Media Theories Test 1

Non-Probability Sample

Selection of elements does not follow the guidelines of mathematical probability

Catharsis

(AKA sublimation) exposure to violent media content satisfies the viewer's aggressive drive, leading to less violent behavior. Aristotle discussed catharsis as a possible audience response to Greek drama (tragedy). Key studies on catharsis among boys in a reform school (i.e. "Juvey")did not adequately account for alternative influences leading to observed behaviors (e.g. frustration at not watching TV

Mikhail Bakhtin

Developed a theory of personal dialogue which asserts that dialectical tension is the "deep structure" of all human experience. Contributed to theory-building in diverse disciplines like literary criticism, history, philosophy, sociology, anthropology and psychology (in addition to communication). Argued that meaning can only be understood in its social context. His work has strongly influenced communication theories since the 1990s (including relational dialectics).

Two-Step Flow Theory

Developed by Paul Lazarsfeld from extensive research during the 1940 presidential election campaign (Ohio). Research methods: Survey questionnaires Personal interviews Panel studies (monthly) Mass media were more likely to reinforce an existing vote choice than to "convert" voters (limited effect). The concept was later applied to consumer decisions in a 1943 study (Illinois - Personal Influence published in 1955).

Two Contextual Dialectics

Dialects resulting from the relationship's position in the broader culture. Public - Private How is a private relationship negotiated in public life? Real - Ideal Focuses on the differences between real and idealized relationships. Media representations play an important role here.

Ways of Knowing

Experience, Authority, Science

Social Marketing Theory

Promotes socially valuable information and socially accepted behaviors; integrates marketing ideas, principles, tools, techniques and socially beneficial concepts to promote communication and benefit society. Techniques developed to sell products and services are used to promote positive social change. Closely related to theories of persuasion and diffusion Identifies and addresses barriers to effective communication.

Fritz Hippler's Propaganda theory WWII

Simplify a complex issue Repeat the simplification over and over again so it sticks We live in an either/or, good/evil world (bipolar opposites) Mass media can promote mass manipulation (of thought, attitude and action). Elitist and paternalistic views of the (malleable) audience. People's own shortcomings lead to the need to lie and manipulate.

Paradigms Behind propaganda: Direct, Powerful Effects (AKA "Magic Bullet" or "Hypodermic Needle")

media strongly influence (mostly) powerless individuals. In basic terms, exposure = influence.

Falsifiability

researchers should able to identify what data, if observed, would make the hypothesis false

5 uses of content analysis

Describing communication content Testing hypotheses of message characteristics Comparing media content to the "real world" Assessing the media image of particular groups in society Establishing a starting point for studies of media effects

Random Sampling

Each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

Systematic Random Sampling

Every nth unit is selected from the population

Controlled Variation

In experimental research, the isolation and manipulation of elements is essential (to help control variables)

Hierarchy of Effects Model (Social Marketing)

Some persuasion effects are easier to induce than others. Social marketers should study the effectiveness of each particular stage before advancing to the next.

Uses and Gratifications

"...provide[s] a framework for understanding when and how different media consumers become more or less active and what the consequence of that increased or decreased involvement might be." (Baran & Davis, p. 240) Grew out of concern that audience preferences were left out of effects research which focuses mostly on unintended, negative outcomes. Gave audience members a voice in mass communication theory. More elaborate research became possible through new methods and analytical techniques, but the range of responses was difficult to classify and interpret. Was criticized by other scholars for its status quo orientation, difficulties in measuring key concepts, and refusal to address the possibility of effects. Sparks identifies motivations for watching television: Learning Habit Companionship Arousal Relaxation Escape Passing Time

Statistical Significance

"Probability of obtaining a test result that occurs by chance and not by systematic manipulation of data." (Businessdictionary.com) Expressed using p < with the number following representing the probability of chance causing the outcome, out of 100.

Causality

"the relationship between something that happens or exists and the thing that causes it" (Merriam-Webster) Correlations are used to determine relationships between two variables. Positive Correlation - increases in one variable are accompanied by increases in the other variable (top figures on p. 37) Negative Correlation - increases in one variable are accompanied by decreases in the other variable (bottom figures on p. 37) Correlation Coefficients - Vary between +1.0 (positive) and -1.0 (negative); 0 indicates no relationship at all. The statistical symbol for the coefficient is r.

Third-Variable

(AKA confounding variable) - An unmeasured variable could cause changes to both the independent and dependent variables.

