ME Final Exam

Shukri al-Quwwatli

An old family in Syria that represented how the old political elite maintained power following Syrian independence in 1943. first president of post-independence Syria. al-Quwwatli also represented nationalist activism. A member of an old elite merchant family. a part of the National Bloc

Yishuv

This term refers to the body of Jewish residents in Palestine, before the establishment of the State of Israel. Initial alliance of British colonialism and political Zionism. It lasted throughout the 1920s. British continue policies that allow Jews to buy land and immigrate despite Palestinian objectives. Demonstrates how the nationalist project (of Jews, political Zionism) + Colonial project (of British, through the British mandate) had a meeting of interests. British project of Palestine was enhanced by having Jewish support.

Ibn Sa`ud

One of the first rulers of Saudi Arabia. first monarch of Saudi Arabia. responsible for leading the revival of the Wahhabi movement. Sa'ud wished to strengthen the allegiance of his people not just by military victory but by commitment through the Wahhabi doctrine. He initiated the exploitation of its oil. Established Ikwan. During WWII he entered into a treaty with the British (Treaty of Jiddah) accepting protectorate status and agreeing to make war against Ibn Rashīd, who was being supported by the Ottomans. Arabia has stayed under the control of the house of Sa'ud and the Wahhabi religious to this day.

Arab Higher Committee

Organization that unified the Palestinian elites to fight in the Great Revolt. It was disbanded by the British.

Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk)

Ottoman military guy. Was the most successful military officer during WWI, organizing the defense of Gallipoli against British and Commonwealth invaders. 1919 took leadership position in nationalist struggle in Anatolian. 1923 negotiated withdrawal of British and French, had parliament set up, mass reform. He was the first president of Turkey. He is credited with being the founder of Turkey - Ataturk means Father of the Turks. Wanted to distance Turkey from Ottoman past. Abolished the sultanate and the caliphate, and sharia law. Secularist who wanted to modernize Turkey. Latinized" the Turkish alphabet, granted women the right to vote, made Sunday not Friday day of rest, pursued a policy of state-directed economic development, and even regulated headgear (outlawed fez and demanded hats with brims). All this was done at a price, however: His government suppressed minorities, attempted to standardize culture, and engaged in political repression and one-party rule. After WWI, when entente nations occupied parts of Anatolia, committees of resistance sprang up throughout the peninsula. The government in Istanbul dispatched Kemal to put down the committees. Instead, he took control over the uprising, expelled foreign forces from Anatolia, established Turkey as an independent republic, and took the name "Ataturk," father of the Turks.

Wafd

Out of revolution emerged Wafd party, but during interwar period, came to be seen as doing bidding of British, lost a lot of legitimacy and popularity.

Balfour Declaration

Pledged British support for Jewish state in territory of Palestine, as long as it did not prejudice the rights of the indigenous population - incorporated into terms of British mandate when they occupied Palestine. Unclear whether this was for the benefit of Zionists or Britain.

`Abd al-Karim Qasim

in power in Iraq from 1958-63. Iraqi Army general who seized power in a 1958 coup that eliminated the Iraqi monarchy. He was PM of the Republic of Iraq until his death in 1963.

Bandung Conference, 1955

Aimed to bring newly independent states from African and Asian conference together. It was held in Bandung, Indonesia. Nasser was there. Sought to promote African and Asian economic and cultural cooperation; oppose US and USSR colonial/neocolonialism; refusal to get involved in Cold War. Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, Yemen. Created non-aligned movement (inspired by idea of not being forced to take sides in Cold War); influenced by Latin American revolutionary movements.

Maronites

French take a direct rule approach and create a greater Lebanon in order to protect Maronite Christians. Maronites, Druze, Sunni Muslims will share power, effectively institutionalizing sectarianism. Europeans thought these religious identities already existed so had to do something about it - divide people by religious identities because they thought the problem has and always existed.

King Faysal

From Arab Revolt, son of Sharif Husayn (the leader in the Arab revolt). Inner circle reproduces colonial pattern of rule - favored Sunni elites, who were ex-Sharifian officers that served in the military revolt. Dies shortly after independence of Iraq. monarch hand picked by the British because they considered he would be easy to negotiate with. He was given a certain degree of autonomy by the British so he wouldn't be considered a puppet. Faisal I bin Hussein bin Ali al-Hashimi, was King of the Arab Kingdom of Syria or Greater Syria in 1920, and was King of Iraq from 23 August 1921 to 1933. He was a member of the Hashemite dynasty.

Rashidis, Hashimites

Hashimites: ruling family that came to power following the collapse of the Ottoman empire. The State of Jordan was created to appease hashamites and have client state.

Khedive Fuad

He becomes the new leader of the Wafd after Saad is exiled. He makes a lot of concessions (??) to the British. He also unilaterally declared Egyptian independence, but Britain just used it as a counterweight to the nationalists. entered bilateral talks with the British during revolution that led to limited independence in 1922. His monarchy countered revolutionaries

United Arab Republic

It was the union of Egypt and Syria, formed in 1958 and only last for 3 years. It represents Nasser moving towards Arabism and pan-Arab unit. At beginning of 1956 Constitution.

