MEDSCI206

ICM and Trophoblast cells are not totipotent. This means

ICM cannot form the placenta and Trophoblast cells cannot form the baby

Ionotropic

(Ligand Gated - our focus) They conduct current to activate the neuron (opening of ion channel for direct polarisation)

Metabotropic

(Neuromodulatory) They activate the neuron through *second messenger pathways* (act through a second messenger pathway for indirect polarisation)

What are (3) therapeutic strategies for immune cells in the brain?

(a) Phagocytosis for debris clearance (*Stop them from eating things*) (b) Inflammatory - cytokine/chemokine strategies (*secreting things*) (c) Suppression of APC activity (MS/stroke/autoimmunity) (*Presenting things*)

BDNF increases in response to (2)

*Exercise* and *environmental enrichment* (interacting with your environment) → ↑ BNDF → ↑neurogenesis and LTP → Improved learning and memory

What foraging structure of Astrocytes have?

*Filopodia* that sample the external environment

What is the neurotransmitter at the IHC afferent synapse? What does it bind to?

*Glutamate* from the *Ribbon Synapse*, binds *AMPA* (Glutamate Type 2/3) and *NMDA* (NR1) receptors https://o.quizlet.com/h.AXdsTJiF1UX4b-X2ovbg_m.jpg

[Figure] Surface preparation of the rat organ of Corti

*I*HC *P*illar Cells *O*HC *D*eiters' Cells https://o.quizlet.com/1yaloeChe3NQA9y.nBHDLw_m.jpg

Which membrane proteins strengthen the adhesion between the leukocytes and the endothelial cells? (2)

*ICAM-1 (CD106)* and *VCAM-1 (CD54)* (Two of the most important endothelial-leukocyte adhesion molecules that govern trafficking of peripheral immune cells into the inflamed CNS)

Symptoms (3)

*Involuntary Movements* Emotional Problems Both

Which common features do senses share? Pathway

*Physical stimulus* (Neural code in the nerve that will give precise info about the type, duration and intensity) Events transform stimulus -> nerve impulses Response of signal gives rise to *perception* or *experience of sensation*

The basal ganglia have outputs to which (3) structures, via which relay station?

*Prefrontal Cortex*, Premotor Cortex and Primary Motor Cortex via the thalamus

The hair cells are innervated by (neurons and nerve)

*Primary Auditory Neurons* -> Spiral Ganglion -> Cochlear Branch of the Vestibulocochlear Nerve (8th)

The sensory cells in the Organ of Corti are innervated by the (which cells) (from which structure)

*Primary Auditory Neurons* located in the Spiral Ganglion (both afferent and efferent innervation)

Stage 3: This process of shortening of the OHCs and cochlear amplification is called (2)

*Reverse transduction* or *Electromotility* (amplifies the movement of the organ of corti - the organ of corti moves up and down more vigorously)

Types of Motor Units

*S Type/Type I* (Slow twitch) *FF Type/Type II B* (Fast twitch, fast fatigue) *FR/Type II A* (Fast twitch, fatigue resistant) - rare

Example patient of why forgetting is important?

*S* could not erase information, didn't know what was important in life (could not filter incoming information)

Hippocampal Lesions affects

*Spatial* Memory Consolidation https://o.quizlet.com/u9XoD2KCiHvQwggGVGxvlQ_m.jpg

Dorsal "Where" Pathway/Stream

*Spatial* Processing - Location, movement, spatial transformations and spatial relations

The best sensitivity of the cochlea is between

1 - 2 kHz https://o.quizlet.com/5WwY-5iIIeMXFlaVhtELdw_m.jpg

Which (3) zones is our visual field made up of?

1 Binocular Zone 2 Monocular Zones

Top three causes of death

1 CVD 2 Cancer 3 Stroke

Primary Somatosensory Cortex (S1) Brodmann Areas? (4)

1, 2, 3a, 3b,

Which cranial nerves only sensory?

1, 2, 8

How does atherosclerosis cause ischemic stroke? (4)

1. Endothelium ulceration overlying plaque → Platelet/Fibrin adhesion. Platelet-fibrin thrombus break loose into circulation → block small artery in brain (thromboembolism) 2. Endothelium platelet adhesion → coagulation cascade → formation of occlusive thrombus (can block distal arterial branches) 3. ↓ flow / inadequate perfusion of brain distal to narrowed / occluded artery → infarction (necrosis). 4. Haemorrhage into a plaque → rapid reduction in the diameter of the arterial lumen

Biochemical changes in brain during ischemia which potentiate cell death (7 steps)

1. K+ moves into the extracellular space of the brain 2. Ca++ moves into cells 3. Mitochondrial function compromised 4. Na+, Cl- ions and water enter neurons causing cell swelling 5. Release of oxygen free radicals → peroxidation of fatty acids in cell organelles and membranes 6. Anaerobic glycolysis → accumulation of lactic acid 7. ↑ activity of excitatory neurotransmitters

Ischemic stroke: clinical syndromes (4)

1. Total anterior circulation infarct (TACI) 2. Partial anterior circulation infarct (PACI) 3. Posterior circulation infarct (POCI) 4. Lacunar infarct (LACI)

Which cranial nerves sensory and motor?

3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12

How many types of T2R receptors are there?

30 different types

Most voices are about

300 Hz https://o.quizlet.com/4Mosv-64.3pyrif28rIiLQ_m.jpg

Spinal cord segments?

31

Infants at which preterm age have most problems?

32 weeks

How many Spiral Ganglion Neurons and what do they innervate?

35-50k, innervate mainly the IHCs

What is the ratio of Hair Cells?

3:1 (OHC:IHC)

The Visual/Auditory/Olfactory systems gives us information about the

3D Environment (some distance)

Negatives of this initial treatment?

4 developed cancer (leukemia) and 1 died

Innervation ratio range?

5 - 2000

How many waves are recorded with BAEPs in humans and other mammalian species?

5 https://o.quizlet.com/.w5bXbblJ9ZJfbto6eOJRw_m.jpg

How common?

5-10/100,000

What happens in AD with respect to the Cholinergic System ?

AD → Degeneration of Cholinergic Neurons ACh (Acetyl Choline) which project to Hippocampus and Neocortex

Presynaptic Terminal is made up of (2)

Active Zone and Synaptic Vesicles

Pathological Forgetting is termed

Amnesia

Prevent thrombus/embolism

Anti-platelet drugs (aspirin).

Genetics of HD? (4)

Autosomal dominant Chromosome 4 (Short arm) Gene IT15 Polyglutamine Regions - CAG repeats within Huntingtin (Htt) protein

Myotatic Reflex Efferents

Axons of αMNs

Astrocytes are a very important component of the

BBB

Being lipophilic, cannabinoids

Bind the receptors within the transmembrane domains

Asphyxia

Body deprived of oxygen

E-Selectin and P-Selectin are

CAMs found on endothelial cells

What is the Astrocyte progenitor function?

Can potentially differentiate into other cells

Which genes are turned on for formation of the striatum? (2)

DARP32 an Meis2

When do we have synaptic elimination or pruning?

During sleep - needed so that we can learn more

Short term memory is known to be

Dynamic

Perilymph

ECF, high Na and low K

Microseizures?

EEG spiking events observed after latent phase https://o.quizlet.com/3mnckwm9ZDl8eFUzH3x2RA_m.png

Scala media fluid is

Endolymph - High K, Low Na, resembles intracellular fluid

Another name for the Ear Canal?

External Auditory Meatus

What type of receptors (physiological) are nocioreceptors?

Free Nerve Endings

Growth factors are released in _____, which helps to

Gradients, which helps to shape the growth of the nervous system

Stage Theory: What is the *second* group of neurons in the neural stage?

Green and Red processing, input from GR

Declarative: Short Term located

Hippocampus

Impaired oxygen delivery and Impaired waste removal lead to

Hypoxia + acidosis

What are we not considering with the Flexion (withdrawal) Reflex?

If muscles are flexed synchronously, you can lose balance

What *type* (there are 2) of immune function do Microglial Cells manifest?

Innate Immunity

Peripheral Nerve Somatosensory Injury symptoms?

Loss of sensation of areas innervated by that nerve Tingling, numbness or pain

Dementia

Loss thinking, remembering, and reasoning

Cholinergic system is important in?

Memory, sleep and arousal

What are the leukocytes that stick? (3)

Monocytes, B and T Lymphocytes

If mitochondrial PO2 = <1mmHg, what happens?

No more ATP produced (OP)

2. Partial anterior circulation infarct (PACI)

Occlusion of internal carotid artery, anterior/middle cerebral artery. Clinical features: (1) TACI problems (2) Cerebral problems (3) Unilateral motor/sensory deficit

What are the (4) pluripotency inducing genes?