Reliability

(AKA external validity) - the extent to which an experiment, test, or measuring procedure yields the same results on repeated trials. (Merriam-Webster)

Validity

- The extent to which a measurement, test or study actually measures what it purports to measure. Statistical Validity - was the proper statistical test employed? Was the significance reported correctly? Internal Validity - could other factors/variables led to the results? Construct Validity - does the operational definition of a variable actually reflect the true theoretical meaning of a concept? (explorable.com)

Cultivation theory content analysis findings of 1920s

2/3 of primetime shows contain bodily harm or threatened violence. Dramas containing violence average 5 incidents per hour. Weekend a.m. kids shows average 20 incidents per hour 2/3 of primetime characters involved in violence. The young, old, non-white are most likely victims Women are more likely victims than men The representations of age, race, ethnicity and gender on TV do not reflect reality

Orson Wells "War of the Worlds" Drama content and effects

A radio drama based on an H.G. Wells novel was broadcast Oct. 30, 1938; around 6 million listeners. Created panic by about 1 million people, even though announcements were made that it was fiction. Demonstrated the power of mass media to persuade large numbers of people. Researchers developed profiles for those most affected (less critical ability, self confidence, emotional security than non-panickers). Inspired research in to media effects by researchers like Cantrell and Lazarsfeld.

Three Interactional Dialectics

Autonomy - Connection Openness - Protection Novelty - Predictability There is no ultimate resolution to the opposing forces Our skills at interpersonal relations do not resolve the tensions Relationships are always in flux

Issues with Violent video games

Aggressive behavior increases when players are able to personalize game characters (avatars) Meta-analysis shows a small but significant overall effect of video game laying on aggression (smaller than TV's effect). Studies with stronger research designs show stronger effects than do studies with weaker research designs. "Human behavior is complicated and caused by hundreds of factors, only some of which we know about." (p. 125) Skepticism is important, "but it needs to be accompanied by a thorough and nuanced understanding of scientific evidence."

Social Learning Theory(Powerful Effects Paradigm)

Albert Bandura's "Bobo Doll" experiments: Children were shown films of adults acting either passively or aggressively toward a child's toy. After viewing, children were placed in a room with the toy and observed by researchers. If kids viewing the aggressive behavior acted more aggressively toward the toy than those in the passive (control) group, effects from exposure to the film were inferred

Paradigms Behind propaganda: Behaviorism

An approach to the human condition which sees all human action as a conditioned response to external environmental stimuli.

Goals of Theory

As the prior definitions indicate, theories may be developed for a variety of goals including (but not limited to): Explanation Understanding Prediction Social Change

Displacement Theory

Asserts that audiences spend a considerable portion of their free time using media (esp. watching TV) at the expense of other important activities. Research shows it has limited scope What qualifies as marginal or important activities is up for debate (sometimes apparently trivial activities aren't) Increasingly, it's other media activities that get displaced Initial studies suggest that sleep is getting displaced

Relational Dialectics theory

Asserts that relational life is characterized by continual tensions between contradictory impulses - "communicative predicaments of relationships." Relationships consist of oscillation between contradictory desires (p. 224). One of our main communication tasks is managing these tensions (p. 226). Can be applied to close relationships, romance, friends and family.

Cultivation Theory

Asserts that the amount of television viewed by a person shapes her/his perception of the real world. Early (and continuing) research focused on violent content in TV. More recent application to other topics—sex, politics, representations of health, race, etc. as well as other media, like video games. Argues that heavy viewers of TV believe that the real world is more like what they see on the screen than do lighter viewers--this leads to a type of distrust, or even social paranoia.

Testability

Can a theory's claims ever be proven false? If they cannot be proven false, they cannot be proven correct either

Advantages of Survey Research

Can investigate problems in realistic settings Relative low cost for the amount of data gathered Relatively easy to get responses (data) from a variety of people Existing survey data may be used as primary or secondary source material Primary - Data gathered directly by the researcher(s) Secondary - Data gathered by someone else

Brandon Centerwall's Research

Centerwall found a link between the increase in TV use and growing homicide rates (among Whites) in the U.S., Canada and South Africa. In South Africa, the imposition then lifting of a ban on TV use indicated that increases in the murder rate accompanied greater access to TV. Was challenged by Gary Jensen who argued that marriage/divorce rates were a better predictor of murder rate increases.