First Non-Aligned Summit, 1961

Occurred because of Bandung Conference. Founding fathers were Tito, Nehru, Sukarno, Nkrumah, Nasser. Represented affirmation of national sovereignty and territorial integrity. Leaders decided to not take sides in the Cold War. By late 1950s and 1960s however, lines are drawn - foreign policy who favor US - Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Jordan; favor USSR: Egypt, Syria, Iraq.

Prince Talal

He is expelled from government and sets up an exile group called Free Princes. Saudi Arabia.

Free Princes

Set up by Prince Talal.

Carter Doctrine

"Any attempt by any outside power to gain control of the Persian Gulf region will be regarded as an assault on the vital interests of the US, and such an assault will be repelled by any means necessary, including military force" Believed that US must have preponderance of presence in ME - be better than USSR. Goals included increased military spending, improve US rapid deploy, working for ME peace (Israel/Palestine), normalizing relations w/China, more US presence in Indian Ocean, military facilities in N Africa. Rise of rapid deployment force (US troops move quickly to different parts of region); proliferation of military bases in region. 1989 onward, Soviet collapse → unilateral power (US) → Enter Bush senior - Persian Gulf War example of US unilateral power in the region, US pursuing dual containment strategy: policing both Iran and Iraq - stationing troops, monitoring waters.

Agrarian Reform Law of 1952

(Egypt) Limits amount of land any one person can hold. It was directed at large landholders. Surplus was to be redistributed.

Tito, Nehru, Sukarno, Nkrumah, Nasser

(India, Yugoslavia, Indonesia, Ghana, Egypt). founding fathers of the First Non-Aligned Summit.

Kurds, Shi`a

-sharp divides along religious lines in Iraq, slightly over half of the Arab inhabitants professed Shi'ism and maintained close ties with the ulama in Iran, remainder were Sunnis, potential for discord also comes from the Kurdish minority

Nixon Doctrine

1970 - "Neither the defense nor the development of other nations can be exclusively or primarily an American undertaking. The nations of each part of the world should assume the primary responsibility for their own well being; and they themselves should determine the terms of that well-being." The doctrine was a direct outcome of Vietnam - very expensive; better way of doing things than just sending in military. No direct intervention - GB announced they were pulling out of Suez. Decade (1970s) of strong alliance between US and Iran, and US and Saudi Arabia. Iran and Saudi Arabia focus- arms sales, oil deals with the 2 countries. Shah's regime in Iran ran into trouble in 1978 - overthrow of the shah destroyed strategy

Wahhabism

30 year unification process under the Wahhabism narrative to unite a state whose population had been historically divided among tribes. Marriage alliances helped consolidate the state. late 18th early 19th cent. puritanical religious movement. Established by Muhammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab. The movement resurfaces in the 20th century and results in the foundation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Revived in the 1902-1932 Sa'udi unification process. It was its desire to return to the original sources of Islam. Wanted to emulate purity and simplicity of the prophet and the early community and develop a state on that model

National Bloc

A Lebanese conservative political party founded in 1936.

National Bloc

A Lebanese conservative political party founded in 1936. Also a Syrian political party that emerged to fight for Syrian independence during French Mandate of Syria period.

Great Revolt, 1936-39

A Palestinian peasant revolt that soon expanded to rounds of massive urban demonstrations. It was aimed at British and others for policies on Zionist movement. The protesters objected to land laws and Jewish immigration. Led by Shaykh al-Qassam, and Palestinian elites families (Al-Husaynis and Nashashibis who united to form Arab Higher Committee). The revolt eventually eluded their control however, and shifted back to the countryside. Was suppressed by British with a brutal campaign of assassination, deportation, etc.

Gamal `Abd al-Nasir (Nasser)

A member of the Free Officers. Becomes their leader, building a program to end British colonialism, eliminate grip of large landlords, end control of foreign capital over economy, speak of social justice, build strong army, and bring ideas of democratic life. With the Suez War of 1956, Nasser became a leader in the nonaligned movement and put in place a populist, state-directed economic development program that became a model for much of the ME. Died in 1970 Coups during Cold War - 60s, 70s tend to be led by military officers of different social class who were focused on rural areas. Open to range of policies inspired by socialism, Arab Socialism. Nasser an example of this.

Arab Legion

A military force in Jordan. in the early 1900s. Men recruited from tribal groups from south of country. They well-known for fierce loyalty and developed fighting abilities. Their uniforms were an example of hybridity - they look British, but have local headdresses. Financed and commanded by British.

aliyahs

Aliyahs refer to the 2 Zionist settlements in Palestine prior to WWII. In 1882-1903, there was the pure colony. Jews migrated to Palestine to set up agricultural settlements where they would be the workers. It was the redemption of Jews from Eastern Europe; going from urban life to realizing new being in setting up farms. It was very difficult and failed, so they ended up bringing in Arab labor → plantation system. In 1904-1914 the second settlement had a separation policy - Jewish communities separate from Arabs. They sought to buy as much land from large landholders as possible; the land acquired through this purchase was a very small territory. Modest results in early period.