Oct4 / Sox2 / Klf4 / c-myc

Hippocampus is highly

Organsied

Which *genes* are turned on for formation of the Cortex? (3)

Pax6, Emx2, Dlx2.

Metencephalon

Pons

What makes up the 𝛾 secretase?

Presenilin 1, 2

Soleus has mainly what fibers?

S Type

Sensory 1 - Overview

Sensory 1 - Overview

LTP?

Simultaneous stimulation of 2 neurons → Long-lasting improvement in communication Strengthening of synapses

Sources: Propriospinal Neurons

Spinal neurons w/ascending/descending neurons for upper/lower limb co-ordination

OHCs sit on

Supporting Deiters' Cells

What causes the high [K] in the endolymph?

The secretory activity of the Stria Vascularis

How many types of sensory cells are there in the taste bud?

Three: Type 1, Type 2 and Type 3 https://o.quizlet.com/TNwfpdFbbQ6fPw7fhk1Vqg_m.png

What is the basic principle of frequency encoding in the cochlea?

Tonotopic Organisation

Somatic Gene Therapy

Will modify patient DNA and not passed down to offspring

Hypoxia

↓oxygen reaching tissues

Use it or lose it?

↓rate of cognitive decline by using memory

What is an example of a common cannabinoid?

∆9THC (Marijuana)

Intrafusal Fibre Non-belly sections are innervated by

𝛾 Motor Neurons

PSA-NCAM benefits?

(1) *Large tightly bound molecule*, does *not interact* with other things (therefore cell cannot interact with surroundings) (2) *Hydrous*, binds a lot of water. This helps the cells to slide and squeeze through in adult aged brain (through all the myelin). Wouldn't need this when baby did not have myelin.

Stage Theory: What is the overall mechanism?

(1) Activation of L, M and S cone pigments (2) Opponency pathways that allow us to sort colour information for black/white, yellow/blue and red/green (3) Brain combines the information received from the retina to give rise to perceptions of different wavelengths of light

How can Gene Therapy be used in Neurological Diseases? Remove/insert/modify genes that will... (3)

(1) Block genetic mutation expression (2) ↑Neurotransmitter/Neurotrophic Factor (Neuroprotective Agent) production (3) ↑Enzyme production/function

What are the motor unit components? (5)

(1) Cell Body of α Motor Neuron (2) Axon (3) Axon Branches (4) Neuromuscular Junctions/Endplates (5) Extrafusal Muscle Fibres that the Motor Neurons innervate

(3) Phases of brain Injury

(1) Insult Phase (2) Recovery Phase (3) Reorganisation Phase https://o.quizlet.com/XSaMdbjXN9o4Gu.1UssCrQ_m.png

(4) Homeostatic mechanisms?

(1) Ionic Gradients (2) ATP production (3) Oxygen/nutrient perfusion to brain (4) Match cellular metabolic activity (demand) to energy supply

What are the two modes of Radial Migration?

(1) Locomotion (2) Nuclear Translocation/Nucleokinesis

Processing of sound: Subtle Nuances underpin (2)

(1) Social communication (2) Sound localisation

How are disease models used? (3)

(1) Understand Disease Pathogenesis (2) Identify molecular targets to slow/stop disease progression (3) Testing of new drugs (proof of concept)

The presence of which of the following features excludes diagnosis of lacunar infarct?

(1) Visual field defect. (2) Abnormal higher cerebral function (eg, dysphasia, apraxia). (3) Signs of a brain stem abnormality (eg, gaze palsies, crossed deficits). (4) Impaired level of consciousness (drowsiness, stupor or coma).

Reciprocal Inhibition in the Myotatic Reflex - what are the pathways from the Ia Afferent?

(1) → (Glutamate) → αMN1 → Biceps Contract (2) → (Glutamate) → Ia inhibitory interneuron → (*Glycine*) → αMN2 → Triceps Relax

What are the (2) types of postsynaptic transmitter receptors at CNS synapses?

(A) Transmitter/Ligand Gated Ion Channels - Rapid (B) G-Protein Coupled Receptors - modulatory

What is the relation between characteristic frequency and the respective position on the basilar membrane? (The rule of thirds)

(Approx logarithmic) 20-200Hz take apical 1/3 of BM 200-2,000Hz take middle 1/3 of BM 2,000-20,000Hz take basal 1/3 of BM https://o.quizlet.com/Nt48XRUK6KMaho5LFbGkOw_m.jpg

Vonsattel Grading Scale

*0* = Minimal change → 40% loss of MSNs *1* = 50% loss in CN, shrinkage visible to the eye Have to look at the cells also, ratios etc. *2-3* = Major loss of neurons (~70%) CN pretty much flat *4* = 95% loss of neurons in the CN Concave CN

What are the efferent OHC neurotransmitters?

*ACh* (acts on nicotinic Type 9 receptors) and modulators CGRP, ATP and GABA https://o.quizlet.com/D.kJdh.rdNA-mRh1f7A.3Q_m.jpg

What are the efferent IHC neurotransmitters?

*ACh, GABA and Dopamine* (Also modulators Enkephalins, Dynorphins and CGRP - Ca Gene Related Peptide)

BDNF (4) features

*Activity dependent* release *Receptors coexpressed* with glutamate receptors *Made, stored and released* by glutamatergic neurons High *hippocampus expression*

How do Chordin and Noggin work?

*Bind BMP* and prevent them binding their receptors

The neurons from the *Ventral* Cochlear Nucleus lead to?

*Both* Superior Olivary Complexes

Diagnosis of Parkinson's Disease (4)

*Clinical* diagnosis (2 or more cardinal features) *Laboratory* Tests Response to *levodopa* No *alternative cause* for symptoms

Multisynaptic pathways to the cerebral cortex provide

*Complex analysis of incoming information* https://o.quizlet.com/OJz8EXwX9jX5LmbCr7gmsA_m.png

Sensation and Perception: Smell and taste

*Detect* chemicals (aromatic compounds) in air or water but *experience* smells and tastes https://o.quizlet.com/S8lIvgquYEU1uQUcQEA2PA_m.png

Sensation and Perception: Light

*Detect* light of different wavelengths and *perceive* as colour https://o.quizlet.com/VAIhhCApDKb.hnroyhyxAA_m.png

Sensation and Perception: Sound

*Detect* vibrations of different amplitudes and frequencies but *hear* sounds, speech https://o.quizlet.com/sO.A7BS5wbirl2FCP84c3g_m.png

Odors can arouse _____ and affect _____

*Emotions* and affect *behaviour*

Differential Diagnosis (8)

*Essential* tremor - not the rest tremor we expect to see in PD Temporary improvement with *alcohol* Family *history* Drug Induced (the ones they are taking for other problems) Cerebral infarcts/strokes near basal ganglia Hydrocephalus (fluid in brain) Other Neurodegenerative Diseases (PSP MSA) Wilson's Disease (copper accumulation)

How does asphyxial insult affect Brain Oxidative Metabolism (graph)?

*Insult* = Acute loss of OM *Reperfusion/Latent Phase* = Recovery of OM *Secondary Phase* = OM Failure - gradual decrease (8 hours after) https://o.quizlet.com/L12pT5aVQIGEfjiTwwaZvQ_m.png

Tangential Migration

*Leading processes* forage for target through *somal translocation*

Endoderm forms (4)

*Lining* of internal organs, GI tract, respiratory and *endocrine*

What are the (4) classes of receptor (in humans - think of senses)?

*Mechanoreceptors*: detect mechanical deformation *Chemoreceptors*: detect chemicals, nose, taste or CO2 in blood *Thermoreceptors*: detect changes in temperature, thermoregulation *Photoreceptors*: detect light https://o.quizlet.com/hsE5Sj4nWMjcbZCy0NhpIQ_m.png

What is the negative effects of pregnant mothers smoking?

*Movement/positioning* of neurons is altered (we know that position determines function), in week 6-12 mark when the neural development is critical

Since the initial pioneering studies in 2004- 2007 cannabinoid CB2 drugs have shown improvements rodent models of which diseases? (3)

*Multiple sclerosis* *Viral encephalopathy* *Huntington's disease*

Phantom Limb: Normally?

*Neuronal inhibition* keeps functional areas distinct (i.e. finger 2 region separate from finger 3 region) https://o.quizlet.com/nyLq9LpUvPNCFaiO5Z5dZQ_m.jpg

CAG (Glutamine) repeats ranges (3)

*Normal* = Up to 35 repeats (short expansion) *Gene Carrier* = 35 - 40 (Symptomatic) *HD* = 40+ (Long expansion)

What is the pathophysiology in Lissencephaly?

