formation of varicose veins due to an increase in the total blood volume during pregnancy and compression of the inferior vena cava by the fetus - in addition to high pressure in the lower extremities, the small amount of smooth muscle also creates a challenge for propelling blood forward - thus, veins must rely on an external force to generate the pressure to push blood toward the heart - most veins are surrounded by skeletal muscles, which squeeze the veins as the muscles contract, forcing the blood up against gravity - this is why sitting motional less for long periods of time can increase the risk for blood clot formation of the legs and pelvis (ex. DVT/deep vein thrombosis) - most veins carry deoxygenated blood -- exceptions: only the pulmonary veins and umbilical veins carry oxygenated blood
Melanocytes
- cell type derived from neural crest cells and found in the stratum basale - produce melanin, a pigment that serves to protect the skin from DNA damage caused by ultraviolet radiation - more active melanocytes result in darker skin tones - upon exposure to ultraviolet radiation, melanocytes increase activity, resulting in a darker skin color
Chondrocytes
- cells that secrete chondrin, an elastic matrix that makes up cartilage - cartilage is softer and more flexible than bone - fetal skeletons are mostly made up of cartilage -- this is advantageous b/c fetuses must grow and develop in a confined environment and then must traverse the birth canal - adults have cartilage only in body parts that need extra flexibility or cushioning -- ex. external ear, nose, walls of larynx and trachea, intervertebral discs, joints - note: cartilage differs from bone in that it is avascular (without blood and lymphatic vessels) and is not innervated
Platelets (thrombocytes)
- cellular fragments or shards that are given off by megakaryocytes in the bone marrow - assist in blood clotting - are present in high concentrations in the blood
Catatonia
- certain motor behaviors characteristic of some people with schizophrenia - spontaneous movement and activity may be greatly reduced or the patient may maintain a rigid posture, refusing to be moved - may include useless and bizarre movements not caused by any external stimuli
Whether or not a dissolution will happen spontaneously depends on both the change in _____________ and the change in _______________
- change in enthalpy and the change in entropy for the solute and solvent of the system - at constant temperature and pressure, entropy always increases upon dissolution - spontaneous processes are associated with a decrease in free energy (-ΔG) - nonspontaneous processes are associated with an increase in free energy (+ΔG)
Demographic shifts
- changes in the makeup of a population over time - can be measured by considering the population density - ex. the U.S. population has roughly doubled since 1950, the average age has increased, and the population has become more racially and ethnically diverse - ex. demographic transition
Displacement (defense mechanism)
- changing the target of an emotion, while the feelings remain the same - ex. when sent to his room as a punishment, a child begins to punch and kick his pillow - ex. someone angry at her boss may hold her tongue at work but snap at her spouse when she gets home
Sublimation (defense mechanism)
- channeling of an unacceptable impulse in a socially acceptable direction - Freud might say that pent-up sexual urges may be sublimated into a drive for business success or artistic creativity - ex. a boss who is attracted to his employee becomes her mentor and advisor
Schizophrenia
- characterized by a break between an individual and reality - "split mind" = the mind is split from reality - to be diagnosed must be showing continuous signs of the disturbance for at least 6 months, and this 6 month period must include at least 1 month of positive symptoms (delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech) - phases: prodomal phase, active phase, and residual/recovery phase - rates of schizophrenia are much higher among homeless and indigent people according to the downward drift hypothesis - note: other psychotic disorders present symptoms to a lesser degree compared to schizophrenia - partially inherited, but is also associated with excessive marijuana use in adolescence as well as trauma involving hypoxemia at birth - highly associated with an excess of dopamine in the brain - medications like neuroleptics/antipsychotics help by blocking dopamine receptors
Illness anxiety disorder
- characterized by being consumed with thoughts about having or developing a serious medical condition - patients are quick to become alarmed about their health, excessively check themselves for signs of illness, or avoid medical appointments altogether
Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder
- characterized by mood changes and often depressed mood occurring a few days before menses and resolving after menses onset
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
- characterized by obsessions (persistent, intrusive thoughts and impulses), which produce tension, and compulsions (repetitive tasks) that relieve tension but cause significant impairment in a person's life - to be diagnosed, the compulsions must impair one's daily activities and take up a lot of time during the day - ego-dystonic (ex. "I can't stop washing my hands!") - obsessions and compulsions are focal and acquired, not lifelong
Schizotypal personality disorder
- cluster A - include both personality disorder and psychotic symptoms, with the personality symptoms having been already established before psychotic symptoms are present - patient may have ideas of reference (belief that events occurring in the world directly involve them) and magical thinking (ex. superstitiousness)
Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD)
- cluster C - patient is perfectionistic and inflexible, tending to like rules and order - often have an inability to discard worn-out objects, lack of desire to change, excessive stubbornness, lack of a sense of humor, and maintenance of careful routines - NOT THE SAME AS OCD - OCPD is lifelong and ego-syntonic (ex. "I just like rules and order") - ex. a 42 y/o woman has always been extremely neat and tidy. She works as a secretary and stays long after normal working hours to check the punctuation and spelling of letters she prepared during the day. Her boss referred her for counseling after she repeatedly got into fights with her coworkers. She says, "They just don't take the job to heart" and "They just joke around all day"
Bile salts
- compose bile - derived from cholesterol - are not enzymes and thus do not directly perform chemical digestion (enzymatic cleavage of chemical bonds) - serve an important role in the mechanical digestion of dats and ultimately facilitate the chemical digestion of lipids - have hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions - similar to soap -- emulsify fats and cholesterols into micelles - these micelles increase the surface area of the fats, increasing the rate at which lipase can act - without bile, fats would not spontaneously separate out of the aqueous mixture in the duodenum and would not be accessible to pancreatic lipase (which is water-soluble)
Blood clots
- composed of both coagulation factors (proteins) and platelets - they prevent (or at least minimize) blood loss
Emf varies with changing _______________
- concentration - when conditions deviate from standard conditions, we can use the Nernst equation
Intercalated discs
- connect cardiac muscle cells - contain gap junctions directly connecting the cytoplasm of adjacent cells - allows for rapid and coordinated ventricular contraction
Gap junctions
- connections between the cytoplasm of adjacent cells - allows for the flow of ions directly between cells
Bone
- connective tissue derived from embryonic mesoderm - much harder than cartilage, but is relatively lightweight - appear rigid and static, but are actually quite dynamic - both vascular and innervated, which is why it hurts so much to break a bone - bone remains in a vigorous equilibrium between construction and destruction, known as bone remodeling via osteoblasts and osteoclasts -- occurs in response to stress, accommodates the repetitive stresses faced by the body - the mineral component of human bone is a salt that consists primarily of calcium, phosphate, and hydroxyl groups - 2 types of bone structure: compact bone and spongy/cancellous bone
Suppression (defense mechanism)
- consciously removing an idea or feeling from consciousness - deliberate - ex. a terminally ill cancer patient puts aside his anxiety to enjoy a family gathering - ex. "I'm not going to think about that right now"
Micro level of sociology
- consists of family groups and local communities - ex. symbolic interactionism, social constructionism, and rational choice-exchange theory tend to focus on society at micro- and meso- levels
Axial skeleton
- consists of the skull, vertebral column, rib cage, and hyoid bone (a small bone in the anterior neck used for swallowing) - provides the basic central framework for the body
Isovolumetric (isochoric) process
- constant volume - b/c the gas doesn't expand or compress, no work is performed (W = 0) ΔU = Q - appears as a vertical line on a pressure-volume graph
Major depressive disorder (MDD)
- contains at least 1 major depressive episode with no manic episodes - the presence of major depressive episodes (a 2-week duration of at least 5 of the 9 depressive symptoms and at least 1 of the symptoms must be depressed mood or anhedonia) - note: a patient can receive both the PDD and MDD diagnosis if they meet both the duration and severity requirements of both disorders
Systole
- contraction of the heart - ventricular contraction and closure of the AV valves occurs and blood is pumped out of the ventricles - contraction of the ventricles generates a higher pressure during systole - the 1st heart sound (LUB) is produced when the 2 AV valves close at the start of systole to prevent backflow into the atria - the 2nd heart sound (DUB) is produced when the 2 semilunar valves close at the end of systole to prevent backflow into the ventricles
How does muscle contraction start prior to the action potential?
- contraction starts at the neuromuscular junction, where the nervous system communicates with muscles via motor (efferent) neurons - this signal travels down the neuron until it reaches the nerve terminal (synaptic bouton/motor end plate), where acetylcholine is released into the synapse - ACh binds to receptors on the sarcolemma, causing depolarization
Articular cartilage
- contributes to the joint by coating the articular surfaces of the bones so that impact is restricted to the lubricated joint cartilage, rather than to the bones - ex. when the knee moves back and forth during walking, this is what prevents the surfaces of the leg bones from rubbing against each other
The relationship between O2 and hemoglobin displays:
- cooperative binding - as the 1st oxygen binds to a heme group, it induces a conformational shift in the shape of hemoglobin from taut to relax, which increases hemoglobin's affinity for O2, making it easier for subsequent molecules of O2 to bind to the remaining 3 unoccupied heme groups - once all of the hemoglobin subunits are bound to O2, the removal of one O2 will induce a conformational shift, decreasing the overall affinity for O2, and making it easier for the other molecules of O2 to leave the heme groups - tissues are at a lower partial pressure of O2, around 40 mmHg during rest - at this lower pressure, the hemoglobin is approximately 80% saturated 100 - 80 = 20% of the O2 has been released from the hemoglobin and into the tissues - during exercise, the partial pressure of O2 in the tissues is even lower -- around 20 mmHg and roughly 30% saturated 100 - 30 = 70% of the O2 has been released to the tissues
Negative symptoms
- involve the absence of normal or desired behavior - ex. disturbance of affect and avolition
Harlequin ichthyosis, a rare genetic disorder, causes the skin to become thick and scaly. Flaking skin behind the eyelids of individuals with this condition is most likely to damage which structure of the eye?
- cornea - The cornea forms the outermost layer of the front of the eye, in which it directly contacts the back of the eyelids. Due to this direct interaction, the cornea is highly susceptible to damage caused by flaking skin from the back of the eyelids.
Countercurrent multiplier system
- created by the vasa recta and nephron - the flow of filtrate through the loop of Henle is in the opposite direction from the flow of blood through the vasa recta - if the 2 flowed in the same direction, they would quickly reach equilibrium and the kidney would be unable to reabsorb as much water - thus, the filtrate is constantly being exposed to hypertonic blood, which allows maximal reabsorption of water
In series:
- current stays constant (SI) - if resistors are connected in series, all of the current must pass through each resistor - voltage changes, thus there is a voltage drop associated with each resistor - resistance is additive - resistance will increase as more resistors are added - capacitance will decrease as more capacitors are added
Lactam
- cyclic amide - named according to the carbon atom bonding to the nitrogen: beta-lactams contain a bond between the beta-carbon (2nd carbon away from the carbonyl) and nitrogen, gamma-lactams contain a bond between the gamma-carbon (3rd carbon away from the carbonyl) and nitrogen, etc
Avolition
- decreased engagement in purposeful, goal-directed actions - lack of motivation
Stratum basale
- deepest/innermost layer of epidermis (the 5th outermost layer of the epidermis) - contains stem cells and is responsible for proliferation of keratinocytes, the predominant cells of the skin that produce keratin - melanocytes are found here
Z-line
- define the boundaries of each sarcomere - mnemonic: Z is the end of the alphabet, and the end of the sarcomere - during contraction, the H-zone, I-band, the distance between Z-lines, and the distance between M-lines all become smaller, whereas the A-band's size remains constant
In aqueous solution, pyrophosphate will likely:
- degrade into inorganic phosphate - pyrophosphate is unstable in aqueous solution and will degrade to form 2 equivalents of inorganic phosphate
Adaptive radiation
- describes the rapid rise of a # of different species from a common ancestor - allows for various species to occupy different niches (a specific environment, including habitat, available resources, and predators, for which a species is specifically adapted
Evolutionary Stable Strategy (ESS)
- developed by game theorists studying sex ratios in various specifies - when ESS is adopted by a given population in a specific environment, natural selection will prevent alternative strategies from arising - the strategies are thus inherited traits passed along with the population, with the object of the game being becoming more fit than competitiors - ex. Hawk-Dove game (centered upon a struggle between 2 parties for the same food source) -- if the reward is significantly larger than the cost of fighting, then hawks have an advantage. If the cost of fighting is significantly larger, doves have an advantage. There thus exists an equilibrium point where, based on the magnitude of the reward and the cost of fighting, the hawk and dove strategies can coexist as evolutionary stable strategies
Formal organization
- developed during the Industrial Revolution as a way to maximize efficiency - have explicit goals that guide the members and their activities - have enforcement procedures that seek to control the activities of their members - characterized by the hierarchical allotment of formal roles or duties to members - can be quite large
Mechanism of mate bias: sensory bias
- development of a trait to match a preexisting preference that exists in the population - ex. fiddler crabs are naturally attracted to structures that break up the level horizon b/c they may indicate a food source. male crabs take advantage of this fact by building pillars around their territory to attract mates
Acute stress disorder
- diagnosis requires PTSD symptoms that appear for less than a month but more than 3 days
How does inhalation work?
- diaphragm will flatten, contract, and move downward - the chest wall and ribcage will expand outward - this creates a larger space in the chest cavity, increasing intrathoracic volume - thus, an increase in intrathoracic volume leads to a decrease in intrapleural pressure (Boyle's law) - the gas in the lungs is initially at atmospheric pressure, which is now higher than the pressure in the intrapleural space - the lungs thus expand into the intrapleural space and the pressure in the lungs will drop - air will be sucked in from a higher pressure environment (the outside world) to a lower pressure environment (the lungs) - this is known as negative-pressure breathing b/c the driving force is the lower (relatively negative) pressure in the intrapleural space compared with the lungs
Beta-dicarboxylic acids
- dicarboxylic acids in which each carboxylic acid is positioned on the beta carbon of the other - AKA the two carboxylic acids are separated by a single carbon - the hydroxyl H's are most acidic, but the H's (alpha hydrogens) attached to the carbon in the middle are also acidic - loss of an acidic alpha hydrogen produces a carbanion - which is stabilized by the electron-withdrawing effect of both carboxyl groups
Cytotoxic T-cell (AKA killer T-cells, CTLs, CD8+ T-cells)
- directly kill virally infected cells and respond to antigen bound to MHC-I - capable of directly killing virally infected cells by injecting toxic chemicals that promote apoptosis into the infected cell - respond to antigens presented on MHC-I molecules - b/c MHC-I presents endogenous antigens, CD8+ T-cells are most effective against viral (and intracellular bacterial or fungal) infections - better at targeting intracellular infections
Arrhenius acid
- dissociates to form excess H+ in solution - most specific/restrictive definition -- every Arrhenius acid can also be classified as a Bronstead-Lowry acid and Lewis acid, but not vice versa - generally limited to aqueous acids - easily identified with an H at the beginning of their formula - ex. HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, etc
Delusions of reference
- involve the belief that common elements in the environment are directed toward the individual - ex. believing that characters in a TV show are talking to him directly
Arrhenius base
- dissociates to form excess OH- in solution - most specific/restrictive definition -- every arrhenius base can also be classified as a Bronstead-Lowry base and Lewis base, but not vice versa - generally limited to aqueous bases - easily identified with an OH at the end of their formula - ex. NaOH, Ca(OH)2, Fe(OH)3, etc - note: H2O is NOT considered an acid in this definition b/c it does not produce an excess of H+ in solution
How does absorption of fat-soluble vitamins in the small intestine work?
- dissolve directly into chylomicrons to enter the lymphatic circulation - failure to digest and absorb fat properly may lead to deficiencies in fat-soluble vitamins
Researchers noted that in the absence of a reducing agent the elution time of a certain protein from a size-exclusion column decreased considerably relative to the elution time when the buffer contained a reducing agent. Which type of molecular interaction was responsible for this observation?
- disulfide bonding - the presence of a disulfide bond between two subunits of a protein would cause the protein to have a different elution time on a size-exclusion column - the fact that reducing agents eliminate this interaction is more evidence that a disulfide bond was present - reducing agents disrupt disulfide bonds - without a reducing agent, the protein would have a disulfide bond, and thus result in an overall larger molecule that would elute faster than if a reducing agent would form two smaller subunits
Nonspecific defense mechanisms (immune system)
- do not target specific pathogens but are a whole body response (innate immune system) - skin, defensins, lysozymes, mucus, stomach acid, normal gastrointestinal flora, complement, macrophages, cilia, etc - the skin and mucous membranes provide a physical barrier against bacterial invasion - sweat contains enzymes that attack bacteria cell walls - certain passages, such as the respiratory tract, are lined with ciliate mucus-coated epithelia, which filter and trap foreign particles - macrophages engulf and destroy foreign particles - the inflammatory response is initiated in response to physical damage
How are obese patients treated differently?
- doctors are less likely to recommend effective weight loss programs to obese patients, sometimes based on the flawed assumption that obese patients lack the willpower to effectively lose weight - thus, overweight and obese patients are more likely to switch doctors repeatedly - when one does not have a consistent primary care doctor, continuity of care is nearly nonexistent - obese patients are less likely to have quality preventative care and screenings, including screenings for breast and colon cancer
Neuroleptics (antipsychotics)
- drugs that alleviate the symptoms of severe disorders such as schizophrenia - traditionally dopamine receptor blockers - the first antipsychotic drugs used to treat schizophrenia and though they are effective in treating positive symptoms, their side effects include cognitive dulling, which can exacerbate negative symptoms
imines and related compounds can undergo tautomerization to form __________
- enamines - the double bond between the C and N in an imine is moved to lie between 2 C's - contain both a double bond and a nitrogen-containing group (amine)
Imines naturally tautomerize to form:
- enamines (a compound with a double bond an amine) - the double bond between the C and N in an imine is moved to lie between 2 C's
Acyl derivatives
- encompass all molecules with a carboxylic acid-derived carbonyl - includes carboxylic acids, amides, esters, and anhydrides
Social epidemiology
- epidemiology = the study of health and its determinants within a society - social epidemiology is specifically the study of the effects of institutions, social structures, and relationships on health - social epidemiologists study the effects of racial and economic inequality or government safety net legislation on health and access to healthcare - they might also be interested in how social conditions early in life affect health outcomes later - emphasizes how social factors, such as class or race/ethnicity, affect the distribution of health and disease - the wealthier tend to have better health and better access to healthcare
The normal path of sperm movement from the male testis to the point of fertilization in the female is:
- epididymis, vas deferens, urethra, vagina, cervix, uterus, fallopian tube - as sperm cells leave the testis they travel through the epididymis to the vas deferens and into the urethra. The sperm then enter the female's vagina, travel through the cervix and uterus, and enter the fallopian tube, where fertilization most commonly takes place
3-Hydroxybutanal can be formed by the reaction of:
- ethanal in base, then in acid - this is an example of an aldol condensation, but stopped after aldol formation (before dehydration/formation of alpha,beta double bond) - after the aldol is formed using strong base, the reaction may be halted by the addition of acid
Separation anxiety disorder
- excessive fear of being separated from one's caregivers or home environment - common in children, but when this anxiety is excessive and persists beyond the age where it is deemed developmentally appropriate, the person may be diagnosed - diagnosis requires the idea that when separated, the caregiver or the patient will be harmed (ex. kidnapping, getting sick, etc)
Salt bridge
- exchanges anions and cations to balance, or dissipate, newly generated charges - contains an inter electrolyte, usually KCl or NH4NO3, which contains ions that will not react with the electrodes or with the ions in solution - undergoes a precipitation process called plating or galvanization - while the anions from the salt bridge (Cl-) diffuse into the solution on the anode side (ZnSO4) to balance out the charge of the newly created Zn2+ ions, the cations of the salt bridge (K+) flow into the solution on the cathode side (CuSO4) to balance out the charge of the sulfate ions left in solution when the Cu2+ ions are reduced to Cu and precipitate onto the electrode - if only a wire were provided for this electron flow, and not a salt bridge, the reaction would soon stop b/c an excess positive charge would build up on the anode, and an excess negative charge would build up on the cathode. Eventually, the excessive charge accumulation would provide a countervoltage large enough to prevent the redox reaction from taking place and the current would cease
Fetal hemoglobin (HbF) has a __________ affinity for O2 than adult hemoglobin (HbA)
- higher - this makes sense b/c fetal RBCs must literally pull O2 off of maternal hemoglobin and onto fetal hemoglobin - HbF thus has a left-shifted curve oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve
Ethnographic methods
- experimental methods used to study the ethnicity or culture of a group - involves observing social interactions in real social settings - involves the extended, systematic observation of a complete social environment - ex. A study is conducted in which researchers observe how physicians deal with role strain when treating patients with terminal illnesses. Studying the experience of role strain through observation can increase our understanding of how physicians cope with the challenging demands of extending life with interventions while accepting the reality of death.
Kinetic Molecular Theory
- explains the behavior of gases - was developed in reference to idea gases - tells us that the average kinetic energy of a gas particle is proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas - ex. the higher the temperature, the faster the molecules move - also predicts that heavier gases issued more slowly than lighter ones b/c of their differing average speeds. B/c all gas particles have the same average kinetic energy at the same temperature, it must be true that particles with greater mass travel at a slower average speed - ex. the larger the molecules, the slower they move
Peripheral nations
- exploited by core nations for their lower-skilled productions - ex. Country A has a relatively weak economy, a weak political infrastructure, and competes poorly in the globalized economy. Country A is also dependent on Country B, which has a much stronger economy.