Basel Congress 1897

An international Zionist convention held at Basel. It was chaired by Theodor Herzl. The Congress formulated a Zionist platform, known as the Basel program, and founded the Zionist Organization.

National Pact 1943

An unwritten agreement that laid the foundation of Lebanon to be a multi-religious state, having shaped the country to this day. It allowed Lebanon to be independent. Key points of the agreement include: -Maronite, Druze, and Sunnis supposed to share power - Christians to recognize Arab nature of the area -Muslims abandon their aspirations to unite with Syria. -The President of the Republic is always Maronite. -The Prime Minister of the Republic is always Sunni Muslim. -The Speaker of the National Assembly is always Shi'a Muslim. -The Deputy Speaker of the Parliament and the Deputy Prime Minister are always Greek Orthodox Christian. -The Chief of the General Staff is always Druze. Parliament members are always in a ratio of 6:5 in favour of Christians to Muslims. A Christian majority in the 1932 census - widely considered manipulated in their favour - was the underpinning of a government structure that gave the Christians control of the presidency, command of the armed forces, and a parliamentary majority. However, following a wider trend, the generally poorer Muslim population has increased faster than the richer Christians. Additionally, the Christians were emigrating in large numbers, further eroding their only marginal population edge, and it soon became clear that Christians wielded a disproportionate amount of power. As years passed without a new census, dissatisfaction with the government structure and sectarian rifts increased, eventually sparking the Lebanese civil war.[2] The Taif Agreement of 1989 changed the ratio of Parliament to 1:1 and reduced the power of the Maronite president.

Antun Sa`adah

Antoun Saadeh was a Lebanese philosopher, writer and politician who founded the Syrian Social Nationalist Party. Syrian political agitator who sought to unify Syria with neighboring areas that he considered really parts of Syria. Saʿadah founded the Syrian Social Nationalist Party, a secret society.

Philosophy of the Revolution

Book written by Nasser about the 3 circles in which Egypt has destiny: African, Arab, and Islamic, though he mostly embraced Arab since Egypt was the cultural capital of the Arab world due to the music, radio, and film produced there. It articulated his philosophy of revolution from his point of view.

Druze

Branch of Shia Islam. Speaker of the National Assembly represents this group. In Lebanon

Sir Herbert Samuel

British commissioner who helped govern Palestine. Example of initial alliance of British colonialism and political Zionism that lasted throughout the 1920s. British continue policies that allow Jews to buy land and immigrate despite Palestinian objectives. Jewish and ardent Zionist, and he interpreted his task as facilitating the establishment of the Jewish National home. British policies on land and immigration tended to allow the Jewish community to acquire land, even in the face of growing Palestinian protest, most of the land was purchased from large landholders and involved the eviction of tenant farmers

King Khalid

Builds legitimacy on Islamic grounds . Clash with lavish lifestyle of ruling family and tight ties to US. Inherits problems from King Faysal. Unrest climaxes under his rule (see below).

Bush Doctrine (Bush Younger)

Called for higher level of intervention. Wanted to reform regimes by pressing for democratic change or more dramatic forms of intervention. In 2003, invasion of Iraq resulted in devastation of area and widespread revulsion of US policy in the region. Revised version of doctrine in 2006: protect American people and interests, including anticipating threats and acting preemptively - preference that non-military action precede military action. Containment → Preemptive action and regime change (much higher level of intervention). Regime change via democratic change or more dramatic intervention → 2003 Iraqi invasion. Iraq was supposed to be springboard for broad political transformation; however seems to be more widespread devastation of region and revulsion of US.

Homi Bhabha

Colonial think perpetuates the belief of reductionist categories, so we should instead explore the concept of hybridity.

Truman Doctrine, 1947

Containment focused on Greece and Turkey - peripheral to Soviet Union. Tried to forestall Soviet expansion by giving military aid. Created NATO. His policies resulted in regional pacts such as the Baghdad Pact.

John Foster Dulles

Created Eisenhower Doctrine (see above). Eisenhower's Secretary of State who came up with the Eisenhower doctrine. He strongly opposed the use of force in the Suez Crisis and by 1958 was an outspoken opponent to President Nasser of Egypt and was a major proponent of Egypt not receiving US military funding during this time. This policy, however, backfired and allowed the Soviet Union to gain influence in the Middle East. Most of his career was spent focusing on building up NATO and suppressing Soviet expansion.