*Not hopping off* radial fibre or *Poor Migration* -> abnormal accumulation of cells

In the normal brain, CB2 receptor is

*Not* highly expressed

Which mammalian gene family is the largest?

*Odorant receptor genes (ORgenes)* (900 genes in humans, 1500 in mouse)

On Type 2 cells (bitter, sweet and umami), the release of ATP activates

*P2 Receptors* on the nerves (P2X2, P2X3) and binds back on to the Type II cells, possibly to enhance the signal https://o.quizlet.com/JV5WC22.GSu53BpyOgDxVQ_m.jpg

What olfactory molecules are used by insects? How is olfaction of these molecules involved in communication? (4)

*Pheromones*. Signalling reproductive behaviours Marking territory Signalling aggression, fear

CB2 is substantially increased in which diseases? (6)

*Stroke* (No human data yet) - only been studied in mice) *Multiple Sclerosis* (human) *Huntington's Disease* (human) *Down's syndrome* (human) *Alzheimer's disease* (human) *ALS* (mouse SOD-1 model) - Motor Neuron Disease

What happens at the age of 2 that helps reduce neuron numbers?

*Synaptic Elimination* and *Cellular Pruning*, reducing neuron number from 320 billion to 160 billion (we live with the latter throughout our life)

What are some auditory (localise sound) adaptations of animals?

*Tachinid fly Ormia ochracea*, specialised hearing organ - a *beam* that bounces and tells the fly where spatially the sound is coming from https://o.quizlet.com/EWUF707MI.g7-0m1bMX0wQ_m.png

What is a non-invasive technique that can be used to stimulate the nervous system?

*Transcranial magnetic stimulation* (TMS): Place a plastic coated coil connected to a capacitor that discharges, producing a very brief/small magnetic field. Place this near the Primary Motor Cortex and depolarise the neurons -> causes muscle contraction.

Perirhinal Cortex Lesions affects

*Visual* Perception and Memory https://o.quizlet.com/UpqNJAem6pskOM3QkIo5TQ_m.jpg

Differences between brain vasculature and other vasculature? (2)

*•* Brain vasculature is associated with astrocytes *•* Level of expression of tight junctions in the BBB is higher than anywhere else in the body

Maternal Inheritance of CAG repeats

-4 → +4 (on average 0) change from maternal repeat number

Human olfactory bulb is (%) of the brain

0.006%?

What is the Interaural Time Delay if the sound is coming directly from *one side*?

0.8ms

What is the Interaural Time Delay if the sound is coming directly from the *front*?

0ms

What is the Interaural Time Delay if the sound is coming any where between *0˚ (directly ahead) and directly from one side (90˚)*?

0ms < x < 0.8ms

Long-term Memory

1 second - lifetime

ISCHAEMIC STROKE Symptoms (3)

1. Anterior circulation 2. Posterior circulation 3. Lacunar infarcts

ISCHAEMIC STROKE Causes (3)

1. Arterial disease. 2. Embolism. 3. Reduced systemic perfusion pressure.

How many axons of ganglion cells transmit information from the retina to the brain?

1.2 million (~100x less than photoreceptors)

Maintaining Membrane potential requires

1/3 of all ATP produced

When do we have the max number of hair cells?

10 weeks gestation - after this we can only lose the cells

LTP: Late Phase

10+ hours, now affecting transcription and protein turnover (∆structure of neurons and networks)

How many cells does 1 mother cell produce?

10,000

What is the range of capillary sizes in the brain?

10-20µm -> 100-150µm

Stage 2: How many stereocilia on an OHC?

100

Papillae have how many of what?

100-900 taste buds, visible only with a microscope

Each neuron has how many connections (synapses) with other cells?

1000 or more

P Cells outnumber the M Cells by ____x in the

100x, in the retina

How does the olfactory epithelium surface area compare between humans and dogs?

10cm^2 humans vs 170cm^2 dogs

# of cranial nerves?

12

How many OHC in human?

12,000

The frequencies used in Pure Tone Audiograms are (range)

125Hz - 8kHz

How many photoreceptors absorbing light?

126 million

Average duration from diagnosis to death is?

13 years

When is ultimate prognosis?

15 years terminal

Intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH)

15% Bleeding into brain (small artery supplying deep white matter and basal ganglia) Haematoma → cuts off brain pathways → exerts pressure on surrounding brain tissue

Myelination continues untill

18-20 years of age

What is the neuron:Glial Cell ratio?

1:10

The ratio of cones:rods?

1:20

Microscopic Pathology of HD? (Specific)

1st: Loss of GABAergic Neurons called Medium Spiny Neurons

Anterior Spinocerebellar Tract Pathway

1˚ = Dorsal Root → Synapse at Dorsal Horn 2˚ = *Spinal Border Cells* → Decussate → Superior Cerebellar Peduncle → Cerebellum

Posterior Spinocerebellar Tract Pathway

1˚ = Dorsal Root → Synapse at Dorsal Horn 2˚= Afferents → *Clark's Nucleus* → Inferior Cerebellar Peduncle → Cerebellum

Dorsal Column/Medial Lemniscus Tract - Pathway

1˚ = Skin → Dorsal Root → Fasciculus Gracilis/Cuneatus (T6 separates these) 2˚ = Nuclei Gracilis/Cuneatus → Decussate → Medial Lemniscus → Thalamus 3˚ = Thalamus → Primary Sensory Cortex https://o.quizlet.com/mXJOZPcG-E5zCxDM4Cow.A_m.png

Anterior/Lateral Spinothalamic Tract - Pathway

1˚ = Skin → Dorsal Root → Synapse in Dorsal Horn 2˚ = Decussation → Anterior/Lateral Spinothalamic Tract → Thalamus 3˚ = Thalamus → Primary Sensory Cortex https://o.quizlet.com/0SfVPdmc5AOShsy4G0yuzA_m.jpg

You reach a maximum synapse number at which age?

2 Years

LTP: Early Phase

2 hours, protein modification

CaMKII constitutes how much of the total protein in the neuron?

2% - high proportion

Mortality compared to age-matched controls? (How may times)

2-5 times

The human ear recognises frequencies between

20 - 20,000 Hz as sounds

Our olfactory system can detect how many different substances?

200,000

How near are blood vessels when looking at individual neurons?

200-300µm

Medicine allows us to keep alive how old babies?

23 weeks (severe problems in life)

Temporary Hearing Loss can recover within

24 hours - 7 days

% of strokes occur in people under the age of 65?

25%

What is the latency in the Myotatic Reflex?

25-30ms

What are (2) major Endocannabinoid ligands?

2AG and AEA (Anandamide)

Optic Nerve

2nd pair of cranial nerves - retina to brain https://o.quizlet.com/i/J6NmyM7jL8NsuH-oDazNCg_m.jpg

Opponent Colour Theory: Channels respond in which way?

3 channels: Red/Green (are processed by the same group of neurons), Blue/Yellow and Black/White, with each responding in an antagonist (opposite) way

% of people over 65 with Parkinson's?

3%

How many IHC in human?

4,000

Some axons extend distances that are

40,000 times width of the cell body it is attached to

How high can dogs and bats hear?

40kHz (Dogs) and 160kHz (Bats)

Onset?

40s

Which Broadmann's area refers to the Auditory Cortex?

41

The basilar membrane recognises which frequencies at which locations?

45kHZ (high) at the base - 200Hz (low) at the apex https://o.quizlet.com/JwkgKc9zUh0E8zVU6Pd12w_m.jpg

What (%) of neurons are replaced a year (olfactory)?

5%

Normal cerebral blood flow is

50 ml/100g/min

How many neurons created in the first 7 months of life die? (%)

50%

There is a ____-_____ms delay for the initiation of the Attenuation Reflex, which means

50-100ms, not perfect at protecting your ear from a sudden burst of sound (i.e. explosion)

How many taste receptors per taste bud?

50-150

How many layers of neurons are formed?

6

LTP: Intermediate Phase

6 hours, now affecting translation

Mean age of first stroke is

75 years

What is the maximum difference in the time of sound arrival for the ears?

760µs https://o.quizlet.com/S0UB9gXsFh9qBQHWPWPBFg_m.jpg

_% of those with Parkinson's disease develop it before the age of 40 years

8%

Importance of stroke in the community

8k/year, 348/100k

By the age of 80 what % have hearing loss?

90% have Age Related Hearing Loss

Although OHCs outnumber IHCs, what is true about the proportion of innervation?