Constant-pressure calorimetry
- exposed to constant (atmospheric) pressure - as the reaction proceeds, the temperature of the contents is measured to determine the heat of the reaction - an insulated container covered with a lid and filled with a solution in which a reaction or some physical process - ex. coffee cup calorimetry
Exoskeletons
- external skeletons - must be shed and regrown to accommodate growth - encase whole organisms - ex. usually found in arthropods, such as crustaceans and insects
Between animals and humans, ________________ appear to be more highly conserved between species than body language
- facial expressions - Unlike the universal (and innate) nature of the production and recognition of facial expressions, bodily postures, movements, and gestures are socially learned and culturally variable - ex. baring teeth and lunging forward are perceived almost universally as signs of aggression or readiness to attack
Agoraphobia
- fear of open spaces, being outside the home, being in a crowd - an anxiety disorder characterized by a fear of being in places or situations where it might be difficult for an individual to escape - may stem from the thought that the patient may experience a panic attack in which they would need to escape to avoid embarrassment - due to its association with panic attacks and fear of being negatively evaluated by others, it is often comorbid with panic disorder, social anxiety disorders, and specific phobias
Sex-linked (X-linked) traits
- females have 2 X chromosomes and thus may be homozygous or heterozygous for a condition carried on the X chromosome - males have only 1 X chromosome and are hemizygous for many genes carried on the X chromosome - this is why sex-linked traits are much more common in males: having only 1 recessive allele is sufficient for expression of the recessive phenotype - note: unless told otherwise, assume that sex-linked traits are recessive - b/c an egg necessarily carries an X chromosome, the sperm determines the sex of a child - men with a sex-linked trait will have daughters who are all either carriers of the trait or who express the trait - a man can never pass down a sex-linked trait to his son
Red marrow (of bones)
- filled with hematopoietic stem cells, which are responsible for the generation of all the cells in our blood
A mixture of sand, benzoic acid, and naphthalene in ether is best separated by:
- filtration, followed by basic extraction, followed by evaporation
Cecum
- first part of the large intestine - an outpocketing that accepts fluid exiting the small intestine through the ileocecal valve - the site of attachment of the appendix - the appendix is a small finger-like projection that was once thought to be vestigial (no apparent function)
Primary response
- first time the immune system combats a particular foreign substance - 7-10 days - upon exposure to the correct antigen after waiting in the lymph node, a B-cell will proliferate and produce 2 types of daughter cells: plasma cells produce large amounts of antibodies and memory B-cells stay in the lymph node, awaiting re-exposure to the same antigen
Hypothetically, a person suffers a laceration and bacteria is introduced. What happens in the body in response to this?
- first, macrophages (and other antigen-presenting cells) engulf the bacteria and subsequently release inflammatory mediators - these cells also digest the bacteria and present antigens from the pathogen on their surfaces in conjunction with MHC-II - the cytokines attract inflammatory cells, including neutrophils and additional macrophages - mast cells are activated by the inflammation and degranulate, resulting in histamine release and increased leakiness of the capillaries - this augments the ability of the immune cells to leave the bloodstream to travel to the affected tissues - the dendritic cell then leaves the affected tissue and travels to the nearest lymph node, where it presents the antigen to B-cells - B-cells that produce the correct antibody proliferate through clonal selection to create plasma cells and memory cells - antibodies then travel through the bloodstream to the affected tissue, where they tag the bacteria for destruction - at the same time, dendritic cells are also presenting the antigen to T-cells, activating a T-cell response - CD4+ cells are activated, which activate macrophages and increases their ability to kill bacteria ad well as activate B-cells - after the pathogen has been eliminated, plasma cells die, but memory B- and T-cells remain - these memory cells allow for a much faster secondary response upon exposure to the pathogen at a later time
Filariasis is the name for an infection with a certain group of parasites, most notably Wuchereria bancrofti. This parasite resides in lymph nodes and causes blockage of flow. If an individual had a W. bancrofti infection in the lymph nodes of his or her thigh, what would likely happen?
- fluid would be unable to return from the lower leg, and edema would result - this infection leads to elephantiasis, severe swelling of the limb with thickening of the skin
Delusions of persecution
- involve the belief that the person is being deliberately interfered with, discriminated against, plotted against, or threatened
Spatial inequality
- focuses on social stratification across territories and their populations - attends to how geography influences social processes - where one lives plays a major role in the distribution of valuable resources - ex. a person living in an inner-city neighborhood in Mumbai does not have the same access to clean water and electricity as someone living in the posh neighborhood of London's West End - space can also be used to create social inequalities or to reinforce existing inequalities - ex. poorer neighborhoods tend to have less political and social influence than more affluent neighborhoods. Thus, "undesirable buildings" like water refineries, trash smoldering plants, and chemical manufacturers tend to be placed in poorer areas. And citizens of these areas may lack the social resources to fight government and industry
Material culture
- focuses on the artifacts associated with a group: the physical objects, such as artwork, emblems, clothing, jewelry, foods, buildings, and tools - often visible during ceremonies, such as birthdays, weddings, and funerals - the tangible embodiment of the underlying ideas of symbolic culture - ex. for American culture: the American flag, barbecue, baseball, apple pie, and rock and roll - ex. traditional Kenyan clothing, Japanese cuisine, and Native American sand painting - ex. a tribe of people in an underdeveloped area is known to pass down objects from generation to generation with the belief that the spirits of their ancestors reside in the objects
Self-enhancement
- focuses on the need to maintain self-worth - can be accomplished in part by the self-serving bias
Attribution theory
- focuses on the tendency of individuals to infer the causes of other people's behavior - 2 types: dispositional (internal) causes and situational (external) causes
Humanistic (phenomenological) theory
- focuses on the value of individuals and takes a more person-centered approach - describes ways in which healthy people strive toward self-realization - for the humanists, our personality is the result of the conscious feelings we have for ourselves as we attempt to attain our needs and goals - often associated with Gestalt therapy - explaining behavior through self-concept and incongruence - ex. A student neglects her studies and spends most of her time engaging in extracurricular activities. When her parents confront her, the student says that all her peers behave the same way. The student is attempting to reduce the incongruence between the ideal self and the actual self by normalizing her behavior
Cohort study
- follows a similar group of people over a period of time and observes the development of a particular disease - ex. a study like this would prove that the incidence of depression is greater in obese people than in the general population: a single cohort study indicating that people who are obese are more likely than non-obese people to develop depression over the course of 20 years
For all electrochemical cells, the movement of electrons is from __________ to ____________, and the current (I) runs from ___________ to ____________
- for all electrochemical cells, the movement of electrons is from anode to cathode, and the current (I) runs from cathode to anode - think alphabetic order: A ---> C - the current and the flow of electrons are always of equal magnitude but in opposite directions
How are molality and molarity related for water? How are they related for other solvents?
- for water, molarity and molality are nearly equal at room temperature (25 degrees C) b/c 1L of solution is approximately equal to 1 kg solvent for dilute solutions - for other solvents, molarity and molality differ significantly b/c their densities are not 1 g/mL (1 kg/L) like water
Memory B-cell
- form from B-cells exposed to antigen and lie in wait for a second exposure to a given antigen to mount a rapid, robust response (second response)
Altruism
- form of helping behavior in which the person's intent is to benefit someone else at the cost to him or herself - empathy has a strong influence on this helping behavior - more recent conceptions of altruism posit that an individual will help another person only when the benefits outweigh the costs for an individual
Phosphoric acid
- forms the high-energy bonds that carry energy in ATP - AKA a phosphate group or inorganic phosphate (Pi) - at physiological pH, it includes molecules of both hydrogen phosphate (HPO42-) and dihydrogen phosphate (H2PO4-) - is an excellent buffer b/c it has 3 H's with pKa values that span nearly the entire pH scale - in strongly acidic conditions: H3PO4 - in mildly acidic conditions: H2PO4- (pKa 2.15) - in mildly basic conditions: HPO4 2- (pKa 7.2) - in strongly basic conditions: PO4 3- (pKa 12.32) - the energy released when a phosphate or pyrophosphate is cleaved is high b/c of its large amount of repulsion when adjacent on a triphosphate as well as phosphate's ability to stabilize up to 3 negative charges by resonance
Liquid phase of a phase diagram
- found at at moderate temperatures and moderate pressures
Gas phase of a phase diagram
- found at high temperatures and low pressures
Tay-Sachs disease is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by defective hexosaminidase A. Proteomic analysis of a cell affected by this condition revealed a shortened protein with an abnormal amino acid sequence at the C terminus. Based on this information, which mutation is likely?
- frameshift mutation - in such a mutation, the amino acid sequence preceding the mutation is normal, yielding a normal N terminal end - however, the triplet reading frame after the mutation is changed, yielding a drastically different C terminal sequence that often includes a premature stop codon - note: the answer cannot be nonsense mutations b/c they will create a stop codon directly and will not change the identity of the amino acids before the stop codon
Excretory system
- functions: regulation of blood pressure, blood osmolarity, acid-base balance, and removal of nitrogenous wastes - consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra - all of the nephrons eventually empty into the renal pelvis, which narrows to form the ureter - urine travels through the ureter to the bladder - from the bladder, urine is transported through the urethra to exit the body
A leftward shift in the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve means ______ affinity and may occur due to:
- higher affinity for O2 - decreased CO2 - decreased H+ (increased pH) - decreased temperature - decreased 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-BPG, a side product of glycolysis in RBCs)
Another method to separate different DNA molecules is to use gel electrophoresis. Applying this separation to the Meselson-Stahl experiment would not work b/c:
- gel electrophoresis separates DNA molecules based on size instead of density - the Meselson-Stahl experiment separates DNA based on densities in order to determine which strains contained old DNA vs newly synthesized DNA - however, all samples contain the full genome. Gel electrophoresis separates molecules either based on charge (not relevant to this experiment) or size - b/c all samples contain the full genome, there is no difference in size between the old and new DNA, the only difference is mass which affects density
Personality types (ancient Greeks)
- generally discredited today - based on humors, or body fluids - an imbalance can lead to personality disorders
If blood or proteins are found in the urine, this indicates a health problem at the level of the ________________
- glomerulus - the glomerulus is like a strainer - small molecules dissolved in the blood will pass through the tiny pores (such as glucose, which is later reabsorbed) - whereas large molecules such as proteins and blood cells are not - molecules or cells that are larger than glomerular pores will remain in the blood
Urban neighborhoods offer a _________ range of opportunities than normally found in rural areas
- greater - this is b/c of the cultural diversity and anonymity of urban neighborhoods, along with the fact that people are less likely to fall into their occupations and social positions b/c of family ties in an urban setting (ex. "My grandfather and father were farmers, so I will take up the family business when it's handed down to me") - people in urban areas tend to have more career options to choose from and can more easily improve their SES through education, career choice, and marriage - in rural environments, those choices exist, but are less universally available
In the Meselson-Stahl experiment, suppose the DNA was extracted after the first round of replication, but was then melted before being run through the centrifuge. What results should be expected when comparing it to the heavy and light DNA strands?
- half of the resulting molecules would have a similar density as heavy DNA and half would have a similar density as light DNA - b/c DNA is replicated semi-conservatively, after a single round of replication 1 strand would be heavy and 1 would be light - running the DNA through a centrifuge as 1 double-stranded molecule would demonstrate it has some intermediate density - however, melting the DNA separates the H-bonds which holds together the 2 strands, leaving you with 1 heavy strand (old DNA) and 1 light strand (new DNA) - running these through a centrifuge would show some of the strands to be heavy and some to be light - the resulting molecules would NOT all be of an intermediate density
Partial constructive/partial destructive interference
- happens when 2 waves are not perfectly in phase or out of phase - the amplitude of the resulting wave will be somewhere between the sum and difference of the amplitudes of the interfering waves
Bladder anatomy
- has a muscular lining known as the detrusor muscle - in order to leave the body, urine must pass through 2 sphincters -- the internal and external urethral sphincters - when the bladder is full, stretch receptors convey to the nervous system that the bladder requires emptying - this causes parasympathetic neurons to fire, and the detrusor muscle contracts - this contraction also causes the internal sphincter to relax (known as the micturition reflex) - next step is voluntary: the person can choose to relax the external sphincter to urinate, or can maintain the tone of the external sphincter to prevent urination
Bipolar II disorder
- has at least 1 hypomanic episode with at least 1 major depressive episode - diagnosis relies on the presence of both a major depressive episode and hypomanic episode, but not a manic episode - only captures individuals who experience major depressive episodes and less, hypomanic episodes
Bipolar I disorder
- has at least 1 manic episode with or without depressive episodes - key diagnostic feature of this disorder is the presence of manic episodes - presence of depressive episodes are seen often, but are not a requirement for diagnosis - ex. patient A only experiences manic episodes, while patient B regularly experiences both manic and major depressive episodes. Despite them presenting differently, both fit the categorization of bipolar I disorder
Standing wave
- have defined nodes and antinodes that do not move with wave propagation - the only apparent movement of the string is fluctuation of amplitude at fixed points along the length of the string
Constant-volume calorimetry
- heats of certain reactions (like combustion) can be measured indirectly by assessing the temperature change in a water bath around the reaction vessel - ex. bomb calorimetry (decomposition vessel)
Selective mutism
- heavily associated with social anxiety disorder - characterized by the consistent inability to speak where speaking is expected
What would be the effect on Rf values if thin-layer chromatography (TLC) were run with hexane rather than ether as the eluent?
- hexane is less polar than ether, and is thus less likely to displace polar compounds adsorbed by the silica gel - this would decrease the distance these polar compounds would travel, decreasing Rf values
hypercarbia/hypercapnia
- high CO2 in blood - respiratory rate will increase so that more carbon dioxide is exhaled, decreasing blood CO2 - caused by hypoventilation
If a compound has a Ka value >> water, what does it mean about its behavior in solution? How does this compare with a solution that has only a slightly higher Ka than water?
- high Ka indicates a strong acid, which will dissociate completely in solution - having a Ka slightly greater than water means the acid is a weak acid with minimal dissociation
If a compound has a Kb value >> water, what does it mean about its behavior in solution? How does this compare with a solution that has only a slightly higher Ka than water?
- high Kb indicates a strong base, which will dissociate completely in solution - having a Kb slightly greater than water means the base is a weak base with minimal dissociation
______________ pressures favor dissolution of gas solutes
- higher - in other words, gases become more soluble in solution as pressure increases - thus, the Ksp will be larger for gases at higher pressures than lower ones
By what histone and DNA modifications can genes be silenced in eukaryotic cells? Would these processes increase the proportion of heterochromatin or euchromatin?
- histone deacetylation and DNA methylation will both downregulate the transcription of a gene - these processes allow the relevant DNA to be clumped more tightly, increasing the proportion of heterochromatin
What is the major historical distinction between HPLC and column chromatography? What is the major distinction now?
- historical distinction: HPLC was performed at high pressures, whereas column chromatography uses gravity to pull the solution through the column - current distinction: HPLC is performed with sophisticated and variable solvent and temperature gradients, allowing for much more specific separation of compounds than column chromatography. Now, high pressures are no longer required
How are hormones absorbed into the bloodstream?
- hormones enter the circulation in or near the organ where the hormone is produced - this usually occurs by exocytosis - certain hormones are carried by proteins in the blood and are released under specific conditions - once hormones reach their target tissues, they can activate cell-surface receptors (peptide hormones) or diffuse into the cell to activate intracellular or intranuclear receptors (steroid hormones)
Hierarchy of salience
- how our identities are organized - we let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment - identities that set us apart - ex. male and female college students in same-gender groups are less likely to list gender in their self-descriptions than students in mixed-gender groups - ex. a man in the choir lists race in his self-description
Nonverbal communication
- how people communicate, intentionally or not, without words - includes facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position and movement, touches, amount of personal space, and eye positioning - ex. turning your body away (body language), giving a "high five", and frowning (facial expression) - often dictated by culture - ex. in U.S. direct eye contact is preferred, in Thailand indirect eye contact is preferred
If 2 waves are out of phase at any interval besides 180 degrees, how does the amplitude of the resultant wave compare to the amplitudes of the 2 interfering waves?
- if 2 waves are perfectly in phase, the amplitude of the resulting wave is equal to the sum of the amplitudes of the interfering waves - if 2 waves are perfectly out of phase, the amplitude of the resulting wave is the difference of the amplitudes of the interfering waves - thus, if 2 waves are anywhere between these 2 extremes, the amplitude of the resulting wave will be somewhere between the sum and difference of the amplitudes of the interfering waves
Any time a carbonyl is opened, when can the carbonyl be reformed vs not reformed?
- if no good LG is present (as is the case with aldehydes and ketones), the carbonyl will not reform - in most cases O- will accept a proton to form OH - if a good LG is present, (as is the case with carboxylic acids and their derivatives), the carbonyl double bond can reform, pushing off the LG
Resonance (physics)
- if the frequency of the periodic force is equal to a natural (resonant) frequency of the system, the system is said to be resonating, and the amplitude of the oscillation is at a maximum - ex. with a steady loud tone from a singer, glass will resonate (oscillate with maximum amplitude) and eventually shatter - if the frequency of the applied force is close to that of the natural frequency of the system, then the amplitude of oscillation becomes much higher - ex. if a parent pushes a child on a swing at a frequency nearly equal to the frequency at which the child swings back toward the parent, the arc of the swinging child will become larger and larger
Fixation (Freud)
- implies that the person is unable to move to the next stage, conflicts are unresolved - occurs when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development - leads to neurosis
Collecting duct
- important for urine concentration - its variable permeability allows water to be reabsorbed based on the needs of the body - responsive to both aldosterone and ADH (vasopressin) - as permeability of the collecting duct increases, so too does water reabsorption, resulting in further concentration of the urine - the reabsorbed water enters the intersitium and makes its way to the vasa recta, where it reenters the bloodstream to once again become part of the plasma - the collecting duct almost always reabsorbs water, but the amount is variable - when the body is very well hydrated, the collecting duct will be fairly impermeable to salt and water - when in conservation mode, ADH and aldosterone will each act to increase reabsorption of water in the collecting duct, allowing for greater water retention and more concentrated urine output - anything that is not reabsorbed from the tubule by the end of the collecting duct will be excreted - the collecting duct is the point of no return - after that, there are no further opportunities for reabsorption - as the filtrate leaves the tubule, it collects in the renal pelvis. The fluid, which carries mostly urea, uric acid, and excess ions (sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium) flows through the ureter to the bladder where it is stored until voiding
Descending limb of the loop of Henle
- important for water reabsorption and uses the medullary concentration gradient - dives deep into the medulla before turning around to become the ascending limb of the loop of Henle - permeable only to water - note: the medulla has an ever-increasing osmolarity as the descending limb travels deeper into it - as the descending limb traverses deeper into the medulla, the increasing interstitial concentration favors the outflow of water from the descending limb, which is reabsorbed into the vasa recta - maximizes water reabsorption by taking advantage of increased medullary osmolarity
Bodily heating mechanisms
- in cold conditions, arrector pili muscles contract, causing the hairs of the skin to stand up on end (piloerection) - this helps to trap a layer of heated air near the skin - the arterioles that feed the capillaries of the skin constrict, limiting the quantity of blood reaching the skin - skeletal muscle may also begin to contract rapidly, causing shivering - shivering requires a sizeable amount of ATP - however, a significant portion of the energy from ATP is converted into thermal energy - humans also possess a layer of fat below the skin called white fat, which helps insulate the body - brown fat may also be present, especially in infants - brown fat has a much less efficient electron transport chain, which means that more heat energy is released as fuel is burned
Adiabatic process
- no heat exchange - thus, the thermal energy is constant, Q=0 ΔU = -W - appears hyperbolic on a pressure-volume graph
Respiratory failure refers to inadequate ventilation to provide oxygen to the tissues. How would the pH change in respiratory failure?