Information Gathered from Viewers to Determine the Cultivation Differential and Mean World Index

Chances of involvement with violence - What odds do subjects estimate of being a victim of violence? Fear of walking alone at night - How fearful are people of being victimized? Perceived activity of police - What percentage of the population do subjects estimate is involved in law enforcement? General mistrust of people - How suspicious are subjects of other peoples' motives?

Logical Consistency

Clarity and consistency are key. A theory's claims should be consistent with its assumptions

Paradigms

Collections of major assumptions, concepts and propositions on a subject. Examples: Economics: protectionism vs. free trade Government/Press Relations: partners vs. adversaries

Variable essential to change

Communicator - source credibility is key Content - nature and organization of the appeal is key Audience - What are people's predispositions? (group memberships, personality differences, etc.) They can act as filters One-sided messages are more effective for those already in agreement with the message; two-sided are better for those with divergent views; two-sided presentation is more effective among more educated audiences.

Approaches to Relational Contradictions: Monologic

Contradictions in relationships are seen as either/or; operate on a single continuum.

Test of Time

Does the theory continue to generate research and discussion as social conditions change?

3 Basic Types of Theories

Everyday or Commonsense - created through an individual's own experience. May reflect hints passed on from family members, friends, or colleagues. Examples: Never date someone you work with - it will cause problems Working - generalizations among co-workers about the best technique for doing something. Examples: Audience analysis should be conducted before giving a speech Scholarly - theories that have undergone systematic review and (in some cases) testing. The label "scholarly" does NOT automatically mean that a theory has no applied value in the so-called "real world." These tend to be more complex than everyday or working theories. Examples: The media do not tell us what to think, but what to think about (agenda-setting theory)

Payne Fund Studies 1930s

Examined connections between film content and juvenile delinquency. "...the first systematic attempt to discover media impact scientifically" (p. 57). Many of the themes studied are seen in contemporary media effects literature. A study of 1500 films 1920-1930 found that 75% focused on crime, love and sex. Payne Fund researchers used galvanic skin response technology to measure emotional responses of teens. Contributed to establishing a legacy of fear - widespread beliefs that media were dangerous and could upset the proper social order.

Longitudinal Research by Eron & Huesmann

Examined levels of aggressiveness and exposure to violent television by studying participants at 10, 19 and 30 years old. The adults who were more involved in criminal activity or anti-social behavior had the highest exposure to TV violence as kids. Caveats: These are tendencies, not direct correlations Causality is strongly suggested but not absolute

Steps in Content Analysis

Formulate one or more hypotheses and/or research questions (based on prior theory) Define the "population" Select a sample of the population Establish a quantification system Code the content Analyze the data Interpret the results - how do they contribute to theory?

Levels of Generality

Grand Theory - Broad attempts to explain all aspects of a phenomenon (macro level) Middle-Range Theory - Attempts to explain specific aspects of a phenomenon Narrow Theory - Attempts to explain a very limited aspect of communication (micro level)

Strengths of Relational Dialectics Theory

Helps us think through how relational partners create meaning. Emphasizes the interplay between change and stability (the push and pull of relational life). Encompasses forces within and outside relationships (like family and culture). Has inspired related research (i.e. it's high in heurism)

Ontology

How is the nature of reality perceived? What is knowable by humans, and what lies beyond our ability to understand?

Heurism

How well does the theory stimulate new ways of thinking about an issue, process, or phenomenon? Well defined concepts and clear associations among them increase a theory's heurism.

Beniger's "Control Technologies"

Humans develop C.T.s in order to exert increased control over their world through the recording, storage, dissemination and consumption of information. An explanation for humans' incessant technological innovation Crisis of control - demands for information exceed technology's ability to meet them Control revolution - new technologies are developed to reassert control over info.

Targeting (Social Marketing)

Identifying specific audience segment to reach effectively through (a) specific channel(s).

Opinion leaders in Two Step flow theory

Serve a "gatekeeping" function by screening messages others will receive Held strong influence over people who were undecided until late in the campaign or changed their minds during the campaign Were found at every social level and similar to the people they influenced (homophily) Were more frequent users of mass media than were opinion followers

Disadvantages of Survey Research

Independent variables cannot be manipulated (as they can in experiments); cannot determine causality. Bias may enter through inappropriate wording or question placement. Data may be gathered from the wrong people (or in the wrong language) New communication technologies, telemarketing, consumer burnout etc. can lower response rates.

Parsimony

Is the theory written to present complex or abstract ideas in the simplest terms? Does it have a manageable number of concepts and simple interconnections among them?