95% of innervation from Spiral Ganglion Cells goes to IHCs https://o.quizlet.com/iiagvFiJwAaCtSdr6g57uQ_m.jpg

Medium Spiny Neurones make up

95% of striatum

The thalamus is small. Thus damage affects?

>1 region

When did studies on how the hippocampus might store declarative memories begin?

>40 years ago

Why does K+ influx cause depolarisation of IHCs when efflux of K+ actually causes hyperpolarisation in neurons?

???? (27:25)

Postsynaptic Density

A *protein dense* specialisation attached to the postsynaptic membrane. Includes *receptors*, *scaffold proteins*, and many signaling molecules

Because LTP induction occurs in the postsynaptic membrane, Hypothesis 1 requires what?

A *retrograde messenger* to be released from the postsynaptic cell and act on the presynaptic cell to release more glutamate https://o.quizlet.com/xdc2gtygZDLx1s5QHx08Aw_m.png

Spina Bifida Cystica

A *tuft of hair*, *cyst* on their back (fluid filled). The opening can be *surgically repaired*, usually shortly after birth.

DS Ganglion Cells act as local motion detectors for

A bright stimulus moving in one direction

Parkinson's disease is multifactorial?

A combination of genetic and environmental factors

Lissencephaly

A condition in which the cortex has no sulci or gyri https://o.quizlet.com/powiy1ka8Mt7R9YUXjKQSg_m.png

Cerebral Palsy (CP)

A condition marked by impaired muscle coordination (spastic paralysis) and/or other disabilities, typically caused by damage to the brain before or at birth.

What is visual motion?

A coordinated variation of *light intensity* in both time and space in the environment

What does extended periods of low frequency stimulation (LFS, 1 Hz) of presynaptic axons result in (ans is not LTD)?

A depression of the *population* postsynaptic response (field recording)

Polymicrogyria

A developmental malformation of the human brain characterized by an excessive number of small convolutions (gyri) on the surface of the brain. https://o.quizlet.com/AW1izxA4TxtpDq.ABOw3Sg_m.png

[Diagram] A distance of about 1mm, we see less concentration of CB2 expressing cells

A distance of about 1mm, we see less concentration of CB2 expressing cells https://o.quizlet.com/tRuLwNkdP5hlc5r4pOwQiw_m.png

Tight Junctions structures comprise

A family of proteins that form a selective barrier to solutes small molecules and cells (bacteria/leukocytes etc)

Neurotrophin

A family of proteins that induce the *survival*, *development*, and *function* of *neurons* and their *circuits*

Placing the recording electrode outside of the synapses and measuring the loss of ions from the extracellular space as they move into the postsynaptic neuron is called

A field Recording

Oligodendrocytes

A glial cell similar to an astrocyte but with fewer protuberances, concerned with the production of myelin in the central nervous system

Endocannabinoid System

A group of *neuromodulatory lipids* and their receptors in the brain that are involved in a variety of physiological processes

M Cells have what kind of receptive field?

A large concentric receptive field

What is low frequency stimulation not accompanied by?

A large depolarisation https://o.quizlet.com/aEWpGVS3oTNy2x48mYi9ew_m.png

Thalamus structure?

A large ovoid (egg shaped) grey matter structure for each hemisphere

Growth Cone

A leading process with multiple branches, sense the peripheral environment

Secondary Phase Oedema

A measure of impedance, which reflects the amount of cell swelling and dying, via necrosis/apoptosis https://o.quizlet.com/om6vmX8oTfsiqA5jaTlYcA_m.png

Sensory System Attribute: Intensity

A measure of the *severity* or *amount* of the stimulus

Olfactory Bulb

A neural structure of the vertebrate forebrain involved in olfaction, or the sense of smell. https://o.quizlet.com/i/YcPNyLoQMUG_NMNNuKTK0g_m.jpg

Allo-preg-nano-lone (ALLO)

A neurosteroid that regulates HPA axis and controls stress

Modality

A particular form of sensory perception

Transduction mechanisms: Each receptor responds to

A range of stimuli to give specificity - *Specific receptors* in auditory will only respond to certain frequencies - In nose, will respond to certain chemical - In mouth, only to salt, or sweetness, to glutamate etc.

Polymicrogyria usually only affects

A small area of the cortex

P Cells have what kind of receptive field?

A small concentric receptive field

Haematoma

A solid swelling of clotted blood within the tissues.

Pathological Macroscopic anatomy of striatum and cerebrum?

A spaces forms due to atrophy, cortex tries to fill gap but is shrivelled too

Rostral Migratory Stream

A specialised migratory route found in the brain of some animals along which neuronal precursors that originated in the subventricular zone of the brain migrate to reach the main olfactory bulb

End Organs

A specialized, encapsulated ending of a peripheral sensory nerve, which acts as a receptor for a stimulus

What is the mode of AP of photoreceptor cells?

A spikeless mode (e.g. Graded)

Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA) indicate a risk for

A stroke, greatest risk in the weeks/months following TIA

The P Cell receptive field produces what kind of response that lasts as long as

A sustained, slowly adapting response, a stimulus is centered on its receptive field

Claustrum

A thin layer of grey matter in each cerebral hemisphere between the lentiform nucleus and the insula.

Proof of concept means

A trial/test that demonstrates the feasibility of the drug (i.e. improvement in function that is impaired by the disease, can include motor function (PD) and cognitive function (AD))

Primary Auditory Cortex is also called

A1 Cortex

What are (2) viral vectors used for PD neuroprotection?

AAV2-BDNF AAV2-NTRN (Neurturin) - Failed

Which serotypes are used for widespread expression in Striatum and Hippocampus?

AAV6 (Striatum) and AAV9 (Hippocampus)

Once released from the presynaptic terminal, *glutamate* binds which (3) main subtypes of glutamate receptors?

AMPA Receptors (a-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid) NMDA Receptors (N-methyl-D-aspartate) *mGluR* Receptors (Metabotropic glutamate)

Which (2) glutamate receptors are often co-localised in the postsynaptic membrane?

AMPA and NMDA

What have studies shown with regards to increasing transmitter release?

AMPA receptor response increases but NMDA response does not https://o.quizlet.com/-kYKd0uPlfrDh74T0cht9w_m.png

What does tagging AMPA receptor subunits with GFP show us?

AMPA receptor subunits moving into synaptic spines with LTP induction (we see this happening in LTP)

What do phosphatases dephosphorylate?

AMPA receptors are dephosphorylated at a specific site (Serine 845) in response to LTD induction https://o.quizlet.com/-o3IbINiRI3d-f8LQQ-5Tg_m.png

What happens to pre-existing AMPA receptors during an LTP?

AMPA receptors are phosphorylated at the CaMKII phosphorylation site (Postsynaptic Density) https://o.quizlet.com/shqfL9ui8OCT3A3NnsUGAw_m.png

What gene increases risk of AD?

APOE4

Tonotopy (Not Phase Locked)

APs triggered at random locations with respect to sound wave. Auditory system has to rely on tonotopy to determine the frequency of sound *>4kHz* https://o.quizlet.com/wp2qPnUqKcpZTv7YRBQHvA_m.png

Reciprocal Inhibition occurs for flexors and extensors, but not

Abductors and Adductors

Immediate/Sensory memory

Ability to retain contemporary experiences (right now) - 1-3 seconds

Short-term/Working Memory

Ability to retain information: 15-30 seconds

Pathophysiology of Huntingtin (Htt)?

Abnormally folded version with expanded repeats - even bigger!

One Type II neuron will provide innervation to

About 10 OHCs, which are usually in the same row

Cerebral Cooling is by how many degrees and duration?

About 2-3˚ for about 3 days after brith asphyxia at term

Removing cochlear amplification weakens sound by

About 50-60dB https://o.quizlet.com/e03Ll2y-2O0HELthvAEGBw_m.jpg

ICH Hypertension

Abrupt rise in BP or chronic weakens walls until final rupture

Tests to monitor improvement of physical function include (3)

Accelerated Rotor Rod Corridor Test Morris Water Maze

Somatotopic Arrangement

According to Site of Origin

Medial-Lateral Rule

According to inferior nerves travelling more medially https://o.quizlet.com/6nWwNdp92Ef-cLgynx94JA_m.jpg

Sensory Modality

According to information carried

Metabolic Acidosis

Accumulation of Lactic Acid in blood

Respiratory Acidosis

Acidosis to do with CO2, removed by breathing

Immunotherapy can be

Active or Passive

Transduction mechanisms: Mechanical stimulus

Acts directly on cell structures to cause receptor potential

Which viruses do we use? (5)

Adenovirus (Ad) Adeno-associated Virus (AAV) (Does not elicit immune reaction) Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) Retrovirus (RV) Lentivirus (LV)

Stroke is most common cause of prolonged

Adult disability

S/FF: Metabolism (type)

Aerobic/Anaerobic

Why are Teratogens bad for baby?