Revolutionary Command Council

Created to carry out wishes of the Free Officers. Sends Faruq into exile - end of monarchy. Bans all political parties (Muslim Brotherhood, other parties) and former politicians. Introduces Agrarian Reform Law of 1952: limits amount of land anyone can own - surplus was redistributed to tenants. Write new constitution, bill of rights.

Eisenhower Doctrine, 1957

Created under Secretary of State John Foster Dulles. Tried to turn away from alliance systems but not very successful. Instead, dealt with countries on individual level by lending economic and military assistance to countries resisting Soviets - also promised to deploy US troops to any states fighting communist threats. Focused on securing territory and protecting political independence of nations.

King Ghazi

Faysal's son (Iraq), not very interested in job - dies racecar driving. During his rule, there are a series of military coups - unstable government. In 1939 following his death, his infant son, King Faysal II, assumes the throne.

National Pact of 1943

Deal that affirmed Lebanon would be a separate state with Arab identity, and formula for sectarian rep in Parliament based on 1932 census. The number of people in Chamber of Deputies apportioned based on sectarian identities. Because apportionment fixed based on 1932 census, this led to civil war.

Shaw Commission, 1929

Demonstrates how the tight alliance between British and Zionists is beginning to fray. In 1929, there was an incident with the Temple wall in Jerusalem- Jews setting up screens to separate men and women - Palestinians see it as an alteration of the Wall. British are not happy with the violence, so British sent to investigate outbreak of civil violence in Jerusalem. Issued the Passfield White Paper. The Shaw Commission went on to recommend that Jewish immigration should be brought more directly under British control, and that the practice of evicting Arab tenants following land transfers should cease.

Hafiz Ibrahim

Egyptian poet, anti-British, wrote of injustice. His poems were widely revered by ordinary Egyptians. His poetry was often about subjects with which the majority of Egyptians were familiar (poverty, politics of foreign occupation). He was one of several Egyptian poets that revived Arabic poetry during the latter half of the 19th century.

Post-colonialism

Exploring the residual consequences of the colonial period. A period that demonstrates the mother country's ongoing neocolonial control of the decolonized country - economic, cultural, linguistic power still being exercised by former colonial power. For example, former colonial subjects are seen as legitimate sources of labor/materials for mother country. Post-colonial theory looks at production of knowledge, which influences and leads to questions of identity. Post-colonial theory examines how knowledge of yourself is internalized and lives on in the people. Theorists argue that the cultural and religious assumptions continue to inform current daily life. Independent states tended to be closely controlled by colonial powers, esp. during WWII. The populations perceived the regimes to be continuations of colonial power. The population begins to be restive, entered stage of replacing old elites. There were many revolutions in the region (Egypt, Iraq, Yemen, Libya). Old monarchies were overthrown in favor of distribution of power.

Tayeb Salih

He explores what it means to be "free" of the colonial experience in his writing. Wrote Season of Migration to the North, which mostly took place in Sudan. Tayeb Salih's writing is drawn from his experience of communal village life that is centered on people. he deals the cultural dissonance between the West and the exotic orient Narrator is from a rural village in Sudan, but studied in Europe. Returns to his village and finds a man named Mustafa, who has recently moved there and has a mysterious background. The narrator finds out that Mustafa speaks English and is highly educated, and then learns that he lived in Europe for many years and had love affairs with multiple women. Mustafa killed one of his lovers, but was not convicted. After telling the narrator this, he kills himself (or disappears) leaving the narrator to care for his wife and children.

Hasan al-Banna

He represents the Islamic identity form of resistance. He founded the Egyptian society of Muslim Brothers, who pursued the idea of social welfare, providing services to people when the state couldn't. Wanted to protect Egypt from European influences.

Abd al-Wahhab al-bayyati

He was an Iraqi, communist poet at a time when communist and socialist movements were becoming more vocal. He wandered throughout the Arab World and was a member of Committed Poets. In 1954 he left Iraq after being dismissed from his positions because of his radical communist political views and anti-government activity. Welcomed the Iraqi Revolution of 1958.

Riyadh al-Sulh

He was the first PM (Sunni) of Lebanon.

`Abd al-Aziz ibn Sa`ud

He was the first monarch of Saudi Arabia and enjoyed British support. He sought territorial expansion and the expansion of the Suad tribe. British care about access to the Arabian peninsula at this time because access to India via Suez Canal → Red Sea → Arabian Sea → India. founder of the modern Saudi state. the first monarch of Saudi Arabia. Sought territorial and political expansion. Enjoyed support (financial and military) from the British. Relied on a combination of military and religious inspiration. Conquered Mecca and Medina. Treaty of Jeddah - British recognized Saudi boundaries. Saudi Arabia recognized British possessions. British wanted that region to be stable. He presided over the discovery of petroleum in Saudi Arabia in 1938 and the beginning of large-scale oil production after WW II. Ibn Saud positioned Saudi Arabia as neutral in World War II.

Bishara al-Khuri

He was the first president (Maronite) of Lebanon.

Muhammad Naguib

Head of the Free Officers. the first-temporary- President of Egypt, serving from the declaration of the Republic in 1953 to 1954. Along with Gamal Nasser, he was the primary leader of the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, which ended the rule of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty. In 1954, tension between Naguib and Nasser broke out as Naguib attempted to expand beyond his position as figurehead to one of popular public leadership.

Hybridity

Hybridity represents the many ambiguities that arise in (post) - colonial relationships and identities. Don't just think about these relationships in dichotomous terms. Both the colonized and colonizer create each other. Keep in mind when watching the Algerian movie—representation of how both people are changed and created in colonial encounter, which influences post-colonial reality.

Aswan Dam

Hydroelectric power that can jumpstart industrialization. Dams were seen as keystone development projects (without thinking of repercussions). Dams can more effectively manage water resources; good for agricultural development. Initially, World Bank was going to fund it; but then US pulled out (b/c of Czech arms deal and Egypt recognized China). So Nasser nationalizes Canal to get revenue which leads to Suez Crisis, 1956.

Denshawai

In 1906, British officers went to the Denshawai Egyptian village to shoot birds for fun. Egyptian locals got mad because they were poor and relied on the birds for food? Villagers were killed, so they retaliated and captured a British officer. This led to the British harshly punishing them. The event had huge cultural influences. Representative of tensions between British and Egyptians. This decision inflamed Egyptian nationalist sentiment. this incident and its rising nationalism gave way to an anti-colonial struggle in Egypt during World War I.

Hafiz al-Asad

In 1963, he and fellow officers carried out a coup that brought the Ba'ath back into power in Syria. President of Syria from 1971- 2000. He is of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party in Syria and he believed in Arab nationalism, Arab socialism and secularism.

Black Saturday

In Egypt, growing landlessness among peasants due to consolidation of land by large proprietors - mass poverty prompted migration to urban areas. Meanwhile, there is luxury among elites. There is a growth of political groups in 1940s and 50s - rise of Muslim Brotherhood, socialist and communist groups. Also a growing resentment towards ruling group and British since they refuse to negotiate 1936 treaty. Attacks begin on British troops in Canal zone. In 1952, British troops attack Egyptian police barracks - Black Saturday next day: mobs destroy British property and symbols of privileged classes (including cinemas, bars, clubs). Indicates deep dissatisfaction/frustration.

King `Abdullah

Jordan received formal independence under his rule. The country of Jordan was carved out of British Mandate (other part carved out was Palestine). Jordan was a resource-poor territory, Decentralized tribal region, no regional coherence. The state was created to appease hashamites and have client state. In early years, political institutions are marginally, embryonic; most of power is in hands of king and allies. State is dependent on British subsidies and personnel (officers of military, administration). Jordan gets West Bank 1948-1967. Increases population considerably. Also get Palestinian refugees. After 1948, gets state apparatus that is increasingly filled by Palestinians b/c higher levels of education than Jordanians. he ruled as an autocrat, faithful ally of the British, considered a moderate by the West. Had visions of a Greater Syria with areas of Transjordan, Syria, Lebanon and Palestine, etc.

Shaykh Izz al-Din al-Qassam

Leader of Palestinian peasant revolt in countryside that eventually expanded to urban areas

Sa`ad Zaghloul

Leader of a group of Egyptians that sought to represent Egypt at the Paris Peace conference after WWI; his arrest and deportation led to the 1919 Revolution. Leader of the Wafd. He was exiled from Egypt to Malta because wafd rallied the people. His exile started a series of popular uprisings.

Suez Crisis, 1956

Nasser tries to nationalize the Suez Canal to get funding for the Aswan Dam. In 1956: GB, FR, Israeli forces invade Suez Canal. Both US and USSR saw invasion as destabilizing; both of them pressured militaries to withdraw. Later, Soviets stepped in to finance Dam and technical assistance. Dam wasn't finished until 1970s; revolutionized agriculture, generated electricity, but produced huge environmental problems. Soviets started providing general military assistance to Egypt (SAM-2).

Anwar Sadat

Nasser's successor following his death in 1970. Aligns with the US instead of USSR. He rolled back many of the populist policies of the Nasser era. As President, he lead Egypt into the 1973 war with Israel, to regain land Egypt had lost in the 1967 war. However, afterwards he engaged in peace talks with Israel- creating the Egypt- Israel Peace Treaty. This made him unpopular in parts of the Arab world (though he won a Nobel Peace Price for these efforts.) Economically, he sought to liberalise the economy by introducing incentives for capitalist investment.

Wafd

Nationalist liberal political party of elite Western-educated Egyptians. Saad Zaghloul is the leader. British repressed the party. Co Opted by British?

NATO

North Atlantic Treaty Organization. an intergovernmental military alliance established in 1949. a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party

Passfield White Paper, 1930

Notes that Britain has dual obligations to Jews AND Palestinians; called for restrictions on Jewish immigration. It was ultimately rejected.