Content Analysis

Kerlinger's (1986) definition: "a method of studying and analyzing communication in a systematic, objective and quantitative manner for the purpose of measuring variables." Systematic - the content to be analyzed is selected using explicit and consistently applied rules; coding and analysis processes are uniform Objective - Personal idiosyncrasies and biases should not enter Quantitative - allows for precise measurements and succinct reporting of results Findings are limited to the framework of categories and definitions used in the analysis What does this suggest about research design for studies employing content analysis? Some topics, images, etc. seldom appear in media and are difficult/impossible to study It can be time-consuming and expensive

Variables of attitude change

One-sided messages are more effective for those already in agreement with the message; two-sided are better for those with divergent views; two-sided presentation is more effective among more educated audiences. Variables central to attitude change: Communicator - source credibility is key Content - nature and organization of the appeal is key Audience - What are people's predispositions? (group memberships, personality differences, etc.) They can act as filters

Priming

Media exposure leads us to recall issues in certain ways as memory pathways are activated. Depictions of violence in the media activate hostility- and aggression-related concepts in the viewer's memory, increasing the likelihood of increased or perceived increased levels of aggression.

Weaknesses Relational Dialectics Theory

Parsimony - do three interactional dialectics capture all of the elements at work? (follow-up studies have generated new dialectics) Much of the theory's support comes from anecdotal evidence. No axioms or propositional arguments are offered.

White Propaganda

Potentially harmful information is suppressed; positive information is promoted to distract public attention from problematic ideas/events.

The "4 Ps" of social marketing

Product - May be physical products (e.g., condoms), services (e.g., medical exams), practices (e.g., reading to children) Price - Refers to what the consumer must do in order to obtain the social marketing "product." The cost may be monetary, or intangibles, such as devoting time or effort, or to risk embarrassment and disapproval. Place - describes the way that the product reaches the consumer. For a tangible product, this refers to the distribution system. For an intangible product, place may refer to decisions about the channels through which consumers are reached with information or training. Promotion - the integrated use of advertising, public relations, promotions, media advocacy, personal selling and entertainment vehicles. The focus is on creating and sustaining demand for the product.

Open-ended survey questions

Respondents answer using their own words (qualitative data). Advantages: Respondent has more freedom in answering In-depth information can be gathered Issues, relationships, effects unforeseen by the researcher can be captured Useful for identifying key issues in pilot research Disadvantages: It's time-consuming to collect and analyze responses Divergent responses can make analysis difficult or even impossible

Problems with surveys

Respondents have difficulty recalling information. Prestige bias - respondent provides the perceived socially acceptable (P.C.) answer. Purposeful deception Respondents try to determine the true purpose of the study. Respondents have difficulty expressing exactly what they want to say (emotion, literacy, disability, etc.) Openly sharing information is more commonplace in some cultural groups than others.

Close-ended survey questions

Respondents select one or more answers/options from a list provided by the researcher (quantitative data) Advantages: Greater uniformity among responses Responses are easier to quantify (Quantification - a number that is given to a subjective aspect of a phenomenon or object. [Law Dictionary]) Disadvantage Relevant responses may not be foreseen by the researcher; the respondent may not be able to answer as she sees fit. (Pre-testing the questionnaire is key!)

Roots of Propaganda

Roman Catholic efforts to suppress the Protestant reformation beginning in the 17th century. Facilitated by the growth of mass communication technologies (print - telegraph - photography - film - broadcasting) The U.S Civil War (1860-1865) applied industrial efficiency to large-scale mobilization and destruction. Information and news reports distributed by telegraph; battlefield photos circulated World War I (1914-1918) demonstrated the possibilities for large-scale persuasion through print media and film

Deductive Theory Building

Scholars start with expectations (often stated as hypotheses) then use observations to confirm or challenge the theory. The goal is to test and confirm assumptions, not discover patterns or associations. Approach: "Top Down" - theoretical assumptions guide observations Advantage: Permits systematic testing and refining of scholars' speculations

Inductive Theory Building

Scholars use observations to build theory. They avoid letting pre-existing concepts determine what they are looking for—they observe without discriminating between what data are relevant, and what are not. Approach: "Bottom Up" - observations guide theoretical assumptions Advantage: Avoid the "blinders" that preconceived assumptions can create

4 Goals of science

Science seeks general patterns or principles (usually stated in probabilities), not specific cases. Science acknowledges the existence of objective truth, and endeavors to uncover specific truths. Science assumes a skeptical attitude—which often leads to controversy (which is healthy for science). Science can't answer certain kinds of questions,

Scope

Scope - Does the theory throw a wide net to encompass many phenomena, or have a more limited focus on specific phenomena or contexts?

Paradigms Behind propaganda: Freudianism

Sees human behavior as the product of conflict between the id, ego, and superego. The ego struggles to control the other two. Ego - the individual's rational mind Id - the "darker side," source of hidden desires Superego - internalized rules that moderate an individual's behavior

TV Viewing Problems

TV viewing is positively correlated with snacking behavior, and negatively correlated with physical activity. The rapid increase in Type-II diabetes in the U.S. has been attributed in part to high-fat diets and sedentary lifestyles (often related to heavy TV viewing) TV viewing is related to Hypertension (abnormally high blood pressure) in children

Probability Sample

The chance for selection of each element is known through mathematical calculations of probability

Desensitization

The notion that people become numb to violence in real life after repeated exposure to media violence. Law of Emotional Desensitization - after repeated exposure to the same stimulus, the intensity of one's emotional response will diminish with more exposures. Author's example of riding roller coasters Sequels to violent film increase the number/frequency of killings and violent acts to keep the audience engaged Creates momentum toward ever-increasing levels of violence in (some) media content Drabman & Thomas's child monitor study demonstrated less likelihood of intervening to stop a "real" fight by kids who were exposed to more violence.

Limitations of Two-Step flow theory

The research design and data analysis are inherently conservative Subsequent findings have been contradictory Surveys: Record how people report media use, not actual use media Are expensive and cumbersome Are a crude technique for longitudinal research Quantification requirement omits potentially important variables (if open-ended questions are not used)

Three characteristics of computer-mediated mass comm. that

Thomas Ruggiero (2000) identified three characteristics of computer-mediated mass comm. that should be researched: Interactivity - Audiences have greater control over mass comm. discourse than ever before Demassification - Audiences may select from various sources and tailor messages to their needs Asynchroneity - Messages need not be "read" when transmitted; they may be retrieved later

Time-Order

To establish causality, the variable doing the causing (independent) must precede the variable being affected (dependent). Ex: Exposure to media content before a kid's behavior change.

Nominal concepts

are not observable (ex: democracy, love)

Real concepts

are observable (ex: personal rituals, spatial distance)

Gray propaganda

Transmission of information that may or may not be false; validity of the info is not checked.

Utility

What is the theory's practical value? What does it tell us about human communication and/or media? Is it adaptable to different contexts?

Axiology

What roles should human values play in scholarly research and theory building? What is worth knowing?

Epistemology

Where does human knowledge originate? How is knowledge created and expanded? How do we know what we know?

Fraction of Selection

Wilbur Schramm's Fraction of Selection (1954) asserted that people make media choices based on expectation of reward in relation to effort required: Expectation of Reward Effort Required

Approaches to Relational Contradictions: Dualistic

a contradiction is understood as two separate entities that can vary independently.

Experimental Method Manipulation of the variable

all conditions except manipulation of the independent variable must remain constant.

Approaches to Relational Contradictions: Dialectic

contradictions are seen as both inclusive and oppositional; multiple viewpoints may exist simultaneously.

Black Propaganda

false information and material that purports to be from a source on one side of a conflict, but is actually from the opposing side.

Experimental Method Control Group

the group that does not receive treatment (manipulation) and is used as a benchmark comparison group when treatment results are evaluated

Multistage Sampling

the population is divided into clusters, then one or more clusters are chosen at random and everyone within the chosen cluster is sampled

Mainstreaming (Cultivation Theory)

the process by which heavy viewers develop a common outlook on the world through constant exposure to the same images, ideas, etc.

Cluster Sampling

the total population is divided into groups (or "clusters") and a simple random sample of the groups is selected

Analytical Surveys

to describe and explain why certain conditions exist; relationships among variables are examined to draw inferences. Ex: How does news outlet preference impact political participation?

Descriptive Surveys

to document current conditions or attitudes; describe what exists at the moment. Ex: election polling

Stratified Sampling

used to guarantee adequate representation of a subsample. (Various characteristics may be used to identify the subsample)

Experimental Method Random Assignment

using chance to make sure that all participants have an equal likelihood of being assigned to a group

Resonance (Cultivation Theory)

viewers see situations, actions, etc. on TV that are congruent with their daily realities.