Affect oxygenation, blood flow, and nutrient provision

Both Outer and Inner hair cells have (2) innervations

Afferent and Efferent

Spiral Ganglion Neurons provide both (2) innervation to the Organ of Corti

Afferent and Efferent https://o.quizlet.com/YuLNcO-IHPHYPpBUbIm.MQ_m.jpg

Majority of _____ axons synapse on IHC and majority of _____ axons synapse on OHC

Afferent, Efferent

Sources: Muscle Receptors

Afferents from muscle spindles

How do we interpret motion?

After *integration* of visual information processed in *discrete* pathways in the retina

Common with advancing?

Age

Sense of smell declines with

Age

AD more prevalent with

Age (but not part of normal ageing)

What is the ageing population pathway?

Ageing population → ↑Neurodegenerative disease incidence → Social and economic impact

Types of Complex Deficits (2)

Agraphesthesia and Somatosensory Agnosia

What types of inflammation do Microglial Cells respond to?

All kinds, central such as the neurons dying or external inflammation

Focal Cystic Necrosis (Cystic Lesions/Holes)

All tissue missing (holes - cystic) (white matter) https://o.quizlet.com/7u.CioBmwSIoeqDZOheXEw_m.jpg

Where are declarative memories stored?

Alongside a sense in the cortex https://o.quizlet.com/sWnuaUDsH0Ofd89RTS8p.w_m.jpg

Operant Conditioning

Alter probability of a response by associating it with a reward/punishment

LTP is a known mechanism for

Altering connections within networks of neurons https://o.quizlet.com/8O1Ci2sQwdtPu077Ok6p1A_m.jpg

When do and don't S Type motor unit fire APs?

Always, except REM sleep

Most Common Dementia

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) https://o.quizlet.com/1xeE2aSrOuH211BIaTnNRw_m.jpg

Consumption of this antibiotic causes gradual patched loss of sensory hair cells

Aminoglycoside ototoxicity https://o.quizlet.com/S8o.MkktQIqIKRu1703Dvw_m.png

Sensory systems provide information on (3) aspects of the stimulus

Amount, duration and location

What do we add to inhibit clathrin mediated endocytosis and what happens?

AmphiSH3, LTD-induced endocytosis of AMPA receptors is prevented

HM - which structures were removed? (4)

Amygdala, *incus*, *hippocampal gyrus* and anterior hippocampus removed (alleviate epilepsy) https://o.quizlet.com/6k6YuDjt6kQ2LdNqJkz9CA_m.jpg

Amyloid is cleaved from which protein, on which CS?

Amyloid precursor protein (APP) on CS21

In the diseased state of Lissencephaly, what is the grey matter like?

An amorphous spread of grey matter

Vomeronasal Organ (VNO)

An auxiliary olfactory sense organ that is found in many animals, mainly used to *detect pheromones*, chemical messengers that carry information between individuals of the same species

What is the difference between Parenchymal and Perivascular Microglial Cells?

An example of similar microglial cells that are slightly different in function. Parenchymal function in the *ECF *and the perivascular (as the name suggests) wrap themselves around the blood vessel for some function https://o.quizlet.com/BfzkOlJf.TQQrJt-EBJDIQ_m.png

Aneurysm

An excessive localized swelling of the wall of an artery

What have studies shown after LTP is induced?

An increase in synapse number

What should we see if transmitter release is increased during LTP?

An increase in the size of the AMPA and the NMDA responses with LTP induction

What is a Stem Cell?

An undifferentiated cell which can give rise to more cells of the same type (proliferation) and/or more restricted potential cells (differentiation)

Metabolic Acidosis can occur during

Anaerobic metabolism during hypoxia

Studies of synapse plasticity in the awake behaving animal were first performed on

Anaesthetised rabbits

Motor Unit

Anatomical and functional unit of the motor system https://o.quizlet.com/Bn4dQmS8JxHvhRXxKFk65A_m.jpg

Failure of the anterior end of the neural tube to close is

Anencephaly

Myotatic Reflex Receptors

Annulospiral Endings wrapped around intrafusal muscle fibre

Intrafusal Fibre belly has what wrapped around it?

Annulospiral Sensory Afferents

How are the Cochlear Nucleus and other structures in the auditory pathway also systematically/tonotopically organised?

Anterior - Cell bodies for lower frequency neurons Posterior - Cell bodies for higher frequency neurons https://o.quizlet.com/Nwa217SYWieJrR02A1OEUw_m.jpg

What are the (2) Spinocerebellar Tracts?

Anterior and Posterior https://o.quizlet.com/C7KN.x00qw2NiSke6lEYYw_m.png

Where are motor nuclei in spinal cord?

Anterior horn of the grey matter (Rexed's Lamina IX)

When BMP4 is inhibited what forms?

Anterior neuroectoderm forms (the brain)

Minocycline

Antibiotic, helps but trials say its shit

Microglial Cells may present _____ to other _____ cells

Antigen (APCs) to other immune cells

Latrepirdine

Antihistamine, free radical scavenger effect

Coenzyme Q/Q10

Antioxidants, but need to consume a lot to have effect

Perinatal Brain Injury

Any injury that occurs near birth

In a visual field defect, the lesion may be where?

Anywhere along the optic pathway; retina to occipital cortex https://o.quizlet.com/kjB-9Ujel-tlCgmdzF8PdA_m.jpg

Which side of the endothelial cells face the blood - apical or basolateral?

Apical

In some situations, the degree of ischaemia is not severe enough to cause necrosis of neurons, but may trigger

Apoptosis

In the latent phase, what is happening regarding apoptotic pathways?

Apoptotic pathways take some time to manifest, so intermediates involved in these pathways increase during this latent phase, which is why we observe damage in the secondary phase (because the apoptotic pathways are finally active)

What do you do to caged calcium in the postsynaptic cell to release it? What happens next?

Apply a flash of light - will trigger LTP https://o.quizlet.com/R68zGlNAo4EaxTHGJX8Tfw_m.png

Are regulating directionally selective ganglion cells in response to centrifugal movement???

Are regulating directionally selective ganglion cells in response to centrifugal movement???

Common: Dermatomes

Area innervated by single dorsal root (diverging perspective) Sum of the receptive fields of the primary afferents (converging perspective)

What is the role of Pairing?

Artificially depolarising the postsynaptic cell while the presynaptic cell is releasing glutamate

How is HD fatal? (Term and def.)

Aspiration Pneumonia - loss of control of swallowing muscle

Audiometry (2)

Assessment of hearing threshold, objective and subjective methods

ICH Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy (CAA)

Associated with Alzheimers, Aß deposit in vessel walls

Inducing LTP with both stimulation of the presynaptic cell AND depolarisation of the postsynaptic cell (NMDA Receptor) is called? (Not pairing)

Associativity or Co-operativity

When do babies get brain injury? Historically?

Assumed to be during or shortly after birth

What happens to someone with neuroinflammation?

Astrocytes are activated

What happens if you co-culture astrocytes and neuronal cells in hypoxic/ischemic/low glucose conditions?

Astrocytes can live in this condition for quite some time but neurons die

What else surround the blood vessels?

Astrocytic *end feet* (the terminal regions of astrocytic processes) surround the outside of capillary endothelial cells

Cardinal Clinical Features are often _____ at onset

Asymmetric (one hand tremor, poor arm swing on one side)

Type I: Excitatory Synapses are also called

Asymmetric - Postsynaptic density is very dense

Progression of AD

Asymptomatic -> MCI -> Dementia

How is NMDA receptor voltage gated?

At *resting membrane potential*, it has bound to it Mg2+ that keeps it in the inactive state. So binding of glutamate alone will not activate it.

How fast do the neurons proliferate?

At Week 3 few hundred cells become 320 billion at Week 12

Mechanically remove thrombus

At highly specialised centers - Groin Puncture within 6 hours of stroke

There are how many different representations of the visual world embodied at a separate sublayer of the inner plexiform layer?

At least a dozen

Where do the leukocytes traveling along the endothelium attach and form adhesions?

At the density of adhesion molecules

Information Processing

At the level of the retina and the brain

The rods and cones are situated where in the retina?

At the most posterior part (behind all the retinal layers) https://o.quizlet.com/omc0T1ral4b14ptNOFgl2g_m.png

Sources of emboli in the heart (4)

Atrial fibrillation Heart valve diseases Myocardial infarct Endocarditis (heart valve infection)

Macroscopic Pathology of HD?

Atrophy/cell death of Brain Structures https://o.quizlet.com/yS2xRES5kYF6gHo-73ZhRw_m.png

What allows you to convert Immediate/Sensory memory into Short-term/Working Memory?

Attention (focus on stimulus from information coming from all directions)

What do chemokines do?

Attract other immune cells to site of damage

Name for sound cortex?

Auditory Cortex

First wave represents the activity of the

Auditory Nerve

MS is an _____ disease

Autoimmune

Genetic CS6

Autosomal recessive form of PD, young onset, mutations on CS6 gene for parkin protein, homologus with ubiquitin

So, what is the trigger for LTP?

Available calcium

Declarative Memory

Available to consciousness and can be expressed by language (i.e. can be declared)

Conscious Proprioception

Awareness of body position Control of voluntary movements

Somites are precursors of the

Axial musculature and skeleton

Which synapse is formed between axons?

Axo-axonic Synapses

What is a Classic Synapse?

Axo-dendritic Synapses

Which synapse is often Inhibitory?

Axo-somatic Synapses

Synaptogenesis takes place as

Axons and denrites grow

Primary Somatosensory Cortex (S1) is the major receiver of

Axons from thalamus https://o.quizlet.com/k3YfVd-ixa8KFOZV6rbDTg_m.jpg

Flexion (withdrawal) Reflex Efferent

Axons of αMNs

Reverse (Inverse) Myotatic Reflex Efferents

Axons of αMNs

What is the microscopic pathology?

Aß Plaques and Neurofibrillary Tangles (Tau)

Passive Immunotherapy

Aß antibody direct injection. Made in mice then humanised

Active Immunotherapy

Aß vaccination - body produces its own antibodies

TRPM8 (Cold) are carried by

Aδ (III) Fibres

Which (2) fibers carry pain sensation?

Aδ (III) Fibres C (IV) Fibres

What are (2) Aδ types?

Aδ Mechano-sensitive Nocioreceptors Aδ Mechano-thermal Nocioreceptors

Risk factors for Ischemic Strokes and TIAs

BP, smoking, cholesterol, exercise, diabetes

Which factors affect our recognition of an image in our visual field? (4)

Background Illumination Spatial Frequency Wavelength Dark Adaptation

Ethical limitations of Germline Gene Therapy?

Banned in many countries - we are modifying human DNA - what is the limit? Make super babies? What is the perfect human?

What cell type is found in the olfactory epithelium? What do they do?

Basal Cells - constant turnover of olfactory sensory neurons

What cells are found at the base of taste buds?

Basal cells https://o.quizlet.com/GPfTS0R93bBZ8NAnmsGpNg_m.jpg

Procedural memory associated with which CNS structure?

Basal ganglia

Olfaction and gustation are known to be the most _____ senses

Base Senses

How is the basilar membrane tonotopically mapped (structurally)?

Base is narrow, stiff and thick -> widens as you go towards the apex (5x wider, floppy and thin) https://o.quizlet.com/4V8eIbnIOd6s93qib0Omgg_m.jpg

Diagnosis and confirmation of AD?

Based on dementia rating, but confirmation only post mortem

Synapses are the ______ _____ _____ of the brain

Basic processing units

The scala media and scala tympani are separated by?

Basilar Membrane

What is the most important structure for frequency encoding in the cochlea?

Basilar Membrane

What are (2) other names for the Crus Cerebri

Basis Pedunculi or Cerebral Peduncle

Why is the cholinergic system a target?

Because ACh deficit in AD underlies AD symptoms (i.e. behaviour and cognition impairment)

Why does LTP induction require both presynaptic transmitter release and postsynaptic depolarisation?

Because the induction of LTP is dependent on calcium influx (and Ca influx is via NMDA receptors)

Why are Interneurons inhibitory?

Because they release inhibitory neurotransmitters

Why is a loss of astrocytic neuronal support bad?

Because they serve a protective/support role in the brain for neurons

Why do we need to treat the assumption of LTP = memory with caution?

Because we don't yet have specific experiments that can directly show that LTP occurs during learning and memory

Why does myelination occur so late in development?

Because you have some *postnatal manipulation* of the nervous system, so early myelination would hinder this

Dendritic Growth begins _____ and continues _____

Begins prenatally and continues postnatally

What happens to the neural plate?

Begins to fold at the midline, forming the *neural groove* and *neural crests*. https://o.quizlet.com/MCGW.vnH1l0LiZqIvD3gOQ_m.png

Once induced, how do we examine that our model animal is depressed?

Behaviour Testing

Emotional Problems include

Behaviour and Cognitive Changes

Secondary Visual Cortex

Behind the Primary Visual Cortex, interprets the information from the Primary Visual Cortex - data is analysed.

Intrafusal Fibres parts (2)

Belly and Non-belly sections

What are the benefits and downsides of a whole cell recording?

Benefit: We get precise information Downside: We don't know what is happening to the neuron's buddies (in the vicinity)

Common: Decussation. Why?

Better separation of tracts - more robust than same side wiring

Projection Fibres (1 example)

Between brain and spinal cord/muscle, *Internal Capsule*

Reciprocal Inhibition

Between flexors and antagonist, when one is flexed due to reflex, the other is relaxed

Commissural Fibres (3 examples)

Between two hemispheres, *Corpus Callosum*, Anterior and Posterior Commissure

What were the treatment groups in this experiment?

Big friendly group SI/ ALLO SI/Fluoxetine (Prozac) (known to work) SI/placebo (sugar pill)

HM had what kind of lobotomy?

Bilateral (Both sides) Medial Temporal Lobe Resection

Dopamine agonists

Bind dopamine receptors

(B) G-Protein Coupled Receptors - modulatory

Binding of neurotransmitter causes *conformation *change in channel -> pathway involving intracellular messengers which open up ion channel in close vicinity https://o.quizlet.com/YTMAorZ3rWvXqwl.6rm2RA_m.png

(A) Transmitter/Ligand Gated Ion Channels - Rapid

Binding of neurotransmitter causes conformation change in channel, allowing the influx of ions https://o.quizlet.com/17znSNUwtgiIiFLr8gYZmw_m.png

Photoreceptors synapse directly onto

Bipolar Cells

Preterm

Birth before 37 weeks of gestation

What are overlapping regions of taste specificity on the tongue?

Bitter (Back) Sour (sides Sweet/Umami (meaty) (front and sides) Salty (edges around the tongue) https://o.quizlet.com/xcKFpMNoL2W7dAj5U0vl4w_m.png

Stage Theory: What is the *third* group of neurons in the neural stage?

Black and White, input from RGB but do not report to colour but *intensity/brightness*

Subarachnoid Haemorrhage (SAH)

Bleeding between arachnoid matter and pia matter Higher in women

How can we reduce hearing loss by at least 50% with regards to glutamate excitotoxicity?

Blocking glutamate receptors prior to noise exposure

What happens if you apply NMDA receptor blockers during LTD induction?

Blocks LTD (APV is the blocker of NMDA) https://o.quizlet.com/pvm0eNKxdV9CxPTeHSQshg_m.png

Intracerebral Haemorrhage (ICH)

Blood leaking into brain Asians

What are the (3) types of cones?

Blue, Green and Red responsive https://o.quizlet.com/510UXW5RAXyy1e4nMmkLXA_m.jpg

Stage Theory: What is the *first* group of neurons in the neural stage?

Blue-Yellow processing B Cones GR Cones (yellow) inhibit the B Cones

Accessory olfactory systems are important for bonding which (2) entities?

Bonding mother and baby

BMP

Bone Morphogenetic Protein

Thalamus recevies information from

Both Discriminative and Non-Descriminative Pathways

Auditory nuclei in the brainstem (Superior Olivary Complex) receive input from

Both ears (Binaural Hearing - for sound localisation)

Seeing motion is an activity of the

Brain

BDNF

Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor https://o.quizlet.com/N7PsY.b8bVvbZnbQDAMtvg_m.jpg

Ectoderm forms (2)

Brain and Skin

Where are Microglial Cells found?

Brain and spinal cord

AD macroscopic pathology? (specific)

Brain atrophy Widening of sulci Thinning of cortex Ventriculomegaly https://o.quizlet.com/RNLs5wBHXtObBedUf-H7bw_m.png

Where else is taste specificity mapped?

Brain https://o.quizlet.com/XcHpJDp1a5nthF5LkW2ZTw_m.png

Receptive field of touch receptors: What happens if you get a pin and prick yourself of the back of your hand?

Brain will see that this neuron is getting activated mostly, so that is the precise location of the stimulus https://o.quizlet.com/75zSFQpI0-JKXcCq7KDerg_m.png

The most commonly used technique in humans (objective method) is recording of the

Brainstem Auditory Evoked Potentials (BAEPs)

What happens if we hear a loud sound?

Brainstem will tell the OHCs to reduce the amplification of the sound for the IHCs

Remaining dendritic branches continue to

Branch and lengthen

What do Free Radicals do? (3)

Break down lipid/protein molecules (lipid bilayer), damage DNA, and trigger apoptosis https://o.quizlet.com/ysFoybVZUVmSduN.jXMAnQ_m.jpg

Rhythmic Motor Patterns include? (3)

Breathing, locomotion, chewing

Tetanic Stimualtion

Brief bursts of high frequency stimulation (100 Hz) to presynaptic axons for 1 minute

Why termed diffuse (white matter injury)?

Broad regions of cell death/white matter atrophy

How can we cause LTP in the contralateral hippocampus? What is this known as?

By applying similar repetitive stimulation to that side - Specificity

How was GDNF initially administered?

By infusion

How do we define a change in synaptic strength?

By measuring the size (amplitude) of the postsynaptic AMPA receptor *current* (AMPAR EPSC) https://o.quizlet.com/QA0hZruoi2s.bCltriyYYQ_m.png

How does the stapes transmit vibrations onto the cochlea?

By moving the cochlear fluids, which will end up in the frequency specific regions of the cochlea

How do we measure an increase in synapse strength?

By observing the increase in the amplitude of the postsynaptic response

What happens to the afferent axons from the *Dorsal* Cochlear Nucleus?

Bypass the Superior Olivary Complex and merge with the lateral lemniscus at the level of the inferior colliculus

TRPV3/4 (Warm) are carreid by

C (IV) Fibres

Schaffer Collaterals

CA3 Pyramidal Cell Neurons -> CA1 Pyramidal Neurons

This means LTP requires

CAMKII *phosphorylation* of AMPA receptor vesicles!!!!

The insertion of AMPA receptor subunits into synaptic spines depends on?

CAMKII phosphorylation of AMPA receptor vesicles

Is CB1 or CB2 bigger?

CB1 https://o.quizlet.com/MBAO1mu7SaujvDvGfJG8Wg_m.png

What is the most abundantly expressed receptor in brain?

CB1R

What did we see in rodent models with regards to CB2 receptor activation?

CB2 receptor activation reduced the level of *neuroinflammation* and the amount of *leukocyte migration* into those brains (pre-clinical studies)

ICAM →

CD11a, CD11b, CD11c

E Selectin (CD62e) →

CD15s CD162

P Selectin (CD62p) →

CD24 CD162

VCAM →

CD49d/CD29 (VLA4)

Neural tube becomes

CNS https://o.quizlet.com/1RW.AQf4cuprezjhkvwBYA_m.png

CB1 Receptor

CNS neurotransmission - highly expressed in mammalian CNS

Impaired waste removal

CO2 accumulation → Respiratory Acidosis

What takes up the space in Ventriculomegaly?

CSF

Diagnostic tools used?

CT, MRI, PET, CSF, Blood

How to distinguish ICH from stroke?

CT/MRI scan

Which (2) drugs get passed the BBB?

Caffeine and Alcohol

The neurons that move up the Radial Glial Fibers get to the marginal zone and come into contact with what cells?

Cajal Retzius Cells

Which *proteins* are important for the formation of the Cortex? (3)

Calbindin, Neuropeptide Y an Parvalbumin

CaMKII

Calcium calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II

Like LTP, what does LTD depend on?

Calcium influx through NMDA receptors

Intra-nerve damage

Can be damage of fibres within 1 nerve

How is MPTP useful?

Can be used to make disease models (i.e. mice with PD)

Pluripotent

Can generate any body cell type (from embryo/fetus)

How is NIRS (Near Infrared Spectroscopy) used?

Can measure the cerebral *oxidative state* of *CytC Oxidase* and thus the rate of OM

Gene Promoters

Can use cell specific promoters to stimulate transcription of genes in specific cells (e.g. only in neurons)

Agraphesthesia

Can't recognise specific cutaneous sensation (e.g. will recognise someone drawing on their arm, but not what they drew)

Common techniques used to monitor the different phases of injury?

Cardiorespiratory function, BP, HR, blood oxygenation etc

What did these repetitive trains of stimuli do to the Dentate Gyrus Cells at the other end? (i.e. how did we record it the change)

Caused an increase in the amplitude of the *population* synaptic response (Field potential recording) - The cells began to take in more ions

Good animal models for depression must have symptoms...

Caused by the same conditions that trigger human depression (i.e. stress)

How is loss of motivation manifested in the Forced Swim Test?

Cbf'd swimming anymore to get out of the water

Cellular Homeostasis

Cell ability to maintain normal function in variable conditions

Grey matter is made of (2)

Cell bodies and Nuclei

𝛾 Motor Neurons cell bodies location?

Cell bodies same location as alpha (ventral horn) https://o.quizlet.com/1-qhBOQuDCV564mtz.OiSw_m.jpg

Uncontrolled Seizures and Abnormal brain activity leads to (3)

Cell can swell/lyse (↑internal osmolarity) Excitotoxicity Oxidative stress

What is Reelin Deficiency pathophysiology?

Cells can migrate but don't get a hop off cue. *Radial fibres retract* and the stem cells are dispersed all over the place

Why is blocking the removal of PSA bad?

Cells can't make connections so it dies!

After implanting the false memory, what could we observe with the c-fos?

Cells in amygdala recruited (emotion) -> false memory as strong as a natural memory

Embryonic Stem Cells refer to

Cells that can form only the baby

In MS, the immune system attacks what through which mechanism?

Cells with myelin - Auto antibodies to the myelin

Core Ischemic Zone

Central - Most severe ischemia → irreversible necrosis

Non-Declarative: Long Term located

Cerebellum, basal ganglia premotor cortex, other motor sites

Only medical intervention Start early after insult for maximum effect Safe for term babies (not preterm)

Cerebral Cooling

How can we protect the brain from apoptotic pathways and their manifestation in the secondary phase?

Cerebral Cooling in the latent phase to slow down the increase in apoptotic intermediates

What is relatively unaffected in Preterm Perinatal Brain Injury?

Cerebral Cortex/Grey Matter

Long Term Memory Storage is distributed through

Cerebral cortex

The forebrain is made up of (3)

Cerebral hemispheres, thalamus, and hypothalamus

Brain Structures Include (5)

Cerebrum Caudate nucleus + putamen (striatum) Globus pallidus (i+e) Subthalamic nucleus Substantia nigra (midbrain)

Demntia symptoms

Changes in personality, mood, and behaviour

Synaptic Plasticity is the (3) of synpatic connections

Changes, growth and reordering

ChR2

Channel Rhodopsin From algae - Channel opens when stimulated with blue light → Na+ influx → AP elicited → cell activated https://o.quizlet.com/pgpq1UO9Avm.VNoHG84GYQ_m.jpg

What are Gate Keeping Moments in Nervous System Development?

Checkpoints, that if are not passed, spontaneous abortion takes place

The electromagnetic signal (light) is converted into

Chemical and Electrical signals

Transduction mechanism of *bitter, sweet and umami* (Type 2 Cells)

Chemical binds G Protein Receptor -> Activates *Phospholipase C -> Converts IP2 to IP3* -> Na channels open, depolarisation -> Voltage-gated calcium channels (*internal* calcium stores) release calcium -> Release neurotransmitter *ATP* (glutamate? serotonin may act as modulator) https://o.quizlet.com/pcNDOrqJD5H2UXa7S-DGTg_m.png

Which sense is the oldest and most common sensory system?

Chemical senses - even brainless bacteria can detect and react to chemicals in the environment (chemotaxis)

Taste and Smell

Chemicals that are in the environment are dissolved into the nose (mucous) or tongue/roof of mouth, pharynx (saliva), these interact with the receptors https://o.quizlet.com/eA34pRJOGaY9q5MYhlGdRQ_m.png

What is a particular cytokine subclass they secrete?

Chemokine

(2) Examples of 2nd messenger systems?

Chemoreceptors in olfactory epithelium Photoreceptors in retina

How can we record field potentials in awake, behaving animals?

Chronically implant electrodes into hippocampi https://o.quizlet.com/R5wiwlmuKsBdNP0llcHstg_m.png

What reduces the risk of developing Parkinson's disease by 50%?

Cigarette smoking

Sensory System Attribute: Modality (type)

Class of stimulus (sight or sound or etc...)

AMPA receptors co-localise with

Clathrin-coated pits (immunocytochemistry)

By which mechanism are AMPA receptors removed from the synaptic membrane?

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis

Which specific transmembrane proteins contribute to tight junctions?

Claudins 3 and 5

Treatment of aneurysms? (2)

Clip around neck Occluding with coils or baloon

Taste Buds

Clusters of *bulbous nerve endings* on the tongue and in the lining of the mouth which provide the sense of taste

α & 𝛾 motor neurons are always

Co-Activated, with 𝛾 first

Sensory Transduction: Stage 3 (Name of what the OHCs do?)

Cochlear Amplification - characterised by the contraction of the outer hair cells

Hearing loss from noise, aminoglycoside antibiotics, ototoxic anticancer drugs and aging all contribute to

Cochlear Oxidative Stress

The M Cells are not sensitive to

Colour

P Cells are (colour)?

Colour Sensitive

Iris

Coloured part of the eye behind the cornea, adjustable circular opening https://o.quizlet.com/i/ZsbhD7Npw6SrKYwDPHqCyA_m.jpg

What do we need to do in future studies?

Combine both the cellular and behavioural levels

Common Features of the Somatosensory System begin here

Common Features of the Somatosensory System

αMNs serve as the Final

Common Path

What happens if you add protein phosphatase inhibitors into your in vitro experiment?

Completely blocks LTD

The main role of the Auditory Cortex is to analyse

Complex Sounds

Late Complications of Parkinson's Disease (5)

Confusion, hallucinations (due to drugs) Dementia Emotional disturbances (anxiety, depression) Postural hypotension Motor Fluctuations

What are (2) classes of Proprioception?

Conscious and Unconscious

Detection of the internal and external environment leads to

Conscious awareness of environment and environmental events

Immediate/working memory enters long-term via (i.e. how do you learn)

Conscious or unconscious rehearsal

Stage Theory: Receptor Stage

Consists of the three photopigments (blue, green and red cones) - Trichromactic

Memory Storage is known as

Consolidation

Sensory loss would be loss of

Contact with environment

Sensory systems allow us to maintain

Contact with the environment

Synaptic vesicles

Contain the chemical neurotransmitter

Intrafusal Fibre Non-belly sections contain

Contractile Elements

Intrafusal fibres have what kind of elements?

Contractile Elements, actin and myosin, in the non-belly part

Damage to cortex leads to loss of sensation on which side?

Contralateral

What is used as a control?

Contralateral hippocampus (taking advantage of specificity)

Factors: Background Illumination

Contrast of object against background

Final Common Path

Converging excitatory and inhibitory synaptic inputs from other areas of the CNS/PNS → α MNs (to regulate movement) https://o.quizlet.com/mfvhU-6LI6ePDu61l-HV.g_m.jpg

What do chemical signals do?

Convert electrical signals to chemical signals to allow communication between neurons

What does the postsynaptic cell do to the chemical signal?

Converts the chemical signal back into an electrical signal in the postsynaptic cell

Somatosensory System

Conveys information about state of body proper and immediate environment https://o.quizlet.com/-ne2WKQCznqjrPMJrWRhRw_m.jpg

Subjective Methods

Cooperation of individual being tested, relies on subject's perception and response to sound

Cerebellum for

Coordination, precision + accurate timing

Posterior Cord Syndrome and Anterior Cord Syndrome can be due to damage to (2)

Cord or spinal artery

Two zones distal to artery occlusion

Core Ischemic Zone and Ischaemic penumbra

What are (3) other names for the Tectum?

Corpora Quadrigemina, Superior/Inferior Colliculus or Roof Plate

What is lateral to the Extreme Capsule? (2)

Cortical Grey Matter of the insular cortex and the temporal Operculum

We see movement due to

Cortical integration of information coming from the eyes

Sources: Descending Tracts

Corticospinal, Reticulospinal and Vestibulospinal

Find Engram: Step 1 - Create?

Create a memory (beep and shock) https://o.quizlet.com/Ip0t4npKJVj6mt6UsW74Pg_m.jpg

Which plate is below the olfactory bulb?

Cribriform Plate

Braille: What is the 'visual cortex used for somatosensory input' phenomenon termed?

Cross Modal Plasticity

Activation of Extension Motor Neurons (midline) in the contralateral limb to maintain stability is called...

Crossed Extension Reflex https://o.quizlet.com/1NtpKyjVaVqciYw72GKQog_m.jpg

Anterior Cord Syndrome

Crude touch, pressure, pain lost Proprioception/discriminative touch remains Possible loss of motor https://o.quizlet.com/QNNUG7UbEHT5VV8QHhs4oQ_m.jpg

Whole cell recordings measure

Current flow into *a* neuron

Difficulties: Measurement of synaptic changes in multiple pathways in behaving animals is

Currently beyond our methodological abilities

Karl Lashley's Experiment (1920's)

Cut away bits of the brain (incrementally increasing) → larger lesion = worse performance https://o.quizlet.com/FpIRkyEhkL.1MfSmeRbvvw_m.jpg

If dendrites or axons do not make appropriate connections, they are

Cut off

Brodmann Areas 1, 3b

Cutaneous

Brodmann Area 2

Cutaneous and Proprioceptive

Stereocilia

Cylindrical protrusions

Astrocytes can produce and respond to

Cytokines/Chemokines

The above DSGCs are different from

DSGCs that detect stimuli moving in the opposite direction

AMPA receptor-mediated Excitatory Postsynaptic Current (EPSC)

Dafaq? https://o.quizlet.com/wx9tKH3CwNKoih4pmBEmQQ_m.png

Somatosensory Agnosia

Damage in areas that connect visual and somatosensory → cant identify object without visual input

Inflammation can result in more

Damage than repair of the tissue

Stroke

Damage to brain or spinal cord caused by abnormality of blood supply

Multiple Sclerosis

Damage to the sheaths of nerve cells

Chorea

Dance like, involuntary movement in wake state

Pupil

Dark circular opening in the center of the iris (varies in size to regulate light in) https://o.quizlet.com/i/QIf88RI1e8ldqFRla_hoiQ_m.jpg

What type of memory does synapse plasticity underlie?

Declarative (explicit) memory (names and facts)

Modes of memory (2)

Declarative and Non-Declarative

RB had loss of what kinds of memories?

Declarative, episodic memories

Why is phosphorylation of proteins beneficial?

Decreases further need for calcium influx

How does induction of long-term depression (LTD) affect the amplitude of AMPA EPSC?

Decreases them in size - makes them less negative https://o.quizlet.com/eOoEVlTgNCSoL3fmqBQYDQ_m.png

Inhibition Therapy can be compared to

Deep Brain Stimulation, which also attempt to reset the overexcitabilty imbalance

Surgical treatments (4)

Deep brain stimulation Stereotactic thalamotomy Stereotactic pallidotomy Transplantation of dopamine-producing tissue (e.g. fetal tissue)

Parkinson's Disease

Degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the striatum → ↓release of dopamine (DA) in striatum → imbalance of DA/ACh → ↑excitability → tremors etc.

Perirhinal Cortex Lesions test

Delayed Matching and Non-Matching to Sample (DMS and DNMS) https://o.quizlet.com/I3TW4op..eOkfD7f5TjbUw_m.jpg

AD symptoms

Dementia, memory loss, plaques and tangels

Excitatory synapses are found on

Dendritic Spines, can support one or several synapses https://o.quizlet.com/-wT5TQeY95ICtNR7YnqGPQ_m.png

Mossy Fibres

Dentate Gyrus Neurons -> CA3 Pyramidal Cell Neurons

Sensory Transduction: Stage 4

Depolarisation of the IHCs

Sensory Transduction: Stage 2

Depolarisation of the OHCs - opening of the transduction channels due to movement of stereocilia

What happens when an AP invades the *presynaptic* terminal?

Depolarisation of the presynaptic membrane https://o.quizlet.com/tSvw7UGT6LQCLRc-18aEGw_m.png

Inner Hair Cells IHC (function and shape)

Depolarisation of these cells will transfer sound information to the brain, *oval* shaped https://o.quizlet.com/7wFHDrRyQs60f0qk33o6Hw_m.png

Fovea

Depression in retina - centre of visual field https://o.quizlet.com/i/SoBarXgX2NX5jdpeo-90lw_m.jpg

Neuromuscular Spindle do what?

Detect rate and size of changes in length of muscle https://o.quizlet.com/-KyNQ6RPN7NJG8c20Kmyug_m.jpg

Factors: Wavelength

Detection by photoreceptors (colours)

Sensation

Detection of physical stimulus

How does the cochlea in the ear work?

Detects sound in space (3D) -> Coiled cochlea has a line of cells, and each cell responds to a different frequency. If the frequency appears in that sound, it will stimulate the specific band of cells, and they will convey that information

Huntingtin (Htt) is mