MCJ 178: Exam #1
What are the four elements of narrative?
(1) A story - what happens to whom (2) Discourse - how the story is told (3) Recognizable character types (protagonist, antagonist, romantic interest, sidekick) (4) A clear beginning, middle and end, with a plot that usually revolves around the main character's decisions and actions to resolve a conflict by the end of the movie.
What are the three eras of the U.S. film industry?
(1) The silent film era (the early 1900s) (2) The studio era (1930s-1940s) (3) The blockbuster era (late 1970s-today)
According to the lecture, individuals who invest in TNMCs have specific expectations and emphases. What are they?
* who expect a return on their investment, * put a lot of emphasis on costs and benefits and * want their companies to be efficient and profitable. Performance is measured more in terms of dollars and cents than in terms of public interest.
Innovations follow an S-shaped diffusion curve, which, in part, means they are adopted over time. What else does it mean?
Begins with slow growth Increasing growth over time Maximum adoption - growth rate declines
What is the role of studios today?
By the late 1930s, the Department of Justice concluded that the studio system was a monopoly. In 1948, the Supreme Court ruled that the studios must sell their theaters. Today, studios primarily finance and distribute films made by independent companies rather than make their own movies.
True or false: Existing and new technologies coexist during the transition from old to new.
During the transition from old to new, existing innovations and new ones coexist.
n media effects research, what are independent variables? What are dependent variables? (Be able to identify examples of both.)
Mass media exposure is usually viewed as the "cause," or independent variable. Exposure to media content is seen as the trigger for mental processes and behaviors that are the "effects," or consequences of what people see and hear in the media. These effects—such as antisocial (e.g., violent) or prosocial (e.g., cooperative) behaviors—are called dependent variables (Wimmer & Dominick, 2014). Of course, if we are interested in the prior question of what causes media use or exposure, then media use becomes the dependent variable and the factors that may cause that use or exposure, such as gender, personality, and beliefs about the benefits of media exposure, become the independent variables.
According to McQuail (1994), in what ways are media effects strong? In what ways are they limited?
Media effects are strong because media present images of reality in predictable and patterned ways. Media effects are limited because we interact with media, bringing our own meanings to what we see and hear. We are also influenced by others.
Which director is credited with creating the blockbuster era, and with what film?
Question: What is a blockbuster? Answer: A film that is well-known and makes a lot of money (at least $1 billion) Spielberg is credited with creating the blockbuster era with the release of Jaws (1975), the first movie to gross more than $200 million
What were soap operas and why were they called that?
Soap operas were the first programs targeted specifically to women, a key audience for advertisers. They got their name from the commercials for soap and other cleaning products that ran during the shows. Few radio programs from the Golden Age of Radio survive today. Soap operas, do - as TV programs.
What were "sound pictures" called?
The Talkies
Genres
are distinctive styles of creative works. The term is also used to represent different types or formats of media content
Culture
is a group's pattern of thought and activity.
Vertical Integration
is a style of ownership and control wherein a group of companies--each producing a different product or service--share a common owner. An example is Walt Disney Company. Disney not only owns companies that create and produce TV programs and movies, they own the networks that broadcast the TV shows (such as ABC) and convert the films to home video.
Convergence
is the integration of mass media, computers, and telecommunications
Diffusion
is the spread of innovations.
How long is a feature-length film?
more than an hour long
What are the various consumer needs appealed to by advertising?
pg. 386
blockbuster
the type of big-budget special effects films that typically have summer or holiday release dates, heavy promotion, and lucrative merchandising tie-ins.
Know the basic assumptions of the Hypodermic Needle, Cultivation, Social Learning, Agenda Setting and Framing theories. In what ways did each of these theories contribute to our understanding of how and why we engage with media or are impacted by them? In what ways did they fall short?
- Hypodermic Needle Theory (Various) Overview: The media have a direct and powerful influence on us, like being injected with a hypodermic needle. We, the audience, are passive and homogenous. The idea of an all-powerful media remains powerful but researchers have disregarded this theory as outdated and too simplistic. - Cultivation Theory (Gerbner, 1970s-1980s) Overview: The media, particularly TV, contributes to our perception of social reality. The more we watch TV, the more likely we will view the world as the medium presents it. Commercial pressures shape media content. We may be active-able to draw our own conclusions about what we see-but we are also vulnerable to TV's gravitational pull and thus its messages. - Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977) Overview: People learn how to behave by observing others-often others portrayed in media (learning by observation and modeling). Studies have looked mostly at the effects of media violence. Note: Gerbner's concern was that TV violence would create a false climate of fear. Bandura worried that TV might create a violent reality worth fearing. - Agenda Setting Theory (McCombs & Shaw, 1972) Overview: There is a strong correlation between the issues the media emphasize and what audiences consider important. An issue's importance is suggested by the amount of coverage devoted to it as well as its location in a newscast (the top of the broadcast), page (the top, in bold headlines) or publication (the first page). - Framing Theory (Entman, 1992; Pan & Kosicki, 1993) Overview: The media encourage us to process information in certain ways by singling out aspects of a perceived reality. Personal experience, social location and peer interaction shape which reality we believe. The less informed we are, the more influential the media frame.
How is culture transmitted?
- Source-Message-Channel- Receiver (SMCR) The Source- Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR) model of mass communication describes the exchange of information as the message passes from the source to the channel to the receiver, with feedback to the source. -It is human-made; includes ideas, values and codes known to all members of the group; and is transmitted from one generation to the next.
Know the political/social/economic context of each of the six information revolutions/Know the new technology that emerged during each of the six information revolutions.
- The Printing Revolution (Europe, mid-15th century) A dark period of famine, plagues, social unrest, and warfare was followed by rapid economic and socio-economic development in Europe. The rise of learning and literacy fueled the demand for paper. The new technology: the convergence of paper from China with Gutenberg's mechanical press using movable type - The Mass Media Revolution (Started mid-19th century) The Civil War stimulated an interest in news. Literacy rates increased during the period following the war, creating an audience for newspapers, books and magazines. The new technology: the convergence of improvements in paper production and printing press methods with linotype, the typewriter, the telegraph and the telephone. The growth of cities further increased the demand for news. It also created a block of mass consumers. Newspapers expanded as manufacturing and other businesses grew and needed a way to reach the masses (advertising). - The Entertainment Revolution (Started late-19th century) The urban working class sought escapes that were affordable and easily understood. The new technology: the convergence of mass media innovations such as movies, the phonograph and the radio with entertaining content for the masses. The Industrial Revolution (1820-1870) shifted the U.S. population from rural to urban areas where there were jobs. Assembly lines made it possible to mass produce and make affordable new technologies such as cameras, phonographs, and, in time, radios and TVs. A hunger for packaged pleasure led to the growth of the entertainment industry. - The Home Technology Revolution /Communication Toolshed Home (20th century) During the Depression, radio programs - which were free - were a godsend for people with little money. Americans became accustomed to accessing media content at a low cost when and where desired. The new technology: the convergence of entertainment, broadcasting and recording technologies - in the home. The home became the central location for receiving information and entertainment thanks to the telephone, radio, television, home delivery of newspapers, and cheap, universal mail services. Convenience and control are hallmarks of this revolution, allowing people to access free radio and TV on low-cost devices at any time in any room - and tape or video record programming as desired. - The Digital Revolution/ Information Highway (late-20th century) Refers to the advancement from analog electronic and mechanical devices to digital technology. Analog devices record information in a linear manner and read physical data from a media device by scanning it (e.g., vinyl records, turntables). Digital devices record data digitally, as ones and zeros, and translate the material into an audio signal (e.g., CDs, CD players). The computer, the digital cellular phone and the Internet have been central to this revolution. Internet: a large-scale network of millions of computers that allows continuous communication across the globe. World-Wide Web: a collection of web pages, linked together with hypertext, that is placed on a serverand accessed through a web browser. Societal factors impacting this revolution include the Cold War, Americans' increasingly busy lifestyles, and improved video and audio recording capabilities. The new technology: the convergence of computers, networking and the Internet with telecommunications, broadcasting, satellite and recording technologies.
What are the values Americans live by, according to Kohls?
-Personal control over the environment. People can/should control nature, their own environment and destiny. The future is not left to fate. - Change/Mobility. Change is positive and good. This means progress, improvement and growth. - Time and its importance. Time is valuable—and linear (monochronic), emphasizing schedules, punctuality and promptness. - Equality/Egalitarianism. People have equal opportunities. People are important as individuals—for who they are, not from which family they come. - Individualism, Independence and Privacy. People are seen as separate individuals, not group members, with individual needs. - Self-Help. People should take pride in their own accomplishments. - Competition and Free Enterprise. Competition brings out the best in people and free enterprise leads to progress and produces success. - Future Orientation/Optimism. Regardless of past or present, the future will be better and happier. - Practicality/Efficiency. Whether something is realistic, practical and efficient are the most important considerations when decisions are to be made. - Materialism/Acquisitiveness. Material goods are the just rewards of hard work. - Action and work orientation. Work is morally right. It is immoral to waste time. - Informality. Formality is a show of arrogance and superiority. - Directness/Openness/Honesty. Truth is a function of reality, not circumstance. You can only trust people who look you in the eye and tell it like it is.
Know the characteristics of information revolutions
1. They are based on the convergence of multiple technology inventions (paper, ink, typecasting, printing press). 2. They are enabled by societal changes. (A literate working class created a demand for newspapers, magazines, and books.) 3. They result in an increase in the amount and variety of content (books, movies, recorded music, TV shows, etc.). 4. Those who are negatively affected by the changes resist them(e.g., the "Betamax case") 5. Older technologies are superseded and change focus (e.g., the movement from radio shows to varied music formats) 6. They tend to expand the freedom and influence of users (e.g., Web sites allow individuals to create personal content.) 7. They have transformed the way people communicate, especially interpersonally (e.g., social media sites enable strangers to form relationships without the benefit of face-to-face interactions).
hypercommercialism
A result of the concentration of media ownership. Refers to how the process of selling, promoting, and commercializing has permeated our culture, particularly through media.
What are common characteristics of blockbusters?
A well-known star, a compelling storyline and special effects A well-timed release date. The most desirable? Summer and December. Why, do you think? Accompanying promotional merchandise. Why might this be important?
What are the two most popular genres of blockbuster films, and why?
Action & adventure. Why might this be important? Because they aren't driven by the narrative as much as by action—a formula that more easily translates into box office success globally.
To media content producers, we're audiences. What are we to advertisers? What is the goal of advertisers?
Advertisers seek to convince audiences (consumers) that they have needs that can only be met through the purchase of specific products.
In what two ways does advertising impact content?
Advertising impacts the time and space allotted to media content (e.g., the "news hole" and program airtime). Advertising also impacts the nature of media content (e.g., "if it bleeds, it leads," sex, sex, sex).
Innovation
An improvement of an existing technological product, system, or method of doing something.
What is the difference between analog and digital technology?
Analog communication uses continuously varying signals corresponding to the light or sounds originated by the source. Digital means computer-readable information formatted in 1s and 0s. Analog devices record information in a linear manner and read physical data from a media device by scanning it (e.g., vinyl records, turntables). Digital devices record data digitally, as ones and zeros, and translate the material into an audio signal (e.g., CDs, CD players).
In what two ways did the studios attempt to control the distribution of movies?
Block bookings: required that theater owners take a whole series of movies in order to get a few, desirable headliner films. The second, more effective way to ensure their movies would be shown: studios bought up theaters.
Why was PG-13 introduced, and why has it since become the most desirable rating?
By the mid-1980s, it became apparent that movies were being released with a PG rating that did not merit an R but included content that went beyond PG. The solution? PG-13, which would inform parents of the content of the film but not set limits on who could be admitted.
What are the two hallmarks of the Home Technology Revolution?
Convenience and control are hallmarks of this revolution, allowing people to access free radio and TV on low-cost devices at any time in any room - and tape or video record programming as desired.
What is the relationship between culture and media, according to lecture?
Cultural values and beliefs are embedded in media content (cultural products). The media transmit these values to audiences, performing an important socialization function. Thus, media content reflects culture. It also shapes it.
What is the significance of Birth of a Nation?
D.W. Griffith used nearly all of these techniques in Birth of a Nation (1915) the first feature-length film (more than an hour long) produced in the U.S.
Who was Will H. Hays?
From 1930s until 1968, content was controlled by the Motion Picture Production Code (MPPC) developed by Will H. Hays. Off limits: crime scenes that might inspire imitation, profanity, casting God in a negative light, "excessive and lustful kissing, lustful embraces and suggestive postures and gestures." Hollywood engaged in self-censorship in an effort to stave off government control.
What is the primary difference between Gerbner and Bandura when it comes to their assumptions about the effects of violent television content?
Gerbner's concern was that TV violence would create a false climate of fear. Bandura worried that TV might create a violent reality worth fearing.
Who is credited with inventing the radio?
Guglielmo Marconi is credited with inventing the radio but there is evidence others got there first. He was the first to patent the new technology, which he sold to the marine industry. Soon, most ocean-going ships, which had depended on Morse Code, were equipped with radios. Ship operators received the first radio broadcast in 1906. It was transmitted from Boston.
Why did Hollywood engage in self-censorship?
Hollywood engaged in self-censorship in an effort to stave off government control.
What was the three-part model that Hollywood developed that set the standard for movie making internationally and guaranteed its dominance of American filmmaking?
Hollywood established firm control over narrative style by the time talkies transformed the film industry. It developed a model that set the example for moviemaking worldwide and guaranteed its dominance of American filmmaking. The model? The narrative (story), the genre (type of story) and the author (director).
Who was Frank Conrad?
In 1920, Conrad started the first daily radio program at station KDKA in Philadelphia. He initially played music by holding a microphone up to a phonograph. Listeners loved what they were hearing, and grew in number. Station owner Westinghouse expanded Conrad's reach.
Who assigns the ratings to movies?
In 1968, the MPAA (Motion Picture Association of America) scrapped the Production Code and replaced it with the current ratings system. Movie ratings are assigned by a panel of 10-13 parents who live in the L.A. area, ranging in age from their 20s-50s and representing various professions as well as homemakers.
What are the five categories of adopters according to Diffusion of Innovations theory?
Innovators Early adopters Early majority Late majority Laggards
Who were Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks, Fatty Arbuckle and Charlie Chaplin?
Mary Pickford was a pioneer of early Hollywood and was nicknamed "Queen of the Movies" because of her popularity. The arrival of sound was her undoing. Douglas Fairbanks was the first major male film star in Hollywood. Known for his swashbuckling roles in silent films, his marriage to Pickford caused a scandal. Fatty Arbuckle was the first actor to earn $1 million a year. One of the clauses of his contract was that he had to maintain, if not exceed, his weight of 250 pounds. Charlie Chaplin became a worldwide icon through The Tramp, his onscreen persona.
According to Gerbner, what is the relationship between the commercial nature of U.S. media and media content, especially when it comes to violence?
Mean World Syndrome is a phenomenon whereby individuals exposed to violent content believe the world is more violent than it is. Violent content tends to do two things: desensitize us to violence while leading to an acceleration of violent images.
Be familiar with McLuhan's ideas regarding media determinism, including the medium is the message and the global village. Know, as well, why his perspectives are criticized by some and considered useful by others.
Media determinism is a form of technological determinism, which assumes that a society's structure and cultural values are determined by its technology—not humans. McLuhan believed the medium is the message— in other words, that the impact of a medium (the technology itself) is more important than the content it carries. McLuhan also believed that media technology has the power to create a global village—to connect people despite geographical distance and to shape collective identities based on the technology we use. A major criticism of media determinism is that, by identifying technology as the main governing force in society, it overstates its power and diminishes the role humans play. Others argue McLuhan provided a framework that is still useful. Consider: Is the internet important because of its endless supply of content (message) or because it created a world where we expect content to be endlessly, immediately available (medium)?
How do the authors define "media effects"?
Media effects are changes in cognitions, attitudes, emotions, or behavior that result from exposure to the media. However, broader impacts on society, as opposed to individual effects, are also of concern to us. And some scholars do not see a cause-and-effect relationship between media use and human behavior. We will use the term media impacts in the broader sense to encom- pass these varying aspects of the complex relationship between media and society.
What kind of content did the Motion Picture Production Code make off limits?
Off limits: crime scenes that might inspire imitation, profanity, casting God in a negative light, "excessive and lustful kissing, lustful embraces and suggestive postures and gestures."
Why does cultivation refer to in Cultivation Theory?
Overview: The media, particularly TV, contributes to our perception of social reality. The more we watch TV, the more likely we will view the world as the medium presents it. Commercial pressures shape media content. We may be active-able to draw our own conclusions about what we see-but we are also vulnerable to TV's gravitational pull and thus its messages.
What was the significance of Amos 'n Andy and War of the Worlds?
Radio reflected cultural attitudes. A noteworthy example was "Amos 'n Andy", a comedy based on a minstrel show that featured white actors in blackface who acted lazy and stupid. It was the most popular radio series in history, despite being criticized for being racist. It didn't survive the transition to TV, in large part because of the growing Civil Rights movement. War of the Worlds (1938) is considered the most famous single radio broadcast of all time.
In what two ways did U.S. legislators regulate the radio industry?
Recognizing the potential power of radio to shape the country politically, culturally and economically, U.S. legislators did two things: First, they defined radio as a shared resource for the public good ("public airwaves"). Then, they passed laws regulating how public airwaves could be used and in what ways private businesses could get involved.
Block bookings
Requiring a theater owner to take a whole series of movies in order to get a few desirable, headliner films. This system was eventually found to violate antitrust laws
What do researchers currently believe about media effects?
Researchers currently believe that media effects are both strong and limited.
Who invented the first widely used form of long distance communication, and what was the technology?
Samuel Morse Invented the telegraph in 1844. The language of Morse Code - dots and dashes - is still used today. It was the first widely used form of long distance communication but had a major weakness - telegraph wires could be break or be cut.
What innovative storytelling techniques did the studios develop during the Silent Era of film?
Studios developed innovative storytelling techniques, including the use of varied camera distances, close-up shots, multiple story lines, fast-paced editing and symbolic imagery.
During which times of year are blockbusters released?
Summer and December
When was the Golden Age of Radio and why was it considered that?
The 1920s, 1930s and 1940s were known as the Golden Age of Radio. Radio was the main form of entertainment in U.S. households. For the first time, Americans were getting their entertainment from outside the home rather than from within. There was a wide range of programming: live music, dramas and action programs, and soap operas.
What is the signficance of The Jazz Singer?
The Jazz Singer (1927) is widely recognized as the first feature-length film to incorporate synchronized music and dialogue.
What are Transnational Media Corporations (TNMCs)? Where are they based?
The U.S. media system is dominated by a small number of powerful, multimedia corporations (TNMCs) with deep roots in the U.S.: National Amusements, Disney, Time Warner, Comcast, News Corp and Sony.
What is the difference between the internet and the World Wide Web?
The computer, the digital cellular phone and the Internet have been central to this revolution. Internet: a large-scale network of millions of computers that allows continuous communication across the globe. World-Wide Web: a collection of web pages, linked together with hypertext, that is placed on a serverand accessed through a web browser.
Why did movie studios relocate from the East Coast to California?
The earliest movies were filmed in New Jersey and New York. Movie studios moved to California for three reasons: (1) to get away from Thomas Edison's "patent police," who tried to control the use of movie technology; (2) the weather was better and the settings were varied (ocean, desert and mountains); and (3) land was cheap and allowed for expansion.
What roles do prevalence and reward play in modeling behavior seen on TV, according to Social Learning Theory?
The more prevalent acts of aggression are relative to other events available for observation, the more likely this behavior will be modeled. This is especially the case if the aggressive behavior is performed by an attractive, respected and prestigious model ...... who receives rewards for acting aggressively.
What was the initial purpose of radio station KDKA? Why did it change?
The purpose of KDKA was to provide programming that would entice audiences to buy radio sets. That changed as the industry realized the stations could - and needed to - make money themselves. (They needed to make enough money to pay for the high-priced entertainers that listeners wanted to hear once live programming was introduced.) The solution? Advertising.
Media Concentration/consolidation
The result of smaller media companies merging or being bought up by larger companies to form a small number of very large companies
What characterized Hollywood's studio system? How is it different for actors today?
The studios figured that a factory-like process, in which all the talent worked directly for them, was the most effective way to produce movies. Paramount Pictures, MGM, Warner Brothers and other studios controlled every aspect of the production process, from writing to editing. Writers, directors and actors ("stars") worked under contract for a weekly salary. Actors and directors are no longer contracted to studios. Actors now have agents who protect their interests, control public relations and get them work. The result? More freedom for actors to take the kind of roles they want to take and to command higher salaries
What is the difference between the hard-sell and soft-sell approaches to advertising?
This hard-sell approach to advertising as a mediated sales tool used persuasive techniques and introduced the "reason why" philosophy to copy preparation (Wells, Burnett, & Moriarty, 1995). Ads turned into lengthy arguments on behalf of the advertiser that were expected to prompt a delayed response that kicked in the next time the reader visited the store. The soft-sell approach was pioneered in 1911 by the first female copywriter Helen Lansdowne and her partner Stanley Resor at the J. Walter Thompson agency. Their ad for Woodbury Soap featured the slogan, "A skin you love to touch." Their approach took advantage of the newfound ability to print photographs and color illustrations
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Diffusion of Innovations theory?
This theory's strength is that it considers the influence of social systems on our decisions as to whether—and, if so, how and at what rate—we should adopt new ideas and technologies. But ... does it overstate the influence of influencers and opinion leaders on our decisions and downplay the impact of other factors?
Synergy
When the various media controlled by the same corporation are used in an attempt to boost sales.
What is the significance of the Telecommunications Act of 1996 when it comes to media ownership?
With the Telecommunications Act of 1996, Congress stripped away reg- ulations that protected publishing, broadcasting, cable and satellite televi- sion, telephone, and other media companies from competing with one another. Lawmakers had hoped to spark competition, improve service, and lower prices in all communications media. Unfortunately, the flurry of corporate mergers, buyouts, and bankruptcies has outpaced consumer benefits.
product differentiation
a positioning strategy that some firms use to distinguish their products from those of competitors
Product Standardization
an orientation for assessing whether to use a global versus local marketing strategy concentrating on a high-tech to high-touch continuum
Theories
are general principles that explain and predict behavior.
Horizontal Integration
is when a parent company buys up competitors in the same section of the market (e.g., social media companies, film studios).
Know during which period -Silent Film or Early Sound -the following genresappeared: animation, crime dramas, documentaries, film noir, romance, Westerns
pg. 187
Mean World Syndrome
the cynical mindset of general mistrust of others subscribed to by heavy TV viewers
Information Revolution
the recent social revolution made possible by the development of the microchip in the 1970s, which brought about vast improvements in the ability to manage information
Cultural Product
things like books, tv, music, advertisements, etc. that reflect culture