- in respiratory failure, ventilation slows, and less CO2 is blown off - as this occurs, the buffer equation shifts to the right, and more H ions are generated - this results in a lower pH of the blood
Gastric glands
- in the mucosa of the stomach - respond to signals form the vagus nerve of the parasympathetic nervous system, which is activated by the brain in response to the sight, taste, and smell of food - have 3 different cell types: mucous cells, chief cells, and parietal cells - secretes gastric juice from chief and parietal cells
Anhedonia
- inability to feel and experience pleasure - loss of interest - characteristic of depression
Dissociative amnesia
- inability to recall past experiences - often linked to trauma - patients with this disorder may also experience dissociative fugue, a sudden, unexpected move or purposeless wandering away from one's home or location of usual daily activities - in a fugue state, the patient may be confused with their identity, can assume a new identity, or may actually believe they are someone else - ex. a young woman of unknown age is brought by the police to the local ED for evaluation after they found her wandering in a park. She carries no purse or identification. She is unable to state her name or any details about her life, except that the name Phoenix sounds familiar
Manic episode
- include a 1-week duration of at least 3 of the following 7 symptoms: - DIG FAST - Distractibility = inability to remain focused on an activity - Irresponsibility = engaging in risky activities without considering future consequences - Grandiosity = exaggerated and unrealistic increase in self-esteem - Flight of thoughts = racing thoughts, self-reported or reveled through rapid speech - Activity or agitation = increase in goal-oriented work or social activities - Sleep = decreased need for sleep - Talkative = exaggerated desire to speak - note: must be severe enough to impair a person's social or work activities for diagnosis
Major depressive episode
- include a 2-week duration of at least 5 of the following symptoms (and at least 1 of the symptoms must be depressed mood or anhedonia): - sadness + SIG E. CAPS - sadness = depressed mood - sleep = insomnia or hypersomnia - interest = loss of interest (anhedonia) - guilt = feelings of inappropriate guilt or worthlessness - energy = lack of energy throughout the day - concentration = difficulty concentrating - appetite = changes in appetite resulting in a significant change - psychomotor symptoms = psychomotor retardation (slowed thoughts and physical movements) and psychomotor agitation (restlessness resulting in undesired movement) - suicidal thoughts - note: the symptoms must be severe enough to impair one's daily social or work-related activities - note: in older men, depression may often manifest as anhedonia without feelings of sadness, so a major depressive episode does not necessarily always involve feelings of sadness
Hypersensitivity reactions
- includes allergies and autoimmunity - when the immune system misidentifies an antigen as foreign or safe when it is the opposite - ex. pet dander, pollen, and peanuts are not inherently threatening to human life, yet some people's immune systems are hypersensitive to these antigens and become overactivated when these antigens are encountered
Why are income distributions usually reported using the median rather than with other measures of central tendency?
- income data often includes outliers, and the median can summarize skewed distributions - most often, this is due to high income data points that would skew the mean and thus not provide the best representation of the income distribution
Increasing the volume of air that reaches the alveoli and takes part in gas exchange will cause blood pH to:
- increase b/c the partial pressure of CO2 in the blood will decrease - increasing the volume of air that reaches the alveoli and takes part in gas exchange will enhance O2 uptake and CO2 removal, thereby increasing blood pH
Biological markers of bipolar disorder:
- increased norepinephrine and serotonin (monoamine theory) - higher risk if parent has bipolar disorder - higher risk for persons with multiple sclerosis
In emphysema, the alveolar walls are destroyed, decreasing the recoil of the lung tissue. What changes may be seen in a patient with emphysema?
- increased residual volume - the intrinsic elastic properties of the lungs are important during exhalation as the passive recoil of lung tissue helps decrease lung volume - with decreased recoil, the patient will have difficulty exhaling completely, increasing the residual volume - the total lung capacity would be expected to also increase b/c there is less recoil opposing inhalation - with decreased alveolar surface area, one would expect decrease gas exchange, which would decrease blood concentrations of O2 and increase blood concentrations of CO2
Studies have indicated that premature babies are often deficient in lysozyme. What is a possible consequence of this deficiency?
- increased susceptibility to certain infections - lysozymes degrade peptidoglycans, preventing infection by gram-positive bacteria
The availability of energy microstates increases as the temperature of a solid _____________
- increases - the molecules have greater freedom of movement and energy disperses
How can solubility of a compound be increased?
- increasing temperature - solubility of gases can be increased by decreasing the temperature or increasing the partial pressure of the gas above the solvent (Henry's law)
Sinusoidal waves
- individual particles oscillate back and forth with a displacement that follows a sinusoidal pattern - can be transverse or longitudinal
A high school student fails a history test? How might a student with an internal locus of control vs a student with an external locus of control interpret this event?
- internal locus of control: will look for factors within themself, such as not having studied hard enough - external locus of control: will blame external factors, such as bad luck or the test being too difficult
Internal urethral sphincter
- involuntary smooth muscle - contracted in its normal state - when the bladder is full, stretch receptors convey to the nervous system that the bladder requires emptying - this causes parasympathetic neurons to fire, and the detrusor muscle contracts - this contraction also causes the internal sphincter to relax (known as the micturition reflex)
Spliceosome
- involved in transcription - accomplishes splicing of the hnRNA transcript (formed from transcription) to remove noncoding sequences (introns) and ligate coding sequences (exons) together - in the spliceosome, small nuclear RNA (snRNA) molecules couple with proteins known as small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs) - the snRNP/snRNA complex recognizes both the 5' and 3' splice sites of the introns - these noncoding sequences are excised in the form of a lariat (lasso-shaped structure) and then degraded - one of the 3 major posttranscriptional modifications that turn hnRNA into mature mRNA
Intracellular digestion
- involves the oxidation of glucose and fatty acids for energy - part of metabolism
Spectator ions
- ions that do not participate in a reaction - present on both sides of the equation in the same form, remain in the solution unchanged - chemically inert during the reaction - will not be found in the net ionic equation - ex. polyatomic anions that retain their charge before and after reactions
Proton NMR (1H-NMR)
- is good for: 1) determining the relative # of protons and their relative chemical environments, 2) showing how many adjacent protons there are by splitting patterns, 3) inferring certain functional groups - most 1H nuclei come into resonance 0-10 ppm downfield from TMS - if multiple protons are chemically equivalent, having the same magnetic environment, they will lead to the same peak - note: the height of each peak is proportional to the # of protons it contains. The integration is the ratio corresponding to the ratio of protons that produced each peak (ex. 3:1)
If methane and isobutane are placed in the same size container under the same conditions, which will exert the higher pressure (consider both as having negligible attractive forces)?
- isobutane is larger, and b is larger - thus, the term (V - nb) is smaller - the pressure or volume must rise to compensate - b/c the 2 gases are in the same size container, isobutane must exert a higher pressure
Filtration
- isolates a solid (residue) from a liquid (filtrate) - there is gravity filtration and vacuum filtration
A pot of water at 100 degrees C sits on a heating element and boils. What best characterizes this phase change process?
- isothermal expansion - temperature during a phase change is constant, so all phase changes are isothermal processes
At the beginning of the loop of Henle, the filtrate is ____________ to the interstitium and the volume of the filtrate has been significantly ______________
- isotonic, reduced - thus, from the beginning of the loop of Henle to the end, there is a slight degree of dilution - also, the volume of the filtrate has been significantly reduced, demonstrating a net reabsorption of a large volume of water
The isotope 12C is not useful for NMR b/c:
- it has no magnetic moment - only nuclei with odd mass numbers or those with an even mass number but an odd atomic number will have a nonzero magnetic moment
When doing an extraction, would it be better to do 3 extractions with 10 mL of solvent, or 1 extraction with 30 mL?
- it is better to do 3 washes with 10 mL than to do 1 with 30 mL - more of the compound of interest would be extracted with multiple sequential extractions than 1 large one
Immovable joints
- joint that allows little or no movement - consist of bones that are fused together to form sutures or similar fibrous joints - found primarily in the head, where they anchor bones of the skull together
Transposons
- jumping genes - can insert and remove themselves from the genome - if a transposon inserts in the middle of a coding sequence, the mutation will disrupt the gene
Rationalization (defense mechanism)
- justification of attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors - ex. a murderer who claims that, while killing is wrong, his victim "deserved it" - ex. driving recklessly, saying "there are plenty of other dangerous drivers on the road. What difference will one more make?"
The intermolecular reaction of 5-aminopentanoic acid through nucleophilic acyl substitution would result in a:
- lactam - 5-aminopentanoic acid contains a carboxylic acid and an amine - if it undergoes intramolecular nucleophilic acyl substitution, it will form a cyclic amid (lactam)
Stomach
- large muscular sac that continues the mechanical and chemical digestion of food - located in the upper left quadrant of the abdominal cavity, underneath the diaphragm - the organ uses HCl and enzymes to digest food, creating a fairly harsh environment - thus, its mucosa is quite thick to prevent autodigestion - the very acidic environment kills most harmful bacteria and also helps to denature proteins and break down some intramolecular bonds that hold food together - the lining of the stomach is thrown into folds called rugae - there are a few substances that are absorbed directly from the stomach (ex. alcohol and aspirin) but the stomach is mainly an organ of digestion - the mucosa of the stomach contains gastric glands and pyloric glands - fundus and body = contain mostly gastric glands - antrum and pylorus = contain mostly pyloric glands - lesser curvature = the internal curvature - greater curvature = the external curvature
Denominations/Sects
- large religions are divided into multiple denominations - these share certain beliefs and practices but not others - often coexist, but can come into conflict when their religious beliefs promote opposing values - ex. Christianity, Hinduism, Judaism, and Islam are divided into sects - ex. Orthodox and Reform are Jewish denominations - ex. Sunni and Shia are Islamic denominations
What are the 3 main types of chromosomal mutations that do NOT share their name with a type of frameshift mutation?
- larger-scale mutations in which large segments of DNA are affected 1) duplication mutations = occur when a segment of DNA is copied multiple times in the genome 2) inversion mutations = occur when a segment of DNA is reversed in the genome 3) translocation mutations = occur when a segment of DNA from one chromosome is swapped with a segment of DNA from another chromosome - also includes insertions and deletions
Latency Stage (Freud's Psychosexual Stages)
- lasts until puberty is reached - libido is largely sublimated during this stage
Dissociative disorders
- patients avoid stress by escaping parts of their identity - marked by those afflicted going into a state that removes unpleasant memories - includes dissociative amnesia, dissociative identity disorder (multiple personality disorder) and depersonalization/derealization disorder
Mendel's Second Law
- law of independent assortment - most aligns with prophase I of meiosis -- crossing over causes alleles to be swapped between homologous chromosomes - states that the inheritance of one gene does not affect the inheritance of another gene - holds true for unlinked genes but has been complicated by the discovery of linked genes - both segregation of homologous chromosomes and independent assortment of alleles increase the genetic diversity of gametes and improve the ability of a species to evolve and adapt to environmental stresses
Mendel's First Law
- law of segregation - most aligns with the separation of homologous chromosomes during anaphase I of meiosis -- by separating/segregating these chromosomes into different cells, each gamete carries only 1 allele for any given trait - 4 basic tenets: 1. genes exist in alternative forms (alleles) 2. an organism has 2 alleles for each gene -- one inherited from each parent 3. the 2 alleles segregate during meiosis, resulting in gametes that carry only one allele for any inherited trait 4. if 2 alleles of an organism are different, only one will be fully expressed and the other will be silent. The expressed allele is said to be dominant, while the silent allele is recessive. Keep in mind that codominance and incomplete dominance are exceptions to this rule - both segregation of homologous chromosomes and independent assortment of alleles increase the genetic diversity of gametes and improve the ability of a species to evolve and adapt to environmental stresses
Vicarious learning
- learning by observation - ex. if a trainer is in a room with you and you are learning the same task that the trainer is demonstrating, you are learning vicariously
Which side of the heart is more muscular?
- left side of the heart - left side pumps blood to entire body via systemic circulation, so blood leaving the left side of the heart must travel a considerable distance and blood pressure must be maintains - if the right side of the heart were as muscular as the left and pumped blood as forcefully, this would damage the lungs
Ketogenic amino acids
- leucine, lysine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and tyrosine - can be converted into ketone bodies - note: only leucine and lysine are STRICTLY ketogenic and NOT glucogenic - the rest are both
In depression, which hormone and neurotransmitter concentrations are elevated? Which are reduced?
- levels of cortisol are increased - levels of norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine are reduced
Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
- like the PCT, is important for solute identity by reabsorbing salts while secreting potassium ions, hydrogen ions, ammonia, and urea - responds to aldosterone, which promotes sodium reabsorption - water will follow the sodium, concentrating the urine and decreasing its volume - DCT is also a site of waste product secretion
RNA Polymerase II
- located in the nucleus - main player in transcribing mRNA - synthesizes hnRNA (pre-processed mRNA) and snRNA (small nuclear RNA) - binds to the TATA box (named for its high concentration of thymine and adenine bases), which is located within the promoter region of a relevant gene, at about ~25 - unlike DNA Polymerase III, RNA polymerase does not require a primer to start generating a transcript and also does not proofread its work
Dermatomes
- long, narrow one-sided regions of skin - innervated by a single neuron - an area of the skin supplied by nerves from a single spinal root
Disorganized thought
- loosening of association - exhibited as speech in which ideas shift from one subject to another so the listener is unable to follow their train of thought - can lead to word salad (speech has no structure, as if words are thrown together incomprehensibly) or neologisms (inventing new words)
Distant networks
- looser and contain weaker ties - composed of acquaintances - the combination of immediate and distant networks provide the most benefit to individuals
Stabilizing selection
- loss of extremes, maintenance of a phenotype in a small window - form of natural selection by which the center of the curve remains in its current position; occurs when individuals near the center of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals at either end - the mean remains the same and the distribution narrows - maintaining a phenotype is the result of this - ex. human birth weight is maintained within a narrow band by stabilizing selection. Fetuses that weight too little may not be healthy enough to survive, fetuses that weigh too much can experience trauma during delivery through the relatively narrow birth canal. In addition, the larger the fetus, the more resources it requires from the mother. For all of these reasons, it is advantageous to keep birth weights within a narrow range
Poverty
- low socioeconomic status and a lack of possessions or financial resources - can be the result of the inability to control events that shape a person's life, often leading to a large degree of dependency on others - can be absolute or relative
What are some of the factors that contribute to healthcare disparities between classes?
- low-income groups have less access to healthcare services and often experience lower quality healthcare - poor Americans are less likely yo be insured and consequently are less likely to see medical attention until conditions have become extremely serious, thereby limiting available interventions - as a result, morbidity and mortality rates are highest among low-income groups
Hispanic American health profiles compared to white Americans
- lower mortality rates attributable to cancer, heart disease, and infant mortality - higher mortality rates attributable to diabetes, alcohol and drug use, HIV/AIDS, influenza, pneumonia, and accidents
B-cells
- lymphocytes that develop and mature in the bone marrow (when B-cells leave the bone marrow, they are considered mature but naive b/c they have not yet been exposed to an antigen) - activated in the spleen or lymph nodes - responsible for antibody generation - antigens stimulate this cell to divide and produce antibodies that neutralize invaders or tag them for killing - specific - important for immunologic immunity -- vaccines - have a division of adaptive immunity called humoral immunity (= b/c these antibodies dissolve and act in the blood rather than in cells, involves the production of antibodies which may take as long as a week to become fully effective after initial infection) - once exposed to an antigen, they differentiate into 2 types of daughter cells: plasma cells and memory B-cells
When measured in the blood flowing to and from the kidney, there are some proteins that appear to be excreted. However, they are not found in the urine. Which organelles are most likely responsible?
- lysosomes and Golgi apparatus - proteins that are not found in the urine but have been removed from the blood must have been destroyed or significantly altered - lysosomes are the most likely site of degradation and packaging of proteins in the Golgi is also likely - note: ER is involved in synthesis and modification of proteins and lipids, not the breakdown of proteins
The innate immune cells
- macrophages, natural killer cells, mast cells, dendritic cells, granulocytes - nonspecific and form the first line of defense against pathogens
Organs of the immune system
- main ones: lymph nodes, bone marrow, thymus, spleen - but also includes these tissues near the digestive system, which is a site of potential invasion by pathogens known as gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT): tonsils and adenoids in the head, Peyer's patches in the small intestine, and lymphoid aggregates in the appendix
Life course approach/perspective (to health)
- maintaining and considering a comprehensive view of the patient's history beyond the immediate presenting symptoms - the life course perspective in general = considering an individual's age and cumulative life experiences when analyzing their personality, social status, health, and other social metrics - ex. a psychiatrist may consider a patient's early life events and how those events continue to impact a patient's condition - ex. a doctor chooses to conduct additional lung screenings on a patient who previously worked in a coal mine - we want to increase this
Self-discrepancy theory
- maintains that each of us has three selves and that perceived differences between these selves lead to negative feelings - our three selves: actual (made up by self-concept, the way we see ourselves as we currently are), ideal (the person we would like to be), and ought self (the way others think we should be - generally, the closer these 3 are, the higher our self-esteem or self-worth will be
Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy
- measures the absorption of infrared light by specific bonds that vibrate -- which can be seen as bond stretching, bending, or combinations of different vibrational modes - these vibrations cause changes in the dipole moment of the molecule that can be measured - is recorded by passing infrared light through a sample and measuring the absorbance - once the bonds in a molecule are determined, one can infer the presence of a # of functional groups to determine the identity of the molecule - plotted as % transmittance (amount of light that passes thru the sample and reaches the detector) vs wavenumber - note: maximum absorptions appear as the bottoms of valleys on the spectrum (AKA it is upside down) - NOTE: symmetric stretches do not show up in IR spectra b/c they involve no net change in dipole moment - ex. we can't get an absorption from compounds of atoms w/ the same electronegativity or are symmetrical, such as O2, Br2, and C2H2
Hemoglobin
- measures the quantity of hemoglobin in the blood - units: grams/decileters - normal for males: 13.5-17.5 g/dL - normal for females: 12-16 g/dL
Which cells account for the fact that the secondary response to a pathogen is much more rapid and robust than the primary response?
- memory cells allow the immune system to carry out a much more rapid and robust secondary response
mRNA
- messenger RNA - carries information from DNA traveling from the nucleus (where it is transcribed) to the cytoplasm (where it is translated) - takes the information of the amino acid sequence from the DNA to the ribosomes, where creation of the primary protein structure can occur - may undergo a host of posttranscriptional modifications prior to its release from the nucleus - the only type of RNA that contains information that is translated into protein - the only type of RNA that carries info from DNA directly - synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction and is complementary and antiparallel to the DNA template strand - the ribosome translates the mRNA in the 5'--->3' direction, as it synthesizes the protein from the amino terminus (N end) to the carboxy terminus (C end) - in eukaryotes, mRNA is monocistronic (= each mRNA molecule translates into only one protein product) - in prokaryotes, mRNA is polycistronic (= each mRNA molecule can encode more than one protein product)
Liver
- metabolic powerhouse of the body - located in the upper right quadrant - participates in drug detoxification (oxidizes compounds by the cytochrome p450 system), bile production, and cholesterol metabolism - bile ducts connect the liver with both the gallbladder and small intestine - receives all blood draining from the abdominal portion of the digestive tract through the hepatic portal vein - this nutrient-rich blood can be processed by the liver before draining into the inferior vena cava on its way to the right side of the heart - bilirubin travels to the liver, where it is conjugated (attached to a protein) and secreted into the bile for excretion - the liver also synthesizes albumin (a protein that maintains plasma oncotic pressure and also serves as a carrier for many drugs and hormones) and clotting factors used during blood coagulation - ex. the liver takes up excess sugar to create glycogen and stores fats as triacylglycerols - ex. can produce glucose for the rest of the body through glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis and mobilizing fats in lipoproteins - ex. detoxifies both endogenous compounds (made in the body) and exogenous compounds (brought in from the environment) - ex. the liver converts ammonia, a toxic waste product of amino acid metabolism, into urea, which can be excreted by the kidneys - ex. alcohol and medication detox
Semi-peripheral nations
- midway between core and peripheral nations - these nations work toward becoming core nations, while having many characteristics of peripheral nations
Oxygen (O2) does not exhibit an IR spectrum b/c:
- molecular vibrations do not result in a change in the dipole moment - IR spectroscopy is based on the principle that, when the molecule vibrates or rotates, there is a change in dipole moment - O2 can't be detected b/c it is homonuclear (made of 1 element) and diatomic so there's no net change in its dipole moment during vibration or rotation
Affluent neighborhoods tend to have ______ homeowners, professionals and managers, college graduates, and quality schools
- more - low-income neighborhoods tend to have greater poverty, unemployment rates, lower quality schools, and higher rates of homelessness - low-income neighborhoods are also less safe, with higher rates of violent crime, organized crime, and gang activity
The diaphragm is under ______________ control
- somatic (voluntary) - even though breathing itself is under autonomic control
At extremely high pressures or extremely low temperatures, gases will occupy ______ space than predicted by the ideal gas low b/c the particles cannot be compressed to zero volume
- more - they are less ideal at high pressures and low temperatures b/c molecules are forces closer together, meaning they can participate in intermolecular forces
Secondary response
- more rapid and robust - if the microbe from the primary response is ever encountered again, the memory cells rapidly proliferate and differentiate into plasma cells to produce antibodies specific to that pathogen - the development of these lasting memory cells is the basis of the efficacy of vaccination
Ultraviolet (UV) Spectroscopy
- most useful for studying compounds containing double bonds, heteroatoms with lone pairs, pi bonds, or non-bonding electrons that create conjugated systems (molecules with unhybridized p-orbitals) - conjugation shifta the absorption spectrum, resulting in higher maximum wavelengths (lower frequencies) - spectra are obtained through passing UV light through a sample that is usually dissolved in an inert, nonabsorbing solvent, and recording the absorbance - absorbance vs wavelength is plotted - the absorbance is caused by electronic transitions between orbitals - biggest piece of info we get from this: the wavelength of maximum absorbance, which tells us the extent of conjugation within conjugated systems: the more conjugated the compound, the lower the energy of the transition, and the greater the wavelength of maximum absorbance - The smaller the difference between HOMO and LUMO, the longer the wavelength that can be absorbed - Only after absorbing UV light is an electron is excited from the HOMO to the LUMO
Nuclear family
- mother, father, and children living as a unit - a family wherein 2 generations cohabitate: 2 opposite sex parents and their children
Directional selection
- movement toward 1 extreme or the other - adaptive pressure can lead to the emergence and dominance of an initially extreme phenotype - ex. if we have a heterogeneous plate of bacteria, very few may have resistance to antibiotics. If the plate is then treated with ampicillin (an antibiotic), only those colonies that exhibit resistance to this antibiotic will survive. A new standard phenotype emerges as a result of differential survivorship - ex. the mergence of mosquitoes resistance to DDT a type of pesticide is attributed to directional selection - ex. as the climate became colder during Ice Age, a particular species of mammal evolved a thicker layer of fur. Only those individuals that shifted toward an extreme adaptation to adapt to a selective pressure, such as developing a thick coat to survive the cold environment, were able to survive
Disruptive selection
- movement toward both extremes with loss of the norm - speciation may occur - facilitated by the existence of polymorphisms -- naturally occurring differences in form between members of the same population - ex. Darwin's studies of finches on the Galapagos Islands -- although they had a common ancestor, their beak sizes were all either large or small with no intermediate phenotype. Seeds were either quite large or fairly small, requiring a large or small beak. Thus, if the original ancestor had a medium-size beak, over time the animals with slightly larger or smaller beaks would be selected for
How does absorption of water in the small intestine work?
- much of the water in chyme is actually the result of secretions - to maintain proper fluid levels within the body, much of the fluid from secretions must be reabsorbed by osmosis - as solutes are absorbed into the bloodstream, water is drawn with them, eventually reaching the capillaries - water passes not only transcellularly (across the cell membrane) but also paracellularly (squeezing between cells) to reach blood
Genetic factors that appear to increase the risk of Alzheimer's disease:
- mutations in the presenilin genes (chromosomes 1 and 14) - mutations in the apolipoprotein E gene (chromosome 19) - beta-amyloid precursor protein gene (chromosome 21)
What is the response of the immune system to down-regulation of MHC molecules on somatic cells?
- natural killer cells induce apoptosis of affected cells - healthy cells exhibit MHC class I molecules - natural killer cells monitor the expression of MHC molecules on the surface of cells - viral infection and cancer often cause a reduction in the expression of MHC class I molecules on the cell surface - natural killer cells detect this lack of MHC and induce apoptosis in the affected cells
Polymorphisms
- naturally occurring differences in form between members of the same population - ex. light and dark coloration of the same species of butterfly
Inflation of the lungs in mammals is accomplished by _____________ pressure pumping
- negative - because the lung stays in contact with the thoracic wall as it enlarges due to contraction of the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles, a pressure that is lower than atmospheric pressure (negative pressure) is generated within the alveolar sacs
Push factors
- negative attributes of the old location that encourage the immigrant to leave
Dysfunctions
- negative consequences of the existence of an institution, organization, or interaction - an intended or unintended negative effect on a system
What are the expected products of butanone + PCC and butanone + KMnO4?
- neither - ketones cannot be oxidized by common oxidizing reagent that cannot break the C-C bond
Which is more ideal: nitrogen or fluoromethane gas?
- nitrogen gas is more ideal b/c it is smaller and forms weaker intermolecular interactions - fluoromethane is larger and b/c of the polarity of its C-F bond, it can participate in dipole-dipole interactions
Fission reactions can be initiated by bombarding nuclei with neutrons. Could fission reactions be initiated by bombarding with protons instead?
- no b/c neutrons, unlike protons, do not experience electrostatic repulsion from the nucleus - in order for fission to occur, energy must be supplied to the nucleus to initiate the reaction - this energy comes from the kinetic energy of the particle that is used to bombard the nucleus - in order for this kinetic energy to be transferred to the nucleus, the particle must be able to get within close proximity to it - protons would not work well b/c being positively charged themselves, they would experience repulsion from the positively charged nucleus
Nodes are places of
- no displacement! - the points in a standing wave with no fluctuation in displacement are called nodes - antinodes = points of maximum displacement
What is the primary function of the small intestine?
- nutrient uptake and absorption of water - the primary function of the small intestine is to absorb carbohydrates, proteins, and water - while the small intestine plays a role in both salt homeostasis and enzymatic digestion, these are not primary functions of the small intestine
Intensity
- objectively measurable loudness or volume of a sound - units: watts / meter^2 (I = PA) - intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude. thus, doubling the amplitude produces a sound wave that has 4x the intensity - intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source.
A patient with OCD believes that she must check the latch on her apartment door 5 times before she goes to bed. If she does not check the latch 5times, she cannot sleep for feat of someone will break into her apartment. What is her obsession, her compulsion, and how are they related in OCD?
- obsession: the patient's thought that someone will break into her apartment - compulsions: she must check the latch on her apartment door 5 times before going to bed - obsessions raise tension while compulsions relieve that tension
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
- occurs after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event, such as war, a home invasion, rape, or a natural disaster - consists of intrusion symptoms, arousal symptoms, avoidance symptoms, and negative cognitive symptoms - intrusion symptoms = recurrent reliving of the event, flashbacks, nightmares, and prolonged distress - arousal symptoms = an increased startle response, irritability, anxiety, self-destructive or reckless behavior, and sleep disturbances - avoidance symptoms = deliberate attempts to avoid the memories, people, places, activities, and objects associated with the trauma - negative cognitive symptoms = an inability to recall key features of the event, negative mood or emotions, feeling distanced from others, and a persistent negative view of the world - note: intrusion and arousal symptoms can be explained by associative learning, specifically classical conditioning, in which the event has become associated with traumatic triggers and has generalized to everyday stimuli - avoidance symptoms can be explained through operant conditioning, specifically avoidance learning, in which the patient learns behavior to avoid unpleasant stimuli - negative cognitive symptoms can be seen as form of dissociation, a defense mechanism to avoid unpleasant stimuli
Positive selection
- occurs when T-cells in the thymus are able to respond to antigen presented on MHC are allowed to survive - those that do not respond undergo apoptosis b/c they will not be able to respond in the periphery
Incomplete dominance
- occurs when a gene has no dominant alleles, and heterozygotes have phenotypes that are intermediate between homozygotes - ex. red flowers crossed with white flowers yields pink flowers
Compliance
- occurs when individuals change their behavior based on the request of others who do not wield authority over the individual - techniques include foot-in-door, door-in-face, lowball, and that's-not-all
Attribute substitution
- occurs when individuals must make judgments that are complex but instead they substitute a simpler solution or heuristic - when making automatic or intuitive judgements on difficult questions or scenarios, an individual may address a different question or scenario without even realizing a substitution has been made - ex. "a pencil and an eraser cost $1.10 together. If the pencil costs 1 dollar more than the eraser, how much does the eraser cost" most people will incorrectly answer 10 cents - ex. dealing with size and color in optical illusions
Constructive interference
- occurs when two or more waves combine to produce a wave with a larger displacement - happens when 2 waves are in phase
Destructive interference
- occurs when two or more waves combine to produce a wave with a smaller displacement - happens when 2 waves are out of phase - the phase difference corresponding to a half of a wave is 180° and half a wave difference in phase between two waves corresponds to destructive interference - ex. noise-cancelling headphone
Spin-spin coupling (splitting)
- occurs when we have 2 protons close to one another that are not magnetically identical and have an effect on the other's magnetic environment - this results in the splitting of peaks into doublets, triplets, or multiplets depending on the environment
Resocialization
- one discards old behaviors in favor of new ones, typically through intensive training, necessary for a life change - can have positive/negative connotations - ex. the method by which members of the armed forces are trained to obey orders and commands without hesitation - ex. the method by which members are attracted and indoctrinated into a cult - ex. the prison environment's designed to change bad behavior into desired behavior, so resocialization would occur
Empathy-altruism hypothesis
- one explanation for the relationship between empathy and helping behavior (altruism) - states that an individual helps another person when they feel empathy for the other person, regardless of the cost - more recent conceptions of altruism posit that an individual will help another person only when the benefits outweigh the costs for an individual
Polygyny
- one male, several females - ex. elephant seal males mate with multiple females each mating season, while females only have 1 mate each
Individual discrimination
- one person discriminating against a particular person or group - considered conscious and obvious - can be eliminated by removing the person who is displaying the behavior - ex. the owner of a small business in China believes that depressed people are just "faking it" to get attention and refuse to hire anyone diagnosed with it
Hemizygous genotype
- only 1 allele is present for a given gene - ex. parts of the X chromosomes in males
Monohybrid cross
- only 1 trait is being studied - parent/P generation = the individuals being crossed - filial/F generation = the offspring
Which cell types in blood contain nuclei? Which do not?
- only leukocytes contain nuclei (including neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes/macrophages, and lymphocytes) - erythrocytes and platelets do not
Walls of the alveoli
- only one cell thick, allowing for the exchange of gases with the blood capillaries that surround them - this facilitates the diffusion of CO2 from the blood into the lungs and O2 into the blood
If only the charge barrier is damaged, what kinds of proteins are allowed across the glomerulus/will have higher clearance than a healthy individual?
- only small, charged proteins in comparison to a healthy individual - b/c small, uncharged molecules can always cross through - only small proteins ccan cross through b/c the size barrier is still intact but charge does not matter
Electrolytic cells
- opposite of galvanic/voltaic cells - house nonspontaneous reactions that require input of energy to proceed - the change in free energy for an electrolytic cell is positive (+G) - this type of redox reaction driven by an external voltage source is called electrolysis, in which chemical compounds are decomposed - b/c electrolysis is nonspontaneous, the electrode (anode or cathode) can consist of any material so long as it can resist the high temperatures and corrosion of the process - the anode is (+) and the cathode is (-) -- this is b/c an external source is used to reverse the charge of an electrolytic cell - the anode is considered (+) b/c it is attached to the positive pole of the external voltage source and attracts anions from the solution - the cathode is considered negative b/c it is attached to the negative pole of the external voltage source and attracts cations from the solution - the electrode with the more positive reduction potential is forced by the external voltage source to be oxidized and is thus the anode - the electrode with the less positive reduction potential is forced to be reduced and is thus the cathode - the electrode with the less positive reduction potential is the cathode and the electrode with the more positive reduction potential is the anode - ex. electrolytic cells can be used to drive the nonspontaneous decomposition of water into oxygen and hydrogen gas - ex. used for the electrolysis of molten NaCl. Na+ ions migrate toward the cathode, where they are reduced to Na (l). Cl- ions migrate toward the anode, where they are oxidized to Cl2 (g). - note: the half reactions do not need to be separated into different compartments b/c the desired reaction is nonspontaneous - Faraday's law = the amount of chemical change induced in an electrolytic cell is directly proportional to the # of moles of electrons that are exchanged during the redox reaction
Osmotic vs oncotic pressure
- osmotic Pressure = ""Sucking"" pressure that draws water into blood - oncotic Pressure = Osmotic Pressure specifically caused by Proteins"
Impression management
- our attempts to influence how others perceive us - done by regulating or controlling information we present about ourselves in social interactions - 3 "selves": 1) authentic self = describes who the person actually is, including both positive and negative attributes 2) ideal self = who we would like to be under optimal conditions 3) tactical self = who we market ourselves to be when we adhere to others' expectations of us - self-presentation/the presented self = the combination of these 3 selves - common impression management strategies: self-disclosure, managing appearances, ingratiation, aligning actions, and alter-casting - ex. when participants are left alone at a buffet, they tended to eat higher calorie foods than when a group of people were present. Eating high-calorie foods may be seen as socially unacceptable or an undesirable behavior since it is unhealthy. Thus, when other people are around, people may limit their intake of such foods to manage other people's perceptions of them
When a weak acid (HA) is titrated with sodium hydroxide in the presence of an indicator (HIn), the pH at which a color change is observed depends on the:
- pKa of HIn - the range at which the color change takes place depends on the point at which HIn is converted to In-, and this depends on the pKa of the indicator
Sinoatrial (SA) node
- pacemaker of the heart - a collection of cells located in the wall of the right atrium - has an intrinsic rhythm of 60-100 signals per minute without requiring any neurological input, so the normal human HR is 60-100 bpm - cardiac muscle has myogenic activity, meaning that it can contract without any neurological input - the SA node will still maintain 60-100 bpm even if innervation to the heart is cut - neurological input to the heart is important in speeding up and slowing down the rate of contraction, but not generating it in the first place - as the depolarization wave spreads from the SA node, it causes the 2 atria to contract simultaneously
The pancreatic enzymes in pancreatic juice
- pancreatic amylase digests carbohydrates into small disaccharides - pancreatic lipase digests fats into free fatty acids and glycerol - trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidases A and B digest proteins (released as their zymogen forms trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, and procarboxypeptidases A and B and then once activated are responsible for protein digestion) - enteropeptidase is the master switch that activate these zymogens
In addition to being a freestanding diagnosis, agoraphobia is most often seen in association with which other psychiatric diagnosis?
- panic disorder - agoraphobia = fear of situations in which it would be difficult to escape - concern about having a panic attack in public may make these patients fearful of leaving their home
A laceration cuts down into a layer of loose connective tissue in the skin. Which layer of the skin is this?
- papillary layer - the layer of the skin that is predominantly loose connective tissue is the papillary layer of the dermis
A young woman presents to the ER with a broken hip. She denies any recent history of trauma to the joint. Blood tests reveal a calcium concentration of 11.5 mg/dL (normal: 8.4-10.2). What tissue is likely responsible for these findings?
- parathyroid - an unprovoked fracture of the hip is not a normal finding in a young woman - it is likely that she has an increased level of bone resorption that is causing her bones to be more fragile - parathyroid hormone causes calcium release from the bones - if this woman had an overactive parathyroid gland -- or even cancer in this gland -- then it is likely that calcium could still be resorbed from her bones even through her blood calcium levels are already high
What muscles are involved in exhalation?
- passive: uses recoil from the lungs and musculature (relaxation of the external intercostal muscles and diaphragm) - active: internal intercostals and abdominal muscles (speeds up this process by pulling the rib cage down and decreasing the volume of the thoracic cavity)
Excoriation disorder
- patients are compelled to pick at their skin - required for diagnosis: patients have previously attempted to stop their body-focused compulsions but have so far failed
Trichotillomania
- patients are compelled to pull out their hair - required for diagnosis: patients have previously attempted to stop their body-focused compulsions but have so far failed
Personality disorder
- pattern of behavior that is inflexible and maladaptive, causing distress or impaired functioning in at least two of the following: cognition, emotions, interpersonal functioning, or impulse control - considered ego-syntonic (the patient perceives their behavior as correct and normal)
Peer group vs family group
- peer group = a group that consists of self-selected equals associated by similar interests, ages, or statuses. They provide an opportunity for friendship and feelings of belonging - family group = not self-selected but determined by birth, adoption, and marriage. It joins members of various ages, genders, and generations through emotional ties - in adolescence, peer groups begin to compete with gamily groups for time and loyalty
Which has lower pKa: 3-pentanone or pentanal?
- pentanal - the alpha-hydrogens of aldehydes are slightly more acidic than those of ketones due to the electron-donating characteristics of the 2nd alkyl group in ketones - this extra alkyl group destabilizes the carbanion, which slightly disfavors the loss of the alpha-hydrogens in ketones as compared to aldehydes - thus, pentanal is a stronger acid and will have a lower pKa (is more easily deprotonated)
In the presence of an acid catalyst, the major product of butanoic acid and 1-pentanol is:
- pentyl butanoate - this is esterification - the nucleophilic O atom of 1-pentanol will attack the electrophilic carbonyl carbon of butanoic acid, displacing water to form pentyl butanoate
Reciprocal liking
- people like others better when they believe the other person likes them - affects interpersonal attraction
Mere exposure effect/Familiarity effect
- people prefer stimuli that they have been exposed to more frequently - ex. you disliked a song the first time you heard it, only to find yourself singing along and enjoying it after hearing it many more times - ex. used in marketing: the more people hear the name of a product, the more likely they are to be attracted to and purchase that product
Interpersonal attraction
- phenomenon of individuals liking each other - influenced by many factors, such as: 1) similarity -- we are attracted to people who are similar to us in attitudes, education, age, SES, etc out of convenience 2) self-disclosure -- sharing our thoughts 3) reciprocity -- we like someone more when we believe they like us 4) proximity -- it's easier to have conversations and make plans with people in the same area 5) physical characteristics/attractiveness -- ex. the more symmetric someone's face is the more physically attractive we find them, ex. humans are attracted to those with body proportions close to 1.618:1 (the golden ratio)
A schizophrenic patient is started on the atypical antipsychotic risperidone, which is effective for treatment of the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, but not the negative symptoms. Which of the patient's symptoms are likely to improve, and which are not?
- positive symptoms, like delusions, hallucinations (usually auditory), disorganized thought, and disorganized behavior are likely to improve from treatment with an antipsychotic medication - negative symptoms, like disturbance of affect and avolition, are largely unaffected by antipsychotic medications
Learning theory
- posits that attitudes are developed through forms of learning - direct contact with the object can influence attitudes - ex. children form a positive attitude toward sweets almost immediately after tasting them - direct instruction from others can also influence attitudes - ex. a child who is taught by their parents not to use curse words can form a negative attitude toward curse words and, indirectly, a negative attitude toward those who use curse words - our attitudes can also be influenced by other's attitudes - ex. a teenager may begin to have a positive attitude toward smoking if he notices that all of his friends smoke - attitudes may also be formed through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or observational learning
Prezygotic mechanisms of reproductive isolation
- prevent formation of the zygote completely - includes: - 1) temporal isolation (breeding at different times) - 2) ecological isolation (living in different niches within the same territory) - 3) behavioral isolation (a lack of attraction between members of the 2 species due to differences in pheromones, courtship displays, etc) - 4) reproductive isolation (incompatibility of reproductive anatomy) - 5) gametic isolation (intercourse can occur, but fertilization cannot)
Hardy-Weinberg Principle
- principle that allele frequencies in a population will remain constant and the gene pool is stable (not undergoing evolution) unless one or more factors cause the frequencies to change - note: b/c of this, populations in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium will exhibit unchanged allele frequencies compared to the parent population - 5 criteria that are mandatory: 1) the population is very large (no genetic drift) 2) there are no mutations that affect the gene pool 3) mating between individuals in the population is random (no sexual selection) 4) there is no migration of individuals into or out of the population 5) the genes in the population are all equally successful at being reproduced 2 equations related to this to know: p + q = 1 p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 (the frequency of the homozygous dominant genotype + the frequency of the heterozygous dominant genotype + the frequency of the homozygous recessive genotype) - 1st equation tells us about the frequency of alleles in the population - the 2nd equation tells us about the frequency of genotypes and phenotypes in the population - note: there are twice as many alleles as individuals in a population b/c each individual has 2 autosomal copies of each genem
Which of the following molecules are detectable by UV spectroscopy: propane, propene, or propanone?
- propene and propanone, propane would not be detectable - conjugated systems and other molecules with pi or nonbonding electrons can give absorbances on a UV spectroscopy plot
What are the major posttranslational modifications that occur in proteins?
- proper folding by chaperones - formation of quaternary structure - cleavage of proteins or signal sequences - addition of other biomolecules (phosphorylation, carboxylation, glycosylation, prenylation)
Colligative property
- properties that depend on the amount of solute present, but not the actual identity of the solute particles - usually associated with dilute solutions - ex. vapor pressure depression, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure
Interferons
- proteins that prevent viral replication and dispersion - what cells that have been infected with viruses produce - cause nearby cells to decrease production of both viral and cellular proteins (reduce the rate of transcription and translation to decrease the ability of the virus to multiply) - also decrease the permeability of these cells, making it harder for a virus to infect them - upregulate MHC class I and II molecules, resulting in increased antigen presentation and better detection of the infected cells by the immune system - responsible for many "flu-like" symptoms that occur during viral infection, including malaise (unwell), tiredness, muscle soreness, and fever
Direct benefits
- provide advantages to the mate - ex. material advantages, protection, and survival of offspring - mate bias can result in this
Race vs ethnicity
- race = phenotypic differences between groups of people (ex. White, Black, Asian, American Indian, Pacific Islander) - note: b/c of migration and mixing of populations, there are few if any genetically isolated people left. Thus, sociologists recognize that scientifically categorizing people by genetic differences is not possible. However, they do study how each society treats its socially defined racial groups - ethnicity = a social construct based on common language, religion, nationality, or other cultural factors - both race and ethnicity are shown to influence a patient's chance of receiving many specific procedures and treatments
In the nephron, amino acids enter the vasa recta via the process of:
- reabsorption (from the filtrate back to the blood) - essential substances, like glucose, salts, amino acids, and water, are reabsorbed from the filtrate and returned to the blood in the vasa recta
Mass hysteria
- refers to a shared, intense concern about the threats to society - many features of groupthink lead to a shared delusion that is augmented by distrust, rumors, propaganda, and fear mongering - ex. Salem witch trials
Negative selection
- refers to causing apoptosis in cells that are self-reactive (activated by proteins produced by the organism itself) - occurs when T-cells that respond to self-antigens undergo apoptosis before leaving the thymus
Secondary socialization
- refers to learning the norms of specific subgroups or situations - occurs outside of the home and is based on learning the rules of specific social environments - includes smaller changes and refinements to behavior that was established in primary socialization - during adolescence and adulthood - can also occur when moving to a new region or changing schools or professions - ex. the behavior necessary to thrive in school is different from that in the home setting, sports field, or church - ex. when entering prison, an inmate must undergo secondary socialization to learn the rules of the specific social environment of the prison
Glass ceiling
- refers to processes that limit the progress of women to the highest job positions b/c of invisible social barriers to promotion
Actor-observer bias
- refers to the actor's tendency to explain his/her own behavior by situational factors whereas the observer tends to explain the actor's behavior by internal stable traits - ex. Max attends a party and does not make eye contact with, or approach, his acquaintance, Sam. Actors (Max) attribute their bad behavior to situational factors (not feeling well), whereas observers (Sam) will attribute actors' behavior to dispositional factors (social awkwardness) - ex. A researcher interested in actor-observer bias asks a group of viewer participants to watch a target participant work on a series of puzzles. Thus, an appropriate measure would be to assess whether the actor and the observer attribute the actor's behavior to a relatively stable trait such as intellect.
Primary socialization
- refers to the initial learning of acceptable behaviors and societal norms during childhood - in children, this sets the stage for future socialization and provides the foundation for creating personal opinions - facilitated mostly by parents and other trusted adults
A glass fiber carries a light digital signal long distances with a minimum loss of amplitude. What optical property of glass allows this phenomenon?
- reflection - Light can be carried along a distance within a transparent material by means of total internal reflection
Situational (external) attributions
- relate to features of the surroundings, such as threats, money, social norms, and peer pressure - distinctiveness cues lead us to be more likely to make a situational attribution about them - collectivists are more likely to attribute behavior to situational factors - ex. believing your friend has been nominated for a reward b/c of luck - ex. carl is always happy and smiling. Today, you notice he seems down and think something must have happened to upset him
Negative affect
- related to neuroticism and describes how a person thinks of themselves and experiences negative emotions - high negative affect corresponds with neuroticism and anxiety, and is associated with several mood disorders
Regression (defense mechanism)
- returning to an earlier stage of development - ex. a husband speaks to his wife in "baby talk" when telling her bad news - ex. when faced with stress, older children may return to earlier behaviors such as thumb sucking, throwing temper tantrums, or clinging to their mothers
M-line
- runs down the center of the sarcomere, through the middle of the myosin filaments - mnemonic: Middle of the Myosin filaments - during contraction, the H-zone, I-band, the distance between Z-lines, and the distance between M-lines all become smaller, whereas the A-band's size remains constant
Salivary amylase vs pancreatic amylase
- salivary amylase = active in the mouth and has a higher specificity for rapidly soluble starches - pancreatic amylase = active in the small intestine and has a higher specificity for less soluble, more nonpolar starches
Schizophreniform disorder
- same diagnostic criteria as schizophrenia except in duration - the required duration for this diagnosis is only 1 month
A gas that occupies 10 L at 1 atm and 25oC will occupy what volume at 500 atm and 25 degrees C?
- somewhat more than 0.02 L b/c of the space occupied by the individual gas molecules - the ideal gas law makes the assumption that molecules have no volume - this assumption is adequate when the gas is at 1 atm, but when the pressure is increased to 500 atm the volume of the gas molecules is no longer negligible
How does absorption of fats in the small intestine work?
- short-chain fatty acids will follow the same process as carbs and amino acids by diffusing directly into the intestinal capillaries - these fatty acids don't require transporters b/c they're nonpolar - larger fats, glycerol, and cholesterol move separately into the intestinal cells but then reform into triglycerides - the triglycerides and esterified cholesterol molecules are packaged into chylomicrons - rather than entering the bloodstream, the chylomicrons enter the lymphatic circulation through lacteals (small vessels that form the beginning of the lymphatic system) - these lacteals converge and enter the venous circulation at the thoracic duct in the base of the neck, which empties into the left subclavian vein
Solomon Asch's conformity experiment
- showed that individuals will often conform to an opinion held by a group - individuals will sometimes provide answers they know to be untrue if it avoids going against the group - thus, the urge toward conformity could outweigh the desire to provide the right answer - showed the strength of social influence on normative conformity, or the desire to fit into a group b/c of fear of rejection
Gas chromatography (AKA Vapor-phase chromatography/VPC)
- similar to other types of chromatography, but is performed with a gaseous eluent, usually helium or nitrogen (instead of liquid in other kinds of chromatography ) - the stationary phase (adsorbent) is usually a crushed metal or polymer inside a 30-foot column - this column is coiled and kept inside an oven to control its temperature - the mixture is then injected into the column and vaporized - the gaseous compounds travel through the column at different rates b/c they adhere to the adsorbent in the column to different degrees and will separate in space by the time they reach the end of the column - note: the injected compounds must be volatile: low melting point, nonpolar, sublimable solids or vaporizable liquids - the compounds are registered by a detector, which records them as a peak on a chart - it is common to separate molecules using GC and then to inject the pure molecules into a mass spectrometer for molecular weight determination - in summary, the sample is injected into the column and moves with the gaseous mobile phase through a stationary liquid or solid phase, then a computer identifies the sample components - In gas-liquid chromatography, the first peak to emerge will be from the least polar, most volatile compound
How does absorption of carbohydrates and amino acids in the small intestine work?
- simple sugars (ex. glucose, fructose, galactose) and amino acids are absorbed by secondary active transport and facilitated diffusion into the epithelial cells lining the small intestine - then these substances move across the epithelial cell membrane into the intestinal capillaries - blood is constantly passing by the epithelial cells, carrying the carbohydrate and amino acid molecules away - this creates a concentration gradient such that the blood always has a lower concentration of monosaccharides and amino acids than inside the epithelial cells - thus, simple carbs and amino acids diffuse from the epithelial cells into the capillaries - the absorbed molecules then go to the liver via the hepatic portal circulation
If we are given a solution of ether, with a boiling point of 308 K, and methylene chloride, with a boiling point of 313K, which type of distillation should be used to separate them?
- since they have very close boiling points, they can be separated by using fractional distillation
Patterns of kinship
- sister, father, cousins - ex. Hawaiians call all family members cousins, but there is a specific blood line to consider someone a cousin in other cultures - have bearing responsibilities for child rearing, family loyalties and even the boundaries what is considered incest
Pepsin(ogen)
- site of production: gastric glands (chief cells) - site of function: stomach - function: hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds; activated by HCl
Isomaltase
- site of production: intestinal glands - site of function: duodenum - function: hydrolyzes isomaltose to 2 glucose molecules
Lactase
- site of production: intestinal glands - site of function: duodenum - function: hydrolyzes lactose to glucose and galactose
Maltase
- site of production: intestinal glands - site of function: duodenum - function: hydrolyzes maltose to 2 glucose molecules
Lipase
- site of production: pancreas (acinar cells) - site of function: duodenum - function: hydrolyzes lipids
Chymotrypsin(ogen)
- site of production: pancreas (acinar cells) - site of function: duodenum - function: hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds; activated by trypsin
Trypsin(ogen)
- site of production: pancreas (acinar cells) - site of function: duodenum - function: hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds; converts chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin; activated by enteropeptidase
Pancreatic amylase
- site of production: pancreas (acinar cells) - site of function: duodenum - function: hydrolyzes starch to maltose and dextrins
Slow-twitch fibers
- skeletal muscle - "red fibers" - have high myoglobin content and primarily derive their energy aerobically -- but can also switch to anaerobic metabolism and produce lactic acid if needed/fatigued - as exercising muscles run out of O2, they use myoglobin reserves to keep aerobic metabolism going - contain many mitochondria to carry out oxidative phosphorylation - muscles that contract slowly but that can sustain activity (ex. support posture) contain a predominance of red fibers
Lymph nodes
- small, bean-shaped structures along the lymphatic vessels - contain a lymphatic channel, as well as an artery and a vein - provide a space for immune cells to be exposed to possible pathogens, communicate, and mount an attack - filter lymph - B-cells can be activated here as well -- they proliferate and mature in the lymph nodes in collections called germinal centers
Gravity filtration
- solvent's own weight pulls it through the filter - more commonly used when the product of interest is in the filtrate - hot solvent is generally used to keep the product dissolved in liquid (soluble) which allows the product to remain in the filtrate, which can then be collected - if solvent that is too cold is used, the product will crystallize out (precipitated) and is present in the residue
Demographic transition theory
- specific example of a demographic shift that occurs as a country develops from a preindustrial to an industrial economic system - ex. this has been seen in the U.S. since the Industrial Revolution - occur due to increasing access to modern healthcare and decreasing birth rates due to cultural pressures - factors that may hinder this transition: causes of death that are poorly controlled for, poor education, and increasing child mortality rates - 4 stages: 1) Stage 1 -- preindustrial society, birth and death rates and both high, resulting in a stable population 2) Stage 2 -- economic progress leads to improvements in healthcare, nutrition, sanitation, and wages, causing a decrease in death rates. Thus, total population increases 3) Stage 3 -- Improvements in contraception, women's rights, and a shift from an agricultural to an industrial economy cause birth rates to drop. As birth and death rates equalize, population growth hits an inflection point and begins to level off 4) Stage 4 -- an industrialized society, birth and death rates are both low, resulting in a relative constant total population 5) some sociologists have described a 5th stage where birth rates continue to drop and fall below the death rate, resulting in a decline of total population (ex. Japan and Germany)
During which stage of demographic transition are both birth rates and mortality rates low?
- stage 4 - an industrialized society, birth and death rates are both low, resulting in a relative constant total population
Undifferentiated (gender identity)
- state being simultaneously not very masculine and not very feminine
Androgyny
- state of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine - high femininity, high masculinity
Functional attitudes theory
- states that attitudes serve four functions: 1) knowledge: attitudes help provide organization to thoughts and experience 2) ego-expressive: allow us to communicate and solidify our self-identity 3) adaptive: idea that one will be accepted if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed 4) ego-defensive: protect our self-esteem or justify actions that we know are wrong
Punctuated equilibrium (theory of evolution)
- states that for some species, little evolution occurs for a long period, which is interrupted by rapid bursts of evolutionary change - suggests that changes in some species occur in rapid bursts rather than evenly over time
Rectum
- storage site for feces, which consists of indigestible material, water, bacteria (E coli and others), and certain digestive secretions that are not reabsorbed (enzymes and some bile) - the anus is the opening through which wastes are eliminated and consisted of 2 sphincters: the internal and external
In which layer of the skin can the stem cells of keratinocytes be found?
- stratum basale - the stratum basale contains the stem cells that proliferate to form keratinocytes, which then ascend through the other layers of skin until they are shed from the stratum corneum
Acid-base reactions that consist of a single-headed arrow generally indicate:
- strong acids or bases (complete dissociation with no reversibility)
Mutagens
- substances that can cause mutations - ex. ionizing radiation, such as UV rays from the sun, and chemical exposures
Natural selection (theory of evolution)
- survival of the fittest - Charles Darwin - states that certain traits that arise from chance are more favorable for reproductive success in a given environment, and that those traits will be passed on to future generations - natural selection can drive organisms living in groups to ultimately become distinct species - fitness is measured by reproductive success - natural selection is the history of differential survivorship/selection - note: evolution and natural selection are NOT equivalent ! Natural selection is simply a mechanism for evolution - 3 basic tenets: 1) organisms produce offspring, few of which survive to reproductive maturity 2) chance variations within individuals in a population may be heritable. If these variations give an organism even a slight survival advantage, the variation is termed favorable 3) individuals with a greater preponderance of these favorable variations are more likely to survive to reproductive age and produce offspring. The overall result will be an increase in these traits in future generations. This level of reproductive success is termed fitness, and an organism's fitness is directly related to the relative genetic contribution of this individual to the next generation
How does absorption of water-soluble vitamins in the small intestine work?
- taken up along with water, amino acids, and carbs across the endothelial cells of the small intestine, passing directly into the plasma
Distillation
- takes advantage of differences in boiling points to separate 2 liquids by evaporation and condensation - the liquid with the lower BP will vaporize first, and the vapors will rise up the distillation column to condense in a water-cooled condenser - this condensate then drips down into a vessel - the end product is called the distillate - the heating temp is kept low so that the liquid with the higher BP will not be able to boil and therefore remain liquid in the initial container - ex. this is the process used to make liquor at a distillery. B/c ethanol boils at a lower temperature than water, we can use distillation to make beverages with high ethanol contents - there is simple, vacuum, and fractional distillation
Adaptive immunity (Specific immunity)
- takes longer to mount a response with adaptive immunity, but the response targets a specific pathogen and maintains immunologic memory of the infection to mount a faster response during subsequent infections - developed as immune cells learn to recognize and respond to particular antigens - when we are exposed to a pathogen, it may take a few days for the physical symptoms to be relieved. This is b/c the adaptive immune response takes time to replicate and form specific defenses against the pathogen - the specific immune system can be further divided into humoral immunity (driven by B-cells and antibodies) and cell-mediated/cytotoxic immunity (driven by T-cells) - adaptive immune cells: the lymphocytes B-cells and T-cells - note: the innate and adaptive immune systems are not separate entities -- they work together
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
- the dark winter months are believed to be the source of depressive symptoms - depressive symptoms are only in the winter months - thus, the disorder is categorized as major depressive disorder with seasonal onset - may be related to abnormal melatonin metabolism - often treated with bright light therapy
Modern synthesis model AKA neo-Darwinism (theory of evolution)
- takes natural selection and explains that selection is for specific alleles, which are passed on to future generations through formation of gametes - the alleles for these favorable traits arise from mutations - adds knowledge of genetic inheritance and changes in the gene pool to Darwin's original theory - when mutation or recombination results in a change that is favorable to the organism's reproductive success, that change is more likely to pass on to the next generation -- and the opposite is true - this is known as differential reproduction - over time, those traits passed on by the more successful organisms will become ubiquitous in the gene pool - b/c the gene pool changes over time, it is important to note that populations evolve, not individuals - ex. a mutation due to excessive amounts of UV light occurs in an unfertilized egg; this will affect the child who is born from that egg - ex. a green-feathered bird that survived all of the predators in the forest will pass on the green feather genes to its offspring -- an organism with improved fitness will pass those genes to offspring - ex. a flower with a tasty nectar eaten by a butterfly is more likely to pass on its genes through the pollen spread by the butterfly than a flower with less desirable nectar -- an organism with improved fitness will pass those genes to offspring - note: acquired characteristics not encoded in the genome (ex. muscular strength) should not be passed to offspring according to this model
Temperature vs heat
- temperature = an indirect measure of the thermal content of a system that looks at average kinetic energy of particles in a sample - a measure of the average kinetic energy - heat = the thermal energy transferred between objects as a result of differences in their temperatures - a specific form of energy that can enter or leave a system
Before absorbing an ultraviolet photon, electron scan be found in:
- the HOMO only - only after absorbing UV light is an electron excited from the HOMO (highest occupied molecular orbital) to the LUMO (lowest unoccupied molecular orbital)
Alternative splicing
- the ability of some genes to use various combinations of exons to create multiple proteins from one hnRNA transcript - this increases protein diversity and allows a species to maximize the number of proteins it can create from a limited number of genes
Reducing SDS-PAGE
- the addition of a reducing agent reduces disulfide bonds to eliminate the higher structures of proteins - similar to SDS-PAGE in that they both separate proteins via gel electrophoresis based on their size
Inappropriate affect
- the affect is clearly discordant with the content of the individual's speech - example of disturbance of affect, a negative symptom of schizophrenia/psychotic disorders - ex. laughing hysterically while describing a parent's death
Given an alkane, an aldehyde, and an alcohol with equal-length carbon chains, which will have the highest boiling point? Why?
- the alkane will have the lowest boiling point, then the aldehyde, then the alcohol with the highest boiling point - the boiling point of the aldehyde is elevated by its dipole - the boiling point of an alcohol is further elevated by H bonding
Where should you look on the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve to determine the amount of O2 that has been delivered to tissues?
- the amount of O2 delivery can be seen as a drop in the y-value (% hemoglobin saturation) on an oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve - ex. if the blood is 100% saturated while in the lungs (at 100 mgHg O2) and only 80% saturated while in tissues (at 40 mmHg O2), then 20% of the oxygen has been released to tissues
Fertility rate
- the average # of children a woman has during her lifetime in a population - usually measured in # of children per woman during her lifetime - this is the primary drive of population expansion in many parts of the world - ex. in Africa, the average fertility rate is between 4-8 children per woman - ex. in the U.S., fertility rates have tended downward over time, but is roughly 2
Social interaction
- the behavior and actions of 2 or more individuals who take one another into account - refers to the effects that multiple individuals all have on each other - opposite of social action
Culture
- the behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people - transmitted from one generation to the next - cultural differences include everything from typical jobs, common dwellings, diet, what time of day one eats, and where one travels on vacation if any
Suppose an extraction with methylene chloride (density = 1.33g/mL) is performed, with the desired compound initially in brine (density = 1.04 g/mL). In a separatory funnel, which layer will be the organic layer?
- the bottom layer - brine is salt water, which belongs in the aqueous layer - methylene chloride belongs in the organic layer - it is denser than brine, so the organic layer will settle at the bottom of the funnel - although the organic layer is usually on top, this is not always the case
What is true concerning the difference in buoyant force if one object is submerged in water and that same object is then submerged in mercury?
- the buoyant force acting on the object when it is submerged in mercury will be greater - this is b/c mercury is much more dense
2 identical balloons of negligible mass are tethered at altitudes of 2000 m and 2600 m, respectively. The balloons are filled with helium gas to equal volumes. What is true concerning the buoyant force acting on each balloon?
- the buoyant force on the balloon at 2000 m will be greater - the buoyant force acting on an object is equal in magnitude to the weight of the fluid it displaces - b/c the balloons are of equal volume, they displace an equal volume of fluid - lower altitude air is more dense, and thus, a given volume will weigh more - the balloon at the lower altitude (2000 m) will have a greater buoyant force applied to it b/c the air is more dense at a lower altitude
Positive emf
- the cell is spontaneous (galvanic) - able to release energy (ΔG < 0)
Exposure of which subendothelial compounds start the coagulation cascade? What protein helps stabilize the clot?
- the coagulation cascade can be started by the exposure of collagen and tissue factor to platelets and coagulation factors - the clot is stabilized by fibrin
Phase difference: what does it mean when 2 waves are out of phase?
- the crests of 1 wave coincide with the troughs of the other - phase difference is 1/2 a wave - this is expressed as λ/2 OR 180 degrees - the resultant wave has 0 amplitude
Bohr effect
- the decrease in affinity and rightward shift seen on an oxyhemoglobin curve - thus, a rightward shift represents a greater unloading (lower affinity) of O2 into the tissues - "EXERCISE is the RIGHT thing to do" - occurs with increased CO2, increased [H+], decreased pH, increased 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-BPG, a side product of glycolysis in RBCs), and increased temperature - the triggers are often associated with oxygen demand - higher rates of cellular metabolism result in increased CO2 production and accumulation of lactic acid, both of which decrease pH
Oxygen debt
- the difference between the amount of oxygen needed by the muscles and the actual amount present - the amount of oxygen required to recover from strenuous exercise is equal to the oxygen debt
Heat capacity
- the energy required to raise any given amount of a substance 1 degree C - the product of mass and specific heat (m * C) - ex. it requires less heat to raise the temperature of a glass of water the same amount as a swimming pool. While these 2 items have the same specific heat, they have different heat capacities
Sonic boom
- the explosive sound heard when a shock wave from an object traveling faster than the speed of sound reaches a person's ears - the passing of a shock wave creates very high pressure, followed by very low pressure - can be heard at any time that an object is traveling at or faster than the speed of sound passes a detector, not just at the point that the speed of sound is exceeded
Attitude
- the expression of positive or negative feelings toward a person, place, thing, or scenario - 3 components: 1) Affective, 2) Behavioral, 3) Cognitive
Generalizability
- the extent to which we can claim our findings inform us about a group larger than the one we studied - the application of results to a wider population of people or across settings - ex. testing participants' stuttering levels in 3 different settings would test the generalizability of a program
How does exhalation work?
- the external intercostal muscles and diaphragm will relax (diaphragm moves upward) - the chest wall and rib cage are contracted inward - this creates a smaller space in the chest cavity, decreasing intrathoracic volume - thus, a decrease in intrathoracic volume leads to an increase in intrapleural pressure (Boyle's law) - now pressure in the intrapleural space is higher than in the lungs, which is still at atmospheric pressure - the pressure inside the lungs is higher than the outside pressure, thus, air will be pushed out
Numbering system for bases on DNA during transcription
- the first base transcribed from DNA to RNA is defined as the +1 base of that gene region - bases to the left of this start point (upstream, or toward the 5' end) are given negative numbers - bases to the right (downstream, or toward the 3' end) are denoted with positive numbers - thus, no nucleotide in the gene is numbered 0 - the TATA box, where RNA polymerase II binds, usually falls around -25
Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
- the first segment of a renal tubule - the primary site for the adjustment of caloric substances and toxins - glucose, amino acids, and proteins are all reabsorbed here - most secretion of non-ion substances also occurs here - controls solute identity, reabsorbing vitamins, amino acids, and glucose, while secreting potassium ions, hydrogen ions, ammonia, and urea - almost 70% of filtered sodium will be reabsorbed here, but the filtrate remains isotonic to the interstitium, as other solutes and a large volume of water are also absorbed - solutes that enter the interstitium (the connective tissue surrounding the nephron) are picked up by the vasa recta to be returned to the bloodstream for reuse within the body
Fischer esterification
- the formation of an ester from a carboxylic acid and an alcohol in acidic conditions - the rate of this reaction depends on the amount of steric hindrance around the carbonyl carbon b/c there must be room for the alcohol to approach the carboxylic acid substrate
When a battery, resistor, and capacitor are in series, what happens to the voltage at the point between the resistor and capacitor after the switch is closed?
- the initial voltage on the capacitor is 0 - as charge accumulates, the voltage rises towards the voltage of the battery - the rise in voltage is asymptotic
Gender inequality
- the intentional or unintentional empowerment of one gender to the detriment of others - in the presence of gender inequality, gender stratification may occur
Outbreeding/outcrossing
- the introduction of unrelated individuals into a breeding group - this could theoretically result in increased variation within a gene pool and increased fitness of the population
What is the biological definition of a species?
- the largest group of organisms capable of breeding to form fertile offspring - speciation = the formation of new species through evolution - if we took 2 populations from the same species and separated them geographically for a long period of time, different evolutionary pressures would lead to different adaptive changes - if enough time passed, the changes would be sufficient to lead to isolation, which means the progeny of these populations could no longer freely interbreed -- they are now considered 2 separate species
Faraday's law
- the liberation of gas and deposition of elements on electrodes is directly proportional to the number of electrons being transferred during the redox reaction - the amount of chemical change induced in an electrolytic cell is directly proportional to the # of moles of electrons that are exchanged during the redox reaction
Extracellular digestion
- the process by which nutrients are obtained from food - occurs within the lumen of the alimentary canal - this is technically "outside" the body b/c the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract communicates directly with the outside world
During gravity filtration, a student forgets to heat the solution before running it through the filter. After capturing the filtrate, the student analyzes the sample via infrared (IR) spectroscopy and finds none of the desired product in the filtrate. What likely occurred to the student's product?
- the product precipitated and is present in the residue - warm or hot solvent is generally used in gravity filtration to keep the desired product stable - this allows the product to remain in the filtrate, which can then be collected - in this case, the student likely used solvent that was too cold, and the product crystallized out - the product should be present in the residue
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy
- the most important spectroscopic technique to understand !!!! - measures alignment of nuclear spin with an applied magnetic field - based on the fact that certain atomic nuclei have magnetic moments that are oriented at random - these certain nuclei if placed in a magnetic fields, will have magnetic moments that tend to align either with or against the direction of this applied field - nuclei with magnetic moments aligned with the field are said to be in the alpha state (lower energy) - the nuclei can then be exposed to radiation with radiofrequency pulses that match the energy gap between the 2 states, which will excite some lower-energy nuclei into the beta-state (higher energy) - the absorption of this radiation leads to excitation at different frequencies, depending on an atom's magnetic environment - also, the nuclear magnetic moments of atoms are affected by nearby atoms that also possess magnetic moments - most often used for identifying different types and magnetic environments of protons in a molecule, which allows us to infer the connectivity (backbone) of a molecule - plotted frequency vs absorption of energy - most commonly used to study protons (1H), but any atom possessing a nuclear spin (with an odd atomic number, odd mass number, or both) can be studied (ex. 13C, 19F, 17O, 31P, 59Co)
Secretion
- the movement of solutes from blood into filtrate anywhere besides Bowman's capsule - the nephrons are able to secrete salts, acids, bases, and urea directly into the tubule by either active or passive transport - the quantity and identity of the substances secreted into the nephron are directly related to the needs of the body at that time - ex. a diet heavy in meat will cause an intake in large amounts of protein, which contains a large amount of nitrogen. Ammonia is a byproduct of the metabolism of nitrogen-containing compounds, which as a base can disturb the pH of blood and cells. The liver converts the ammonia to urea, a neutral compound, which travels to the kidney and is secreted into the nephron for excretion in the urine. Kidneys are capable of eliminating ions or other substances when present in relative excess in the blood - secretion is also a mechanism for excreting wastes that are simply too large to pass through glomerular pores
Filtration (kidneys)
- the movement of solutes from blood into filtrate at Bowman's capsule - 20% of blood that passes through the glomerulus is filtered as fluid into Bowman's space - the collected fluid is known as the filtrate - the hydrostatic is much larger than the oncotic pressure, so the net flow is from blood into the nephron - filtrate is similar in composition to blood but does not contain cells or proteins due to the filter's ability to select based on size - molecules or cells that are larger than glomerular pores will remain in the blood - the blood remaining in the glomerulus then travels into the efferent arterioles, which empty into the vasa recta - the filtrate is isotonic to blood so that neither the capsule nor the capillaries swell
Reabsorption
- the movement of solutes from filtrate into blood - taken back up for use - certain substances are almost always reabsorbed, such as glucose, amino acids, and vitamins. Thus, they are usually not present in the urine - water is reabsorbed in large quantities in order to maintain blood pressure and adequate hydration - ADH and aldosterone can alter the quantity of water reabsorbed within the kidney in order to maintain blood pressure
Need for acheivement (N-Ach)
- the need to excel or achieve to a set of standards - people with high N-ACh's are concerned with achievement and have pride in their accomplishments - these individuals avoid high risks (to avoid failing) and low risks (b/c easy tasks will not generate a sense of achievement) - they set realistic goals and stop striving toward a goal if success is unlikely
Ego-syntonic
- the patient perceives her behavior as correct, normal, or in harmony with her goals - ex. personality disorders (ex. BPD) - ex. OCPD
Ego-dystonic
- the patient sees the illness as something thrust upon her that is intrusive and bothersome - ex. OCD
Social support
- the perception or reality that one is cared for by a social network - while social support is present at all times, it is often most pronounced and necessary when someone suffers a personal or family tragedy - 5 types: emotional support, esteem support, material support, informational support, and network support - social support helps reduce psychological distress, like anxiety and depression - people with low social support show higher levels of major mental disorders, alcohol and drug use, suicidal ideation, and have a higher mortality risk from many diseases, such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer - those with higher social support are less likely to get colds and recover faster when they do - ex. friends and family members that help patients adhere to medical treatment, friends and family members that help patients to reduce harmful behaviors, social relationships that help individuals to cope with stressful events, etc
External locus of control
- the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate (luck, outside influences, etc) - someone is most likely to attribute outcomes to environmental rather than personal causes - ex. a runner who loses a race attributing the cause of the loss to their shoes not fitting and the track being wet - ex. while studying for the MCAT: "oh that was just a stupid question" - ex. not doing well on a test due to bad luck or the test being too difficult
Justice (1 of the 4 key tenets of American medical ethics)
- the physician has a responsibility to treat similar patients with similar care and distribute healthcare resources fairly
Freezing point depression
- the presence of solute particles in a solution interferes with the formation of the lattice arrangement of solvent molecules associated with the solid state - thus, a greater amount of energy must be removed from the solution (resulting in a lower temperature) in order for the solution to solidify - melting point is depressed b/c solute particles interfere with lattice formation - ex. this is why we salt icy roads in the winter -- the solute displaces some of the water molecules from the solid-liquid interface and prevents liquid water from entering into the solid phase (lattice formation). This imbalance causes more ice to melt than water to freeze ΔT = i*Kf*m - freezing point depression is a colligative property and depends only on the concentration of particles, not their identities - note: m = molality, not molarity - REMEMBER: THE FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION FORMULA CALCULATES THE AMOUNT THAT THE FREEZING POINT IS LOWERED -- THE VALUE CALCULATED IS NOT THE FREEZING POINT ITSELF
Transesterification reaction
- the reaction of an ester with an alcohol to form a different ester - the alcohol is the nucleophile, displacing the esterifying group on an ester
What about the refractive indicies of water and the eye's media accounts for the fact that humans underwater experience a form of hyperopia (farsightedness)?
- the refractive indices of water and the eye's media are too similar - an inability to see close objects implies the optical power of the eye is not great enough to focus incoming light on the retina - light from distant objects arrives nearly parallel and requires less optical power (bending), so the issue must arise from an inability to bend incoming light
I-band
- the region containing exclusively thin filaments - mnemonic: I is a thin letter (thin filaments only, actin only) - during contraction, the H-zone, I-band, the distance between Z-lines, and the distance between M-lines all become smaller, whereas the A-band's size remains constant
Retro-aldol reaction
- the reverse of an aldol condensation reaction where instead a bond between the alpha and beta carbons of a carbonyl is broken - this will form 2 aldehydes, 2 ketones, or 1 aldehyde + 1 ketone - favored by the addition of base and heat - this reaction will occur if the intermediate can be stabilized in the enolate form
Why does the right side of the heart contain less cardiac muscle than the left side?
- the right side of the heart pumps blood into a lower-resistance circuit and must do so at lower pressures - thus, it requires less muscle - the left side of the heart pumps blood into a higher-resistance circuit at higher pressures - thus, it requires more muscle
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) has a very strong rotten egg odor, Methyl salicylate (C8H8O) has a wintergreen odor, and benzaldehyde (C7H6O) has a pleasant almond odor. If the vapors for these 3 substances were released at the same time from across a room, in which order would one smell the odors?
- the rotten egg odor (hydrogen sulfide) first, almost (benzaldehyde) next, and wintergreen (methyl salicylate) last - b/c all of the gases have the same temperature, they have the same kinetic energy - thus, the lightest molecules travel the fastest
Gender segregation
- the separation of individuals based on perceived gender - ex. divisions of male, female, and gender-neutral bathrooms - ex. separating male and female sports teams - ex. single-gender schools
Bowman's capsule
- the site of filtration, through which water, ions, amino acids, vitamins, and glucose pass (essentially everything besides cells and proteins) - a cup-like structure around the glomerulus
Lacunae
- the small empty spaces found in mature bone as a result of cell death in cavities that lack blood supply and nerves - vacant spaces in bone tissue that were formerly occupied by osteocytes - the small spaces between lamellar rings - house mature bone cells (osteocytes) - are connected by tiny channels called canaliculi (= allow for the exchange of nutrients and wastes between osteocytes and the Haversian and Volkmann's canals)
Common ion effect
- the solubility of a salt is considerably reduced when it is dissolved in a solution that already contains one of its constituent ions as compared to its solubility in a pure solvent - AKA the reduction in molar solubility - b/c the solution already contains one of the constituent ions from the products side of the dissociation equilibrium, the system will shift toward the left side, reforming the solid salt, and less of the solid dissolves in solution - one can take advantage of the common ion effect to separate out specific compounds - note: the presence of the common ion has no effect on the value of the solubility product constant (Ksp) itself, it remains constant and is unaffected
Vacuum filtration
- the solvent is forced through the filter by a vacuum connected to the flash - more often used when the solid is the desired product
Triple point
- the specific combination of temperature and pressure at which all 3 phases are in equilibrium
An ultrasound examination could show the motion of a fetus. In order to image this motion, the ultrasound examination devices requires what minimal information?
- the speed of the sound, and the frequencies of the sound waves emitted and observed - the Doppler effect in ultrasound waves is used to provide fetal images - the Doppler effect relates the frequency of the ultrasound wave as detected by a moving detector to the frequency of the wave when the source is stationary, the speed of the source, and the speed of the detector
Equivalence point
- the steepest point of the titration curve - occurs when the equivalents of acid present = the equivalents of base added (or vice versa)
Rigor mortis
- the stiffening of the body after death - ATP production ceases after death so myosin heads cannot detach from actin, making it impossible for muscles to relax and lengthen
GI tract's role in nonspecific immunity
- the stomach secretes acid, an antimicrobial substance in the digestive system, which eliminates most pathogens - the gut is colonized by bacteria that lack the necessary characteristics to cause infection, and b/c many potential invaders are not able to compete, they are kept at bay
Solvent
- the substance in which the solute dissolves - remains in the same phase after mixing
Panic attacks/disorder
- the sudden surge of fear in which the patient feels that they are losing control of their body and/or dying - misfiring of the sympathetic nervous system resulting in an unwanted fight or flight response - the diagnosis of panic disorder requires the recurrence of unexpected panic attacks that impairs one's daily functions and persists for at least a month - associated agoraphobia (fear of open spaces) - related to an increased sensitivity to epinephrine
Self-concept
- the sum of all of the phrases that come to mind when we think of who we are, who we used to be, and who we may become in the future - our internal list of answers to the question "who am I?" - includes: self-schemata, the past self, and the future self - ex. student, intelligent, future doctor
In the absence of ADH, the distal convoluted tube and collecting duct remain relatively impermeable to water. This is b/c the epithelial cells are connected by:
- tight junctions - it's a tight epithelium and does not allow the passage of materials extracellularly
Id (Psychoanalytic Theory)
- the sum of our basic urges to reproduce and survive - functions according to the pleasure principle (= the aim is to achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent-up tension) - the primary process is the id's response to frustration based on the pleasure principle: obtain satisfaction now - wish fulfillment = mental imagery that fulfills this need for satisfaction (ex. daydreaming, fantasizing, etc) - ex. when stuck in traffic, our id may desire to honk loudly at the cars in front of us or pull over to the shoulder to drive recklessly past the congestion
What is tetanus (the physiological phenomenon, not the disease)?
- the summation of multiple simple twitches that occur too quickly for the muscle to relax - this leads to a stronger and more prolonged contraction of the muscle
The Hawthorne effect
- the tendency for people to behave differently when they know they are being studied - ex. A researcher conducts observational research on the study habits of college students. When students are aware of the researcher's presence, they are more attentive, focused, and structured. When students are not aware of the researcher's presence, they are inattentive, unfocused, and distracted
Self-serving bias (AKA self-serving attributional bias)
- the tendency to attribute our successes to internal factors and our failures to external factors - this is to protect our self-esteem -- individuals with higher self-esteem are more likely to protect this image and thus are more likely to exhibit self-serving bias - influenced by motivational processes, like self-enhancement and self-verification - relationships also determine this -- ex. strangers are much more likely yo self-serve by placing blame for a failure on each other vs people who are closer will be less likely to attribute failures to one another and make joint attributions - ex. a student who earns a good grade on a test may attribute their success to their intelligence or how much they studied. But if they received a bad grade, they might attribute the outcome to poor teaching, unfair questions, or too long a test for the allotted time - ex. a friend wins a tennis game and says "I trained so hard -- that was a great win!" and when she loses the next match she says "my baby bother kept me up all night crying. I was tired for the match"
Reliance on central traits
- the tendency to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics that matter to the perceiver
Cardiac output
- the total blood volume pumped by a ventricle in a minute (units: Liters/minute) - note: it does not matter which ventricle you measure from b/c the 2 pumps are connected in series, so the volumes of blood passing through each side must be the same - for humans, cardiac output is about 5 liters per minute - formula: CO = HR x SV cardiac output (liters/min) = heart rate (beat/min) * stroke volume (L/beat)
Extraction
- the transfer of a dissolved compound (the desired product) from a starting solvent into a solvent in which the product is more soluble - based on "like dissolves like" - allows us to extract the desired product, leaving most of the impurities behind in the first solvent - note: both solvents must be immiscible (form 2 layers that do not mix, like water and oil) - the 2 layers are temporarily mixed by shaking so that solute can pass from 1 solvent to the other - aqueous layer = the water/polar layer - organic layer = the nonpolar layer - a separatory funnel is used: gravitational forces cause the denser layer to sink to the bottom of the funnel - thus, the denser solvent is always drained first - once the desired product has been isolated in the solvent, we can obtain the product alone by evaporating the solvent, usually by using a rotary evaporator (rotovap) - it is more common for the organic layer to be on top - also, multiple layers of extraction are more effective for obtaining the most product rather than single extraction
Verbal communication
- the transmission of information via the use of words, whether spoken, written, or signed - often dependent on nonverbal cues - ex. spoken language, American Sign Language, text messages, Braille, written language (print or electronic)
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
- the volume of additional air that can be forcibly inhaled after a normal inhalation
Residual volume (RV)
- the volume of air remaining in the lungs when one exhales completely
Affective component of attitude
- the way a person feels toward something, and is the emotional component of attitude - ex. snakes scare me - ex. I love my family - ex. I love action movies
Cognitive component of attitude
- the way an individual thinks about something, which is usually the justification for the other two components - related to cognitive appraisal/interpreting - ex. knowing that snakes can be dangerous (and sometimes poisonous) provides a reason to be afraid of snakes and avoid them
Phase difference: what does it mean when 2 waves are in phase?
- their crests and troughs coincide (line up with each other) - when perfectly in phase, the phase difference is 0 - the resultant wave has an amplitude equal to the sum of the amplitudes of the 2 waves (constructive interference)
Dissociative identity disorder (DID) AKA multiple personality disorder
- there are 2 or more personalities that recurrently take control of the patient's behavior - can be due to severe physical or sexual abuse as a child
Muscle cells are similar to neurons in that:
- they exhibit an all-or-nothing response: either they respond completely to a stimulus or not at all - for muscle cells to respond, stimuli must reach a threshold value - the strength of a response from one muscle cell cannot be changed b/c the only options are all or nothing - thus, nerves control overall force by the # of motor units they recruit to respond - maximal response occurs when all fibers within a muscle are stimulated to contract simultaneously
What causes the relatively high acidity of carboxylic acids?
- this is due to the electron-withdrawing oxygen atoms in the functional group and the high stability of the carboxylate anion, which is resonance stabilized by delocalization with 2 electronegative oxygen atoms
Pharynx
- throat - passageway for food to the esophagus and air to the larynx/lungs - note: food is prevented from entering the larynx during swallowing by the epiglottis, a cartilaginous structure that folds down to cover the laryngeal inlet - leads from the mouth and posterior nasal cavity to the esophagus - 3 parts: nasopharynx (behind the nasal cavity), oropharynx (at the back of the mouth), and laryngopharynx (above the vocal cords)
If 2 objects are traveling toward each other, how does the apparent frequency differ from the original frequency? What if 2 objects are traveling away from each other? What if 1 object is following the other?
- toward each other: the apparent frequency is higher than the original frequency - away from each other: the apparent frequency is lower than the original frequency - one object follows the other: the apparent frequency could be higher, lower, or equal to the original frequency depending on the relative speeds of the detector and source
Mechanism of mate bias: indicator traits
- traits that signify overall good health and well-being of an organism, increasing its attractiveness to mates - may or may not be genetic in origin - ex. female cats are more attracted to male cats with clean and shiny coats. a dirty and dull coat might be related to an underlying genetic problem, malnutrition, or infection
tRNA
- transfer RNA - translates nucleic acids to amino acids by pairing its anticodon with mRNA codons - each tRNA molecule contains a folded strand of RNA that includes a 3-nucleotide anticodon - this anticodon recognizes and pairs with the appropriate codon on an mRNA molecule while in the ribosome - it is charged with an amino acid, which can be added to the growing peptide chain - each type of amino acid is activated by a different aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase that requires 2 high-energy bonds from ATP, implying that the attachment of the amino acid is an energy rich bond - the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase transfers the activated amino acid to the 3' end of the correct tRNA - each tRNA has a CCA nucleotide sequence where the amino acid binds - aminoacyl-tRNA = amino acid + tRNA attached - the high energy aminoacyl-tRNA bond will be used to supply the energy needed to create a peptide bond during translation - mature tRNA is found in the cytoplasm
Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes)
- transports O2 - O2 does not simply dissolve in the cytoplasm of the RBC (it's nonpolar and thus has low solubility) - instead, each RBC contains millions of hemoglobin, each of which can bind 4 molecules of O2 - biconcave (indented on both sides) which assists them in traveling through tiny capillaries and increases the cell's surface area (to increase gas exchange) - unique in that when they mature, the nuclei, mitochondria, and other membrane-bound organelles are lost - this loss of organelles makes space for the molecules of hemoglobin - the loss of mitochondria means that the RBCs do not consume the O2 that it is carrying before it is delivered to peripheral tissues - RBCs don't carry out oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP, they rely entirely on glycolysis for ATP -- thus they are ANAEROBIC - b/c they lack nuclei, they are also unable to divide - they are produced in the bone marrow and circulate in the blood for about 120 days, after which they are phagocytized in the spleen and the liver
Socialism
- treating large industries as collective, shared businesses and compensation is provided based on the work contribution of each individual into the system - thus, profit is distributed equally to the workforce
Eosinophils
- type of granulocyte - contain bright red-orange granules - are primarily involved in allergic reactions and invasive parasitic infections - activated by invasive parasites and allergens - upon activation, eosinophils release large amounts of histamine -- an inflammatory mediator - this results in vasodilation and increased leakiness of the blood vessels, allowing fluid and additional immune cells (especially macrophages and neutrophils) to move out of the bloodstream and into the tissue - inflammation is particularly useful against extracellular pathogens, including bacteria, fungi, and parasites
Basophils
- type of granulocyte - contain large purple granules and are involved in allergic responses - the least populous WBC in the bloodstream under normal circumstances - activated by allergens - mast cells are closely related to basophils -- both release large amounts of histamine in response to allergens, leading to inflammatory responses
Natural killer cells
- type of nonspecific WBC - activated by cells that do not present MHC (such as virally infected cells and cancer cells) - ex. some viruses cause down-regulation of MHC molecules, making it harder for T-cells to recognize the presence of an infection - is able to detect the down-regulation of MHC and induce apoptosis in these virally infected cells - destroys the body's own cells that have become infected with pathogens - b/c cancer cells may also down-regulate MHC production, NK cells also offer protection from the growth of cancer as well
Material support/Tangible support
- type of social support - any type of financial or material contribution to another person - ex. making a meal for friends after they have lost a loved one - ex. donating money to a person in need
Network support
- type of social support - gives a person a sense of belonging - can be physical or accomplished through gestures, group activities, and shared experiences - ex. a group hug
Esteem support
- type of social support - reminding others of the skills they possess and affirming their qualities so they can tackle a problem/boost their confidence - ex. telling a friend who has missed a significant amount of work due to illness that they should have no problem making up the work b/c they are so smart and hardworking
What phenomena can be detected or treated using ultrasound?
- ultrasound can be used for prenatal screening or to diagnose gallstones, breast and thyroid masses, and blood clots - it can be used for needle guidance in a biopsy, for dental cleaning, and for treating deep tissue injury, kidney stones, certain small tumors, and cataracts
Van der Waals equation of state
- used to correct the ideal gas law for intermolecular attractions (a) and molecular volume (b) - a = corrects for attractive forces between molecule. Thus, a will be smaller for gases that are small and less polarizable (ex. He), larger for gases that are larger and more polarizable (ex. Xe or N2), and largest for polar molecules (ex. HCl and NH3) - b = corrects for volume of the molecules. Larger molecules have larger b values - numerical values for a are generally much larger than those for b
Cold finger
- used to purify a product that is heated under reduced pressure, causing it to sublimate - the desired product is usually more volatile than the impurities, so the gas is much more pure than the original product and the impurities are left in the solid state - the gas then deposits onto the cold finger, which has cold water flowing through it, yielding a purified solid product that can be collected
Managing appearances
- using props, appearance, emotional expression, or associations with others to create a positive image - ex. wearing a white coat, keeping calm while dealing with a difficult patient, mentioning associations with important researchers during an interview, etc
If we are given a solution of bromobenzene, with a boiling point of 156 degrees C, and camphor, with a boiling point of 204, which type of distillation should be used to separate them?
- vacuum distillation would be the best technique to separate 2 chemicals with such high boiling points b/c the decreased ambient pressure will allow them to boil at a lower temperature
Compact bone (AKA dense bone)
- very dense and strong - a general term for the external layers of most bones - it forms most of the outer layers of a bone - this is where bone's characteristic strength comes from - the strength of compact bone comes from the bone matrix
In DiGeorge syndrome, the thymus can be completely absent. The absence of the thymus would leave an individual unable to mount specific defenses against which types of pathogens?
- viruses - T-lymphocytes, which mature in the thymus, are the only specific defense against intracellular pathogens - while some bacteria, fungi, and parasites can live intracellularly, viruses by definition must replicate within cells - the absence of T-cells would leave an individual unable to fight viral infections with specific defenses
In parallel:
- voltage stays constant (VP) - if resistors are connected in parallel, all of the current must pass sequentially through each resistor - current changes, thus - resistance will decrease as more resistors are added - capacitance is additive - capacitance will increase as more capacitors are added
External urethral sphincter
- voluntary skeletal muscle - the person can choose to relax the external sphincter to urinate, or can maintain the tone of the external sphincter to prevent urination
To form a geminal diol, what is used to attack a carbonyl carbon?
- water
Why should esterification reactions NOT be carried out in water?
- water molecules would hydrolyze the desired products back into the parent carboxylic acid - the presence of water in an esterification reaction would likely revert some of the desired esters back into carboxylic acids
Cognitive neoassociation model
- we are more likely to respond to others aggressively when whenever we are feeling negative emotions (being tired, hungry, sick, frustrated, in pain) - ex. riots are more likely to happen on hot days than cold ones - ex. drivers with no AC are more likely to honk and display road rage - ex. snapping at people more when you're in pain - ex. annoying with a waiter when you are extremely hungry
Social institutions
- well-established social structures that dictate certain patterns of behavior or relationships and are accepted as a fundamental part of culture - exist at the meso level b/c they are a part of society, but are not dependent on the individuals involved - includes: 1) Family 2) Education 3) Religion 4) Government 5) Economy 6) Medicine - of these, family is the most basic of institutions and is most closely tied to the individual
Cultural barriers
- when a cultural difference impedes interaction with others - ex. Asian cultures believe that healthcare decisions should be the responsibility of the patient's family vs the American belief that patient autonomy should be prized and that healthcare decisions should be made by a patient whenever possible -- there is not always one correct answer
Stable population
- when a population's fertility rate and mortality rate remain relatively consistent over a long period of time, the distribution of the population among the age cohorts remains fairly constant
Boiling point elevation
- when a solute is dissolved in a solvent, the boiling point of the solution will be higher than that of the pure solvent - the boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the ambient (incident) pressure - if the vapor pressure of a solution is lower than that of the pure solvent, then more energy (and consequently a higher temperature) will be required before its vapor pressure equals the ambient pressure ΔT = i*Kb*m - boiling point elevation is a colligative property and depends only on the concentration of particles, not their identities - note: m = molality, not molarity - REMEMBER: THE BOILING POINT ELEVATION FORMULA CALCULATES THE AMOUNT THAT THE BOILING POINT IS RAISED -- THE VALUE CALCULATED IS NOT THE BOILING POINT ITSELF
Identity shift effect
- when an individual's state of harmony is disrupted by a threat of social rejection, the individual will often conform to the norms of the group - upon doing so, the individual will begin to experience internal conflict b/c the behavior is outside the normal character of the individual - the person will then experience an identity shift where they adopt the standards of the group as their own to eliminate the sense of conflict - changes in beliefs or behavior due to peer pressure can be explained by this - is also associated with cognitive dissonance
Coagulation cascade
- when the endothelium of a blood vessel is damaged, it exposes the underlying connective tissue, which contains collagen and a protein called tissue factor - when platelets come into contact with exposed collagen, they sense this as evidence of injury - in response, they release their contents and begin to aggregate, or clump together - simultaneously, coagulation factors (most are secreted by the liver) sense tissue factor and initiate a complex activation cascade - the endpoint of the cascade is the activation of prothrombin to form thrombin by thromboplastin - thrombin can then convert fibrinogen into fibrin - fibrin ultimately forms small fibers that aggregate and cross-link into a woven structure, like a net, that captures RBCs and other platelets, forming a stable clot over the area of damage - forms a network of cells and fibers dense enough to plug the injury and prevent blood loss until the wound can be prepared - ultimately, the clot will have to be broke down. This is done by plasmin, which is generated from plasminogen
Math tips for converting between pH, pOH, pKa, and pKb
- when the original value is a power of ten, the operation is relatively straight forward - ex. if [H+] = 0.001 or 1x10^-3, then pH = 3 and pOH = 11 - ex. if Kb = 1x10^-12, then pKb = 12 p value ~ m - 0.4n - ex. if Ka = 1.8x10^-5, then 5 - log 1.8 ~ 5 - 0.18 ~ 4.82
Back stage self
- when we are away from others - the persona adopted when not in a social situation and there is no concern about upholding the performance of a desired public image - may include behaviors that would not be appropriate or consistent with the front stage self - part of dramaturgical approach - ex. political campaign ads often focus on "exposing" an opposing candidate's negative characteristics. One could describe this as bringing the back stage self to the front stage
Why are women more likely to have better health profiles than men?
- women typically have longer life expectancies and overall better health profile in comparison to men - this can be attributed to both biological and sociological causes: women are less likely to have life-threatening conditions, although they do have higher morbidity rates - more women than men suffer from infectious and parasitic diseases, digestive problems, respiratory conditions, high blood pressure, arthritis, diabetes, and inflammatory bowel diseases (colitis). women tend to suffer more from illnesses and disabilities than men, but their conditions are less often life-threatening - mortality rates from heart disease, cancer, chronic lower respiratory diseases, and diabetes are higher for males than females - men are also 3x more likely to die from accidents, suicide, and homicide - men are considered bigger risk takers, are more likely to be employed in dangerous jobs, and also have higher rates of alcohol use, speeding, and participation in potentially violent sports - women tend to be favored by the healthcare system - women are more likely to be insured - women are also more likely to seek care and to utilize healthcare services than men - and when men do seek out healthcare, they are less likely to comply with medical instructions - women are more likely to be delayed or unable to obtain necessary medical care, dental care, and prescription medicines
How could Vygotsky's concept of the zone of proximal development be applied to intelligence testing?
- zone of proximal development does not just apply to children, but rather the acquisition of new skills and abilities at any age - standardized tests require students to utilize many skills that they may not yet have fully developed, but are in the process of development - this is why results can be improved by getting the help of those with more knowledge about the exam, such as expert instructors and authors
In a hemiacetal, the central carbon is bonded to:
-OH, -OR, -H, and -R
If the angle of incidence is 90 degrees, the angle of refraction will be
0 degrees
In general, solutes are considered soluble if they have a molar solubility above _________ in solution
0.1 M
Terahertz (THz)
1 THz = 1012 Hz
What are the 2 reactions that ATP hydrolysis accompanies in glycolysis?
1) glucokinase + hexokinase catalyze the formation of glucose-6-phosphate 2) phosphofructokinase (PFK) catalyzes the conversion of fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (F1,6BP)
The 2 main goals of the kidney:
1) keep what the body needs and lose what it doesn't - ex. horizontal segments like Bowman's capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, and distal convoluted tubule 2) concentrate the urine to conserve water - ex. vertical segments like the loop of Henle and collecting duct
What are the 3 main effects circulating antibodies (immunoglobulins) can have on a pathogen?
1) mark a pathogen for destruction by phagocytic cells (opsonization) 2) cause agglutination of the pathogen into insoluble complexes that can be taken up by phagocytic cells 3) neutralize the pathogen by preventing it from invading tissues
Assume that a population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. If 9% of the population is homozygous dominant, then solve for the following: 1) the frequency of the dominant allele: 2) the frequency of the recessive allele: 3) the portion of the population that is heterozygous: 4) the portion of the population with a homozygous recessive genotype: 5) the portion of the population with a dominant phenotype:
1) the frequency of the dominant allele (p): 0.3 p^2 = 0.09 p = 0.3 2) the frequency of the recessive allele (q): 0.7 p + q = 1 1 - 0.3 = 0.7 3) the portion of the population that is heterozygous (2pq): 2 * 0.3 * 0.7 = 0.42 (42%) 4) the portion of the population with a homozygous recessive genotype (q^2): (0.7)^2 = 0.49 (49%) 5) the portion of the population with a dominant phenotype (p^2 + 2pq): 0.09 + 0.42 = 0.51 = 51%
What are the 3 structural parts of a bone? Which part contributes most to linear growth?
1. diaphysis 2. metaphysis 3. epiphysis -- growth plates are found in epiphyses and contribute to linear growth
For galvanic (voltaic) cells, describe each of these with anode or cathode: 1. site of oxidation: 2. electrons flow toward it: 3. current flows toward it: 4. has (-) designation: 5. attracts cations:
1. site of oxidation: anode 2. electrons flow toward it: cathode 3. current flows toward it: anode 4. has (-) designation: anode 5. attracts cations: cathode
In a particular Hardy-Weinberg population, there are only 2 eye colors: brown and blue. Of the population, 36% have blue eyes, the recessive trait. What percentage of the population is heterozygous?
48% 36% = 0.36 = q^2 q = 0.6 p = 1 - 0.6 = 0.4 2pq = 2 * 0.4 * 0.6 = 0.48 = 48%
Synthesis of nucleic acids always occurs in the ____ to _____ direction
5' to 3' b/c RNA polymerase travels along the template strand in the 3' to 5' direction
A colder object _________ thermal energy and the hotter object _______ it
A colder object gains thermal energy and the hotter object loses it
Ketal
A functional group that contains a carbon atom bonded to two -OR groups and two alkyl chains.
For a reaction involving a strong base and a weak acid, which of the following indicators would be best to indicate the endpoint of the titration? A. Phenolphthalein (pKa 9.7) B. Bromothymol blue (pKa 7.1) C. Bromocresol green (pKa 4.7) D. Methyl yellow (pKa 3.3)
A. Phenolphthalein (pKa 9.7)
For a cell with the following half-reactions: Anode: SO2 + 2 H2O → SO42- + 4 H+ + 2 e- Cathode: Pd2+ + 2 e- → Pd How would decreasing the pH of the solution inside the cell affect the electromotive force (emf)? A. The emf would decrease. B. The emf would remain the same. C. The emf would increase. D. The emf would become zero.
A. The emf would decrease. - a decrease in pH = an increase in [H+] - this means the concentration of products has increased in the oxidation of sulfur dioxide - this decrease in oxidation potential means an increase in reduction potential E cell = Ered cathode - Ered anode If Ered anode increases, then E cell must decrease
Which of the following biomolecules does NOT drain into the liver before arriving at the right side of the heart? A. cholecalciferol (vitamin D) B. threonine (an amino acid) C. fructose (a monosaccharide) D. pantothenic acid (vitamin B5)
A. cholecalciferol (vitamin D) - while the capillaries from the intestine come together to form the portal vein, which drains to the liver, the lacteals come together to form the thoracic duct, which drains directly into the left subclavian vein - fat-soluble compounds (like vitamin D) do not pass through the liver before reaching the right side of the heart
Which of the following combinations of liquids would be expected to have a vapor pressure higher than the vapor pressure that would be predicted by Raoult's law? A. ethanol and hexane B. acetone and water C. isopropanol and methanol D. nitric acid and water
A. ethanol and hexane - mixtures that have a higher vapor pressure than predicted by Raoult's law have stronger solvent-solvent and solute-solute interactions than solvent-solute interactions - thus, particles do not want to stay in solution and more readily evaporate, creating a higher vapor pressure than an ideal solution - 2 liquids that have different properties, like hexane (hydrophobic) and ethanol (hydrophilic, small) would not have many interactions with each other and would cause positive deviation (higher vapor pressure)
A defect in the structure of a ribosome would most likely be traced to what organelle? A. nucleus B. mitochondria C. lysosome D. golgi apparatus
A. nucleus - a ribosome consists of 2 subunits: one large subunit and one small subunit - each subunit is composed of rRNA plus proteins - ribosomes are assembled in the nucleus from rRNA and proteins imported from the cytoplasm - thus, a defect in the structure of a ribosome would most likely occur in the nucleus, where it is assembled
Adult prison systems may attempt to change the behavior of inmates through all of the following mechanisms of socialization EXCEPT: A. primary socialization B. secondary socialization C. anticipatory socialization D. resocialization
A. primary socialization - primary socialization occurs during childhood, not in adults - when entering prison, an inmate must undergo secondary socialization to learn the rules o the specific social environment of the prison - if the inmate is not incarcerated for life, attempts at anticipatory socialization must be made before releasing the inmate in preparation for life outside of prison - the prison environment's designed to change bad behavior into desired behavior, so resocialization would occur
A eukaryotic cell has been found to exhibit a truncation mutation that creates an inactive RNA polymerase I enzyme. Which type of RNA will be affected by this inactivation? A. rRNA B. tRNA C. snRNA D. hnRNA
A. rRNA - RNA polymerase I in eukaryotes is found in the nucleolus and is in charge of transcribing most of the rRNA for use during ribosomal creation
In which of the following scenarios would the assimilation of one culture into another likely be slowest? A. the minority culture can easily establish ethnic enclaves within cities where assimilation is occurring B. the minority culture is not significantly different from the majority culture C. the majority culture wields a significant socioeconomic advantage over the minority culture D. levels of intermarriage between the majority and minority culture are increasing
A. the minority culture can easily establish ethnic enclaves within cities where assimilation is occurring - A provides a scenario where the minority group can easily isolate itself geographically, which would slow assimilation - C presents a situation where it is in the best interest of the minority culture to assimilate in order to align their socioeconomic interests with those of the more prosperous group
Which of the following will cause the greatest increase in boiling point of water when it is dissolved in 1.00 kg H2O? A. 0.4 mol calcium sulfate B. 0.5 mol iron (III) nitrate C. 1.0 mol acetic acid D. 1.0 mol sucrose
B. 0.5 mol iron (III) nitrate Fe(NO3)3 : 0.5 moles x 4 i = 2.0 N acetic acid: 1.0 moles x 1 i = 1.0 N B has the greatest normality and thus the greatest change in boiling point
Which problem-solving methodology is least likely to be used by 11 y/o campers? A. Root cause analysis: identifying the fundamental cause of the problem and working to correct the issue B. Abstraction: using a model, hypothetical or physical, to develop a solution before applying it to a real system C. Trial-and-error: testing a series of solutions until a working solution is identified D. Brainstorming: suggesting a large # of solutions and combining/developing them until the correct one is found
B. Abstraction In Piaget's theory, the formal operational stage involves abstract thinking. B/c the campers are 11 y/o, they are at the tail-end of the concrete operational stage and at the beginning of the formal operational stage, which means that stage is probably not well-developed so they are unlikely to use a method involving abstract thinking
Splitting is a defense mechanism commonly seen with which personality disorder? A. Antisocial personality disorder B. Borderline personality disorder C. Histrionic personality disorder D. Narcissistic personality disorder
B. Borderline personality disorder
Which of the following is expected to be the most acidic? A. CF3COOH B. CH3OH2+ C. NH4+ D. NH3
B. CH3OH2+ B b/c it is the conjugate base of a neutral alcohol (methanol) which is not considered basic. In neutral conditions, the methanol is favored. Thus, B is very eager to deprotonate, rendering it a relatively strong acid not A b/c although it is the 2nd best answer, don't automatically assume carboxylic acids are always the strongest acids compared to other organic compounds without considering conjugate base pairs not C b/c NH3 is a stronger base than CF3COO-, so NH4+ is a weaker acid than CF3OOH ammonia is a weak base
Which term refers to closed status positions that hinder social mobility? A. Class systems B. Caste systems C. Economic systems D. Financial systems
B. Caste systems Caste systems are generally closed stratification systems that do not provide many opportunities for social mobility
Which type of design is LEAST appropriate for research on residential segregation? A. Ethnographic methods B. Experimental methods C. Quantitative methods D. Survey methods
B. Experimental methods Experimental methods are generally not appropriate for the study of residential segregation. Experiments require random assignment to different groups (usually an intervention group and a control group). Except under specific circumstances, it would be unethical and impractical to randomly assign participants to different groups in which residential segregation varies. Ethnography typically involves the systematic observation of people in their cultural settings. Sometimes ethnographic methods also include in-depth interviews as well, to better understand participants' culture. The study of residential segregation can be appropriately conducted using ethnographic methods. Quantitative methods simply refer to methods that utilize numerical data. Residential segregation can be appropriately studied using quantitative methods. Survey methods involve the use of a questionnaire in which respondents provide answers to various questions. Residential segregation can be appropriately studied using surveys.
A drug is used that prevents the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II. What is a likely effect of this drug? A. Increased sodium reabsorption B. Increased potassium reabsorption C. Increased blood pressure D. Increased blood pH
B. Increased potassium reabsorption - angiotensin II causes secretion of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex - aldosterone serves to increase reabsorption of sodium, while promoting excretion of potassium and hydrogen ions - thus, blocking the release of aldosterone should result in decreased reabsorption of sodium while decreasing excretion of potassium and hydrogen ions
In the Milgram shock experiment, many subjects were willing to give the maximal voltage shock b/c they were influenced by which psychological principle? A. Deviance B. Obedience C. Conformity D. Compliance
B. Obedience - this experiment showed that individuals would obey orders from authority figures even if they were not comfortable with the task at hand
Which of the following compounds is LEAST likely to be found in the salt bridge of a galvanic cell? A. NaCl B. SO3 C. MgSO3 D. NH4NO3
B. SO3 - salt bridges contain inert electrolytes - ionic compounds are known as strong electrolytes b/c they completely dissociate in solution - B is not an electrolyte b/c its atoms are covalently bonded and will not dissociate in aqueous solution
When ammonia, NH3, is used as a solvent, it can form complex ions. For example, dissolving AgCl in NH3 will result in the complex ion [Ag(NH3)]2+. What effect would the formation of complex ions to have on the solubility of a compound like AgCl in NH3?
B. The solubility of AgCl will increase because complex ion formation will consume Ag+ ions and cause the equilibrium to shift away from solid AgCl. - formation of complex ions between silver ions and ammonia will cause more molecules of solid AgCl to dissociate - the equilibrium is driven toward dissociation b/c the Ag+ ions are essentially being removed from solution when they complex with ammonia
In an experiment, enteropeptidase secretion was blocked. As a direct result, levels of all of the following active enzymes would likely be affected EXCEPT: A. trypsin B. aminopeptidase C. chymotrypsin D. carboxypeptidase A
B. aminopeptidase - not B b/c aminopeptidase does not require enteropeptidase for activation - both trypsinogen and procarboxypeptidases A and B are activated by enteropeptidase - once activated, trypsin can activate chymotrypsinogen - if trypsinogen can't be activated, then chymotrypsinogen will not be activated either
Many medications have anticholinergic side effects, which block the activity of parasympathetic neurons throughout the body. Older individuals may be on many such medications simultaneously, exacerbating the side effects. Which of the following would NOT be expected in an individual taking medications with anticholinergic activity? A. dry mouth B. diarrhea C. slow gastric emptying D. decreased gastric acid production
B. diarrhea - the parasympathetic NS has many roles in the digestive system. It promotes motility of the gut tube and secretion from glands. - therefore, blocking the parasympathetic NS would likely result in dry mouth (from reduced secretion of saliva), slow gastric emptying (from decreased peristalsis), and decreased gastric emptying (from reduced HCl secretion from the parietal cells in the gastric glands) - we would expect constipation, not diarrhea, b/c slowed motility through the colon would lead to increased water reabsorption, making the feces too firm and causing constipation
Which of the following would most likely be filtered through the glomerulus into Bowman's space? A. erythrocytes B. monosaccharides C. platelets D. proteins
B. monosaccharides - the glomerulus functions like a strainer/sieve - small molecules dissolved in the fluid will pass through the glomerulus, including glucose, which is later reabsorbed - large molecules, such as erythrocytes and platelets, will not be able to pass through the glomerular filter
A 2-week-old male infant is brought to the ER. His mother reports that he has been unable to keep any milk down. Shortly after he nurses, he has sudden projectile vomiting. During exam, an olive-shaped mass can be felt in his upper abdomen. It is determined that there is a constriction in the digestive system that prevents food from reaching the small intestine from the stomach. Which structure is most likely the site of the problem? A. cardiac sphincter B. pyloric sphincter C. ileocecal valve D. internal anal sphincter
B. pyloric sphincter - the pyloric sphincter lies between the stomach and small intestine - this case is a classic example of pyloric stenosis, in which the pyloric sphincter is thickened and cannot relax to permit chyme through
Long-term or heavy smokers damage the cilia of their respiratory epithelia. Which of the following is NOT likely to result from this damage? A. Increased infection by pathogenic organisms B. Increased obstructive lung disease C. Decreased alveolar gas exchange D. Decreased cough reflex
C. Decreased alveolar gas exchange - alveoli do not have cilia, so changes in alveolar gas exchange result from other mechanisms - not A b/c respiratory cilia protect against infection by removing bacteria and viruses - not B b/c if mucus is not transported, it can cause obstruction of respiratory pathways, as seen in COPD - not D b/c nonmotile cilia in the respiratory epithelia are responsible for the cough reflex
Lymphoma is cancer of the cells of the lymphoid lineage. These cells often reside within lymph nodes. What type of cell is NOT likely to cause a lymphoma? A. CD8+ T-cells B. B-cells C. Macrophages D. Th1 cells
C. Macrophages - lymphocytes arise from the lymphoid lineage, which includes B-cells and T-cells - thus, all types of B- and T-cells are capable of causing lymphoma - macrophages, however, are not lymphocytes and are not likely to cause lymphoma
Carboxylic acids can be reacted with one reagent (in addition to acid) to form all of the following compounds EXCEPT: A. esters B. amides C. alkenes D. alcohols
C. alkenes - carboxylic acids cannot be converted to alkenes with just one reagent - to form alkenes, carboxylic acids may be reduced to alcohols, which can then be transformed into alkenes by elimination in a second step with addition of another reagent
Which of the following would NOT likely lead to elevated levels of bilirubin in the blood? A. cholangiocarcinoma, a cancer of the bile ducts that can ultimately lead to full occlusion of the duct lumen B. autoimmune hemolytic anemia, a disease in which the RBCs are attacked by antibodies and are lysed C. menetrier's disease, in which rugae thicken and overlying glands lose secretory ability D. acetaminophen (Tylenol) overdose, in which the accumulation of toxic metabolites can cause rapid liver failure
C. menetrier's disease, in which rugae thicken and overlying glands lose secretory ability - elevated bilirubin implies a blockage to bile flow, increased production of bilirubin (from massive hemoglobin release), or an inability of the liver to produce bile - A is likely b/c if the bile duct were occluded, then the bile would not be able to flow into the digestive tract and would build up, increasing bilirubin levels in the blood - B is likely b/c if many RBCs were lysed, then bilirubin levels would rise in accordance with the increased hemoglobin release - D is likely b/c if liver failure occurred, then the liver would be unable to produce bile and bilirubin would again built up - C is not likely b/c lack of gastric function would have no effect on bilirubin levels
During fertilization in humans, the entire sperm cell is absorbed into the ovum, but sperm mtDNA is not found in fetal mitochondria. Which of the following is the most plausible explanation for these findings? A. sperm mtDNA leaves the mitochondria and is incorporated into the nuclear DNA of the ovum B. maternal and paternal mitochondria fuse, and maternal and paternal mtDNA recombine C. mitochondria are targeted and destroyed by maternal organelles, destroying mtDNA D. sperm mtDNA leaves the mitochondria and resides in the cytoplasm
C. mitochondria are targeted and destroyed by maternal organelles, destroying mtDNA - based on the question, the paternal mtDNA enters the cell but does NOT get passed on to offspring - since neither meiosis or mitosis destroys nuclear DNA or mtDNA, we need a mechanisms that can remove the paternal mtDNA before it can get passed on - not A b/c this is what happens to viral DNa, not mitochondrial DNA - not B b/c if maternal and paternal mtDNA recombined, paternal mtDNA would be passed onto offspring - not D b/c the cytoplasm of eukaryotes do not normally contain DNA
The most rapid rate of gluconeogenesis will most likely occur in the body when: A. blood glucose levels are high. B. cortisol release is inhibited. C. the body's stores of carbohydrates are low. D. the body's stores of proteins are low.
C. the body's stores of carbohydrates are low. Gluconeogenesis is the pathway for the synthesis of glucose (a carbohydrate) from other metabolic compounds such as lipids and amino acids. Therefore, this pathway is activated when the body's stores of carbohydrates are low.
What would be formed if methyl bromide were reacted with phthalimide and followed by hydrolysis with an aqueous base?
CH3NH2 - this is similar to Gabriel synthesis - phthalimide acts as a nucleophile, the methyl carbon acts as an electrophile, and bromide acts as the LG - thus, the reaction between methyl bromide and phthalimide results in the formation of methyl phthalimide - subsequent hydrolysis then yields methylamine
What is the chemical equation for the bicarbonate buffer system?
CO2 (g) + H2O (l) <----> H2CO3 (aq) <----> H+ (aq) + HCO3- (aq)
Which of the following is NOT an example of a nonspecific defense mechanism? A. Skin provides a physical barrier against invasion B. Macrophages engulf and destroy foreign particles C. An inflammatory response is initiated in response to physical damage D. Cytotoxic T-cells destroy cells displaying foreign antigens
D. Cytotoxic T-cells destroy cells displaying foreign antigens - cytotoxic T-cells are involved in (specific) cell-mediated immunity
When concentrated urine is being produced, in which of the following regions of the kidney will the glomerular filtrate reach its highest concentration? A. Proximal convoluted tubule B. Distal convoluted tubule C. Cortical portion of the collecting duct D. Medullary portion of the collecting duct
D. Medullary portion of the collecting duct The collecting duct is the final structure in which water reabsorption occurs, which concentrates filtrate. The medullary portion of the collecting duct is the last portion of the tubules where reabsorption can occur. In the portion of the tubule that follows, there will be no more reabsorption. Thus, the medullary portion of the collecting duct contains the most concentrated glomerular filtrate that will correspond to the urine.
Some forms of pneumonia cause an excess of fluids such as mucus or pus to build up within an entire lobe of the lung. How will this affect the diffusion of gases within the affected area? A. Carbon dioxide can diffuse out, but oxygen will not be able to enter the blood. B. Oxygen can diffuse into the blood, but carbon dioxide cannot diffuse out. C. No change in diffusion will occur. D. No diffusion will occur in the affected area.
D. No diffusion will occur in the affected area. - if an area of the lung becomes filled with mucus and inflammatory cells, the area will not be able to participate in gas exchange - b/c no air will enter or leave the area, the concentration gradient will no longer exist, and neither oxygen nor CO2 will be able to diffuse across the alveolar wall
For redox reactions with an equilibrium constant equal to 1 (concentrations of the reactants and products are equal at equilibrium): What is the value of Ecell?
Ecell will be = to 0 - Ecell = 0 V for any concentration cell with equimolar concentrations in both half-cells b/c there is no net ionic equation (both half-cells contain the same ions)
For a lead-acid cell charging: Galvanic or electrolytic? = Anode material = Anode charge = Cathode material = Cathode charge =
Galvanic or electrolytic? = electrolytic Anode material = PbSO4 Anode charge = (+) Cathode material = PbSO4 Cathode charge = (-)
For a lead-acid cell discharging: Galvanic or electrolytic? = Anode material = Anode charge = Cathode material = Cathode charge =
Galvanic or electrolytic? = galvanic Anode material = Pb Anode charge = (-) Cathode material = PbO2 Cathode charge = (+)
Blood type O Genotypes: Antigens produced: Antibodies produced: Can donate to: Can receive from:
Genotypes: ii Antigens produced: none Antibodies produced: anti-A and anti-B Can donate to: A, B, AB, O (universal donor) Can receive from: O only
Crossing 2 heterozygotes for a trait with complete dominance results in what genotypic and phenotypic ratios?
Genotypic = 1:2:1 (homozygous dominant : heterozygous dominant : homozygous recessive) Phenotypic = 3:1 (dominant : recessive) - note: these theoretical probabilities will not always hold true -- especially in a small population of offspring. Usually the more offspring parents have, the closer their phenotypic ratios will be to the expected ratios
Which steps involved in the contraction of a skeletal muscle require binding and/or hydrolysis of ATP? I. Dissociation of myosin head from actin filament II. Attachment of myosin head to actin filament III. Conformational change that moves actin and myosin filaments relative to one another IV. Binding of troponin to actin filament V. Release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum VI. Reuptake of calcium into the sarcoplasm
I, III, VI Dissociation of the myosin head from the actin filament requires the binding of ATP (I). Attachment of the myosin head to the actin filament requires calcium and a troponin/tropomyosin shift (II). The conformational changes that move actin and myosin relative to one another require that ATP be hydrolyzed, for these changes occur upon release of the products of hydrolysis (ADP and Pi) by the myosin head (III). Binding of troponin to actin does not require the hydrolysis of ATP (IV). Release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum also does not require ATP hydrolysis. This release occurs when calcium ions move via voltage-gated ion channels down their concentration gradient (V). The reuptake of calcium into the sarcoplasmic reticulum occurs via an ATP-hydrolyzing pump that moves calcium against its concentration gradient (VI)
NAD+ is a(n) ____________ agent and NADH is a(n) _____________ agent
NAD+ is an oxidizing agent and NADH is a reducing agent
Pyrophosphate
P2O7 4- - an ester dimer of a phosphate - PPi - the hydrolytic release of this molecule when a new nucleotide is joined to a growing strand of DNA by a DNA polymerase provides the energy for the formation of the new phosphodiester bond - is unstable in aqueous solution and is hydrolyzed to form 2 molecules of inorganic phosphate, which can then be recycled to form high-energy bonds in ATP - the energy released when a phosphate or pyrophosphate is cleaved is high b/c of its large amount of repulsion when adjacent on a triphosphate as well as phosphate's ability to stabilize up to 3 negative charges by resonance
RNA polymerase travels along the template strand in the ____ to ____ direction, which allows for the construction of transcribed mRNA in the ___ to ____ direction
RNA polymerase travels along the template strand in the 3' to 5' direction, which allows for the construction of transcribed mRNA in the 5' to 3' direction
In a molecule containing a carboxylic acid group, what would be expected in a 1H-NMR spectrum?
a deshielded hydrogen peak for the hydroxyl hydrogen, shifted left
Urination itself is facilitated by the contraction of the:
abdominal musculature, which increases pressure within the abdominal cavity, resulting in compression of the bladder and increased urine flow rate
Strecker synthesis
aldehyde or ketone ---> aminonitrile ---> amino acid - 2 steps - 1st step: an aminonitrile is generated from an aldehyde or ketone - starts with an aldehyde, ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), and potassium cyanide (KCN) - the carbonyl O is protonated, increasing the electrophilicity of the carbonyl carbon - ammonia can attack the carbonyl carbon, forming an imine - the imine carbon is also susceptible to nucleophilic addition reactions -- CN- from KCN attacks, forming a nitrile group, thus making an aminonitrile - 2nd step: an amino acid is generated from the aminonitrile - the nitrile nitrogen is protonated, increasing the electrophilicity of the nitrile carbon - a water molecule attacks, leading to the creation of a molecule with both imine and hydroxyl parts on the same carbon - the imine is attacked by another water - then with heat and aqueous acid, a carbonyl forms and kicks off ammonia and a proton, creating a carboxylic acid - note: b/c the starting material is a planar carbonyl-containing compound, the product of this pathway is a racemic mixture - the incoming nucleophiles are equally able to attack from either side of the carbonyl, thus, both L- and D-amino acids can be formed
The vast majority of CO2 exists in the blood as:
bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) - when CO2 enters a RBC, it encounters carbonic anhydrase, which catalyzes it into carbonic acid, which dissociates into H+ and the bicarbonate ion - these ions both have high solubilities in water compared to CO2, which make them a more effective method of transporting metabolic waste products to the lungs for excretion - upon reaching the alveolar capillaries in the lungs, the same reactions that led to the formation of the proton and bicarbonate anion can be reversed, allowing us to breathe out CO2
For galvanic cells, the electrode with the more positive reduction potential is the ______________, and the electrode with the less positive reduction potential is the ____________
cathode, anode - b/c the species with a stronger tendency to gain electrons (that wants to gain electrons more) is actually doing so, the reaction is spontaneous and ΔG is (-)
What are the 3 sections of the large intestine in order?
cecum, colon, rectum
Between a monocarboxylic acid, a dicarboxylic acid, and a dicarboxylic acid that has been deprotonated once, which will be the most acidic? Why?
dicarboxylic acid (most acidic) > monocarboxylic acid > deprotonated dicarboxylic acid (least acidic) - a dicarboxylic acid would be most acidic, as the 2nd carboxyl group is electron-withdrawing and thus contributes to even higher stability of the anion after loss of the first hydrogen - a monocarboxylic is more acidic than a deprotonated dicarboxylic acid b/c the carboxylate anion is electron-donating and destabilized the product of the second deprotonation step, resulting in decreased acidity - a dicarboxylic acid that is once deprotonated is the least acidic. This is b/c if the 2nd group were deprotonated, it would create a double charged species with 2 negative charges repelling each other
Schizophrenia is highly associated with an excess of ____________ in the brain
dopamine
Methoxy groups are:
electron-donating
When a cell is discharging, it supplies current, and the current flows from the _______________ potential end of the cell around the circuit to the ____________________ potential end
from the positive, higher potential end of the cell around the circuit to the negative, lower potential end
What molecules stimulate feelings of hunger?
glucagon (secreted by the pancreas) and ghrelin (secreted by the stomach)
In a healthy person standing at rest, a comparison of arterial blood pressure measured in the arm with that measured in the leg shows that the pressure in the leg is:
greater b/c the column of blood between the arm and leg has a hydrostatic pressure The pressure at the bottom of a tube of height h filled with liquid of density r is given by rgh due to the weight of the liquid. This is called hydrostatic pressure. Blood pressure in the arteries between the arm and leg has a pressure difference given by this hydrostatic term, independent of blood flow or viscosity.
At the arteriole end of a capillary bed, hydrostatic pressure (pushing fluid out) is ___________ than oncotic pressure (drawing fluid in), so there is a net _________ of water from the circulation
greater, efflux
What ions form salts that are always soluble?
group I metals, ammonium, nitrate, and acetate salts are always soluble
At the venule end of a capillary bed, hydrostatic pressure (pushing fluid out) is ___________ than oncotic pressure (drawing fluid in), so there is a net _________ of water from the circulation
less, influx
Which diffuses faster: a lighter molecule or a heavier molecule?
lighter (less dense/less mass)
Digestion that occurs prior to the entrance of the bolus in the stomach is _________________ compared to the digestion that occurs in the stomach and small intestine
minimal
Avogadro's principle
n1/V1 = n2/V2 - all gases at a constant temperature and pressure occupy volumes that are directly proportional to the # of moles of gas present - equal amounts of all gases at the same temperature and pressure will occupy equal volumes - thus, 1 mole of any gas, no matter its chemical identity, will occupy 22.4 L at STP - as the # of moles of gas increases, the volume increases in direct proportion - equal volumes of different gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules
List the structures in the respiratory pathway from where air enters the nares to the alveoli:
nares ---> nasal cavity ---> pharynx ---> larynx ---> trachea ---> bronchi ---> bronchioles ---> alveoli
What type of operon is the lac operon?
negative inducible system
What type of operon is the trp operon?
negative repressible system
Obsessions ___________ tension, while compulsions ___________ tension
obsessions produce tension, while compulsions reduce tension
Network redundancy
overlapping connections with the same individual
pH formula
pH = -log[H+] = log * 1/[H+]
pOH formula
pOH = -log[OH-] = log * 1/[OH-]
How does the type perspective define personality?
personalities are sets of distinct qualities and dispositions into which people can be grouped
How does the humanistic perspective define personality?
personality comes from conscious feelings about oneself resulting from healthy striving for self-realization
Gabriel (malonic-ester) synthesis
phthalimide + diethyl bromomalonate ----> amino acid - potassium phthalimide (a nucleophilic anion) reacts with diethyl bromomalonate (secondary carbon + has Br, a good LG), generating a phthalimidomalonic ester thru SN2 - note: the bulkiness of the large nucleophile creates steric hindrance, which prevents the substrate C from undergoing multiple substitutions - in the presence of base, the alpha-carbon between 2 carbonyls can easily be deprotonated - the molecule as a whole can then act as a nucleophile, attacking the substrate carbon of a bromoalkane thru SN2 (the nucleophile = the large, deprotonated phthalimidomalonic ester; the electrophile = the substrate C; the LG = the bromide anion - the molecule is then hydrolyzed with strong acid and heat (the phthalimide part is removed as phthalic acid with 2 carboxylic acids ; the malonic ester is hydrolyzed to a dicarboxylic acid with an amine on the alpha-carbon) - the dicarboxylic acid (1,3-dicarbonyl) can be decarboxylated through the addition of acid and heat, losing CO2 and forming an amino acid - note: since this starts with a planar molecule, the product is a racemic mixture of L- and D-amino acids
After the cessation of strenuous exercise, the body must metabolize all of the lactic acid it has produced. Most lactic acid is converted back into _____________, which can enter the CAC
pyruvate - note: this process requires oxygen
Urbanization
refers to dense areas of population creating a pull for migration
What are the events that initiate muscle contraction, in order? Start with neurotransmitter release and trace the pathway to the point where myosin binds with actin.
release of acetylcholine from motor neuron ---> activation of acetylcholine receptors in sarcolemma ---> depolarization of sarcolemma ---> spreading of signal using T-tubules ---> release of calcium from sarcoplasmic reticulum ---> binding of calcium to troponin ---> conformational shift in tropomyosin ---> exposure of myosin-binding sites ---> myosin binds to actin
What is the correct sequence of the passage of blood through the vessels of the kidney?
renal artery ---> afferent arterioles ---> glomerulus ---> efferent arterioles ---> vasa recta ---> renal vein - blood enters the kidney through the renal artery, which divides into many different arterioles that run through the medulla and into the cortex - each afferent arteriole branches into a convoluted network of capillaries called a glomerulus - rather than converging directly into a vein, the capillaries converge into an efferent arterioles, which divides into a fine capillary network known as the vasa recta - the vasa recta capillaries envelop the nephron tubule, where they reabsorb various ions, and then converge into the renal vein - the arrangement of tandem capillary beds is known as a portal system
Arterioles and capillaries act much like _____________ in a circuit
resistors - remember: resistance is based on 3 factors: resistivity (not relevant to the human body), length, and cross-sectional area - the longer the blood vessel is, the more resistance it offers - the larger the cross-sectional area of a blood vessel, the less resistance it offers - arteries are highly muscular and are able to expand and contract as needed to change the vascular resistance and maintain blood pressure - arterioles can also contract to limit the amount of blood entering a given capillary bed (much like increasing resistance will decrease current flow to a given branch in a circuit) - with the exception of the 3 portal systems, all systemic capillary beds are in parallel with each other. Thus, opening capillary beds will decrease vascular resistance (like adding another resistor in parallel) and increase cardiac output
The pathway of the circulatory system:
right atrium ---> tricuspid valve ---> right ventricle ---> pulmonary valve ---> pulmonary artery ---> lungs ---> pulmonary veins ---> left atrium ---> mitral valve ---> left ventricle ---> aortic valve ---> aorta ---> arteries ---> arterioles ---> capillaries ---> venules ---> veins ---> venae cavae ---> right atrium
Note: ___________ cannot be oxidized to carboxylic acids
secondary and tertiary alcohols, b/c they already have at least 2 bonds to other carbons
Starting with the site of impulse initiation, what are the structures in the conduction system of the heart?
sinoatrial (SA) node ----> atrioventricular (AV) node ----> bundle of His (AV bundle) and its branches ----> Purkinje fibers ----> ventricles