Cold War

Post WWII, rise of new international environment (Cold War). The Middle East region was center of global politics - Israel, Oil, New states have potential to go communist. Middle East is formative part of US foreign policy - Truman Doctrine, Eisenhower Doctrine, Nixon Doctrine, Carter Doctrine, Bush Doctrine. US and USSR emerge as major powers after WWII. Zero sum game between two in terms of influence and power at a global scale. In 1945 the Soviets and Americans clashed over Turkey opening salvo of CW. USSR claimed Turkish territory. Turkey allowed US to have military bases in return for help from US. US backed Iran from obtaining UN resolution for Soviet withdrawal of troops which had remained after the war. ME was in center of global politics. Newly independent states were up for grabs in political alignment. Geographical location - borders USSR. Made sense for Soviets to win over nearby states. For US, ME frontline region for USSR and must be prevented from going red. Creation of Israel- not clear at beginning how it would play into CW rivalry. Control of ME region was important for oil resource for large powers.

Baghdad Pact, 1955

Put together under Eisenhower, Secretary of State. Brings together Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan and GB to protect Middle Eastern nations from Soviet incursion. Others were encouraged to join, but refused due to internal loyalties, did not want to appear loyal to US. Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan and Britain. U.S. military and economic aid would be forthcoming to signatories. The purpose of the pact was the prevent communist incursions into the region. This was intended for the countries that border the USSR and the Middle East. Pressure on ME countries to join, many resisted because of popular resistance at home

mutawwa`aI

Religious Islamic guidance that helped ikwan. Taught Ikwan how to be pure Muslims

Lord Cromer (Evelyn Baring)

Ruler of Egypt from 1883-1903. While in theory Egypt was supposed to be under Ottoman control, in practice it was a British colony. Lord Cromer worked to develop the agricultural sector, but only developed cotton - not the industry.

Committed Poets

They were a group of individuals that connected writing to social movements in the Arab World. They sought to move away from romanticism, which was a popular genre of literature at the time.

ikwan

Saudi Arabia. Tribal military force central to unification. Fought jihad of unification with guidance of mutawwaa.

Nuri al-Sa`id

Serves many terms as Prime Minister of Iraq. Parliament still dominated by land-owning tribal leaders - little change in composition.

Umm Kulthum

Singer that is the voice of Egypt/Arab world. Cultural importance

King Faysal (Iraq)

Son of Sharif Husayn, leader of the Arab revolt; later king of Iraq

Warsaw Pact, 1955

Soviet pact, No ME states (just E Europe). This was meant to establish buffer states allied with Moscow to protect its borders from potential western offenses.

Pahlavi dynasty

Started when Reza Khan prevented Parliament from forming (instead formed Pahlavi dynasty). Ruled Iran from 1926-1979. Not much of a dynasty considering there were only 2 shahs from the Pahlavi family, Reza Shah and Muhammad Reza Shah. Overthrown by the Iranian Revolution

King Sa`ud

Succeeded Ibn Saud in 1953. He lived lavishly while the state was struggling economically and was unable to face social challenges.

Ex-Sharifian officers

Sunni elites that held power in Iraq, favored by King Faysal.

Ba`ath

Syrian socialism was led by the Ba`ath Party. led by Hafiz al-Asad. Ba'athism is an Arab nationalist ideology that promotes the development and creation of an Arab nation through the leadership of a strong, populist party over a progressive revolutionary state. A main feature of the party's platform was a belief in the existence of a single Arab nation and a commitment to the achievement of Arab unity. Espouses ideology mixing Arab nationalist, pan-Arabism, Arab socialist and anti-imperialist interests. Ba'athism calls for unification of the Arab world into a single state. Its motto, "Unity, Liberty, Socialism", refers to Arab unity, and freedom from non-Arab control and interference.

Sati al-Husri

Sāṭi` al-Ḥuṣrī (August 1882 - 1968) was an Ottoman and Syrian writer, educationalist and an influential Arab nationalist thinker in the 20th century. Leftists - communist and social movements, taken up by intellectuals influenced by Marxism - esp. large in Iraq and Syria. Initially a supporter of Ottomanism and the Young Turks, from 1916 on he moved towards Arabism. Developed a theory of Arab nationalism based on common language and history, rather than race or religion.

King Faysal

Takes over after Saud is removed. Tries to promote Arab Islamism. Legitimizes his regime as upholder of Orthodox Islam. He invokes oil embargo of 1973 to protest US arms supply to Israel. King of Saudi Arabia from 1964 to 1975. Rescued the country's finances and implemented a policy of modernization and reform. Faisal was focused on repairing the country's finances, which he did by balancing the country's budget with the help of increased oil revenue. Supporter of pan-Islamism. He also maintained a close alliance with the US. He supported conservative and monarchist movements in the Middle East; when confronted with the possibility of a constitution for Saudi Arabia he responded that "Our constitution is the Quran".

Treaty of Jeddah, 1927

The 1927 Treaty of Jeddah superseded the Treaty of Darin (1915) and was signed on May 20, 1927, between King Abdul Aziz and the United Kingdom, recognized the sovereignty of King Abdul Aziz over what was then known as the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd; these regions were unified into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932. In return, King Abdul Aziz would hold back his forces from attacking and harassing neighbouring British Protectorates.

National Union

The 1956 new Constitution bans all political parties except for the state-sponsored National Union. Egypt.

Egyptian Revolution of 1919

The Egyptian Revolution of 1919 was a countrywide revolution against the British occupation of Egypt and Sudan. It was carried out by Egyptians and Sudanese from different walks of life in the wake of the British-ordered exile of revolutionary leader Saad Zaghlul, and other members of the Wafd Party in 1919. The revolution led to Britain's recognition of Egyptian independence in 1922, and the implementation of a new constitution in 1923. Britain, however, refused to recognise full Egyptian sovereignty over Sudan, or to withdraw its forces from the Suez Canal Zone, factors that would continue to sour Anglo-Egyptian relations in the decades leading up to the Egyptian Revolution of 1952.

Great Revolt of 1925-27 (Syria)

The Great Syrian Revolt or Great Druze Revolt(1925-1927) was a general uprising across Syria and Lebanon aimed at getting rid of the French, who had been in control of the region since the end of World War I. The uprising was not centrally-coordinated; rather, it was attempted by multiple factions - among them Sunni, Druze, Alawite, Christian, and Shia - with the common goal of ending French rule. French had failed to incorporate local leaders into government or win over tribes. The revolt was ultimately put down by French forces through brutal repression techniques. After revolt, French shifted more towards indirect rule.

King Fuad

The Sultan and later King of Egypt and Sudan. The first king of Egypt. He substituted the title of King for Sultan when the British recognized Egyptian independence in 1922. Clashed with Wafd party. Fuad found himself at opposition with the Wafd for control of Egyptian power, and often moved to ally himself with the British against this young group.

Free Officers

The carry out a coup on July 23, 1952. Formative experience: Palestinian war in 1948 (?). They are the product of a certain kind of educational reform. Nasser emerges as the leader of the group. They wanted to end British colonialism. end landlords grip on country, end control of foreign capital on Egyptian economy. They are for social justice, strong army, and have vague ideas of democratic life. End up banning all political parties.

Iraqi tribal uprising of 1920

The direct cause of the rebellion was the decision of the San Remo Conference (April 1920) to divide the Arab countries between Great Britain and France. people against independence from British rule and for the creation of an Arab government. the British crushed it but was forced to renounce plans to establish an outright colonial regime in Iraq. The Iraqi revolt against the British, also known as the 1920 Iraqi Revolt or Great Iraqi Revolution, started in Baghdad in the summer of 1920 with mass demonstrations by Iraqis, including protests by embittered officers from the old Ottoman army, against the British occupation of Iraq. The revolt gained momentum when it spread to the largely tribal Shia regions of the middle and lower Euphrates. Sheikh Mehdi Al-Khalissi was a prominent Shia leader of the revolt. Sunni and Shia religious communities cooperated during the revolution as well as tribal communities, the urban masses, and many Iraqi officers in Syria. The objectives of the revolution were independence from British rule and creation of an Arab government. Though the revolt achieved some initial success, by the end of October 1920, the British had crushed the revolt. Although the revolt was largely over by the end of 1920, elements of it dragged on until 1922.

King Faysal II

The infant son of King Ghazi who assumes the throne in 1939. Under his rule, the British re-occupy Iraq during WWII to keep down pan-nationalists.

Kemalism- reformism, republicanism, secularism, nationalism, populism, étatism

The principles of Ataturk's reform. He sought to pull Turkey into the modern world and distance it from its Ottoman past. He abolished the sultanate and caliphate. He also abolished sharia as the main source of law. He proclaimed Sunday as the day of rest (a Christian phenomenon) and outlawed the fez. He discouraged women from wearing the veil (but didn't outright abolish the veil because he knew he would face backlash) and encouraged women to be in the public sphere. His reputation was built on his status as a war hero, the trauma of WWI, and his strong personality. The reaction of the people - the uptick in illegitimate births signified they were clearly still using old traditions of not registering marriages and couldn't change overnight to new secular norms. Kemalism was defined by sweeping political, social, cultural, and religious reforms designed to separate the new state of Turkey from its Ottoman tradition and embrace a Westernized way of living, including the establishment of democracy, civil and political equality for women, secularism, state support of the sciences, and free education.

Zbigniew Brzezinski

United States National Security Advisor to President Jimmy Carter from 1977 to 1981. Facing a revolution, the Shah of Iran sought help from the United States. He assured the Shah that the U.S. would back him up. President Carter could not decide how to appropriately use force and opposed another U.S.-backed coup d'état. The transition of Iran from an important U.S. client state to an anti-Western Islamic Republic.

Jewish Agency

Unofficial government in Palestine set up by Jews. Aided by Sir Herbert Samuel (they had good access to him). Ignored protests of Palestinians by allowing Jews to continue to immigrate and acquire land. Developed policy of not selling or renting land to Palestinians in order to keep land permanently in Jewish hands. British helped them acquire land. Policies on land purchase and immigration that allowed Jewish community to grow.

Reza Khan, Reza Shah

Wanted reforms, but lacked war hero stature of Ataturk, so wasn't very successful. Somewhat successful in limiting foreign intervention, except for British oil agreement in southern Iran. He was the leader of the Coassack Brigade, a unit in the Persian army that had been established by the Russians. Reza Khan seized power after the chaos, foreign intervention, warlordism, and famine of WWI, establishing a dynasty that ruled Iran until 1979. Like Mustafa Kemal, upon whom he modeled himself, Reza Shah imposed a far-reaching program for centralization and modernization. Under his direction, the power of tribes was broken, education and law were taken out of the hands of the ulama, the state played a dominant role in economic development, and the government even regulated dress and religious ritual. Because of his pro-Nazi sympathies, the Allies had him deposed during WWII, replacing him with his son, Muhammad Reza, the last shah of Iran.

Yusuf Salman Yusuf (Comrade Fahd)

Yusuf Salman Yusuf better known by his nom de guerre Fahd (Baghdad 1901 - 14 February 1949), was an ethnic Assyrian and Christian was one of the first Iraqi communist activists and was first secretary of the Iraqi Communist Party from 1941 until his death on the gallows in 1949. He is generally credited with a vital role in the party's rapid organizational growth in the 1940s. For the last two years of his life he directed the party from prison.

Juhayman ibn Muhammad al-`Utaybi

a religious activist and militant who led the takeover of the Grand Mosque in Mecca to protest against the Saudi monarchy in 1979. The internal unrest in Saudi Arabia climaxed during hajj in 1979 - several hundred dissidents took control of mosque at Mecca led by al-`Utaybi. He criticized rulers legitimacy on religious and moral grounds. It took two weeks to dislodge them from mosque and the use of French paratroopers (important since non-Muslims - and they came into contact with sacred ground). Most occupiers died in mosque, and the survivors were killed. Tightening of control following incident, however there was a locus of dissent in Shia population in East.

Saddam Husayn

became Iraqi leader when Ba'athist Party took power in 1963. In the 70s he became a dictator. He suppressed several movements, including Shi'a and Kurdish movements seeking to overthrow the government or gain independence respectively. He maintained power during the the Iran- Iraq war of 1980- 1988 and in 1990, he ordered the invasion of Kuwait. This lead to the Gulf War. Accused of possessing WMDs by a coalition led by the US and UK in 2003.

Arab Socialism

state-sponsored economic development, as manifested in Nasserism and Baathism as state ideologies of Egypt in the 1950s and 1960s and of Iraq and Syria from the 1960s until the mid-1980s. Self-sufficiency was considered important and they practiced import substitution industry to not be dependent on imports because bad for economy and political repercussions like boycotts. Military buildup -national project to protect themselves and developmental aspirations, go it on their own Social welfare programs/abolition of classes- redistribute, particularly education. Numbers of students explodes, expansion of health care system, subsidies for foodstuffs Agriculture/land reform policies - limit amount of land one could own, set up agricultural cooperatives Expansion of opportunity for women - foster education, opening of professions, bringing into public space. Part of the developmentalist push - women were half the population. Having them involved or be held back Egypt (Nasser - symbol of this vision) - After 1967 defeat, Nasser resigned (then took it back). Syria (Baath party under Hafiz al-Asad until 2000, then succeeded by son). Iraq Abd al-Karm Qaim '58-'63 → 1968: Saddam Husayn. Over time, nationalizing big industries; national control of economy → successful development. Self-sufficiency (import substitution industrialization - make what you need yourself, less imports). Rhetorical abolition of classes. Military build-up. Social welfare programs - redistribute wealth: Education (so many university students), Healthcare, Subsidies (food like bread and cooking oil). Agricultural land reform policies - Limits, Cooperatives. Expansion of opportunities for women - Education, Professions, Public spaces. It was part of the developmental push - women as half the population and if you don't involve them in state projects, the countries would be held back. Pan-Arabism, social justice, state-led development. Was not Soviet communism - retained religious own identity (Communist parties were actually outlawed). Socialist regimes became more authoritarian as they became more insular. Divisions: Egypt/Syria/Iraq vs Turkey/Iran/Saudi Arabia/Jordan

King Faruq

succeeded his father, Fuad, in 1936. Overthrown in the Egyptian Revolution of 1952. the Free Officers, led by Gamal Abdel Nasser, overthrew his regime and forced him to abdicate in favor of his infant son Ahmed Fuad. Also clashed with Wafd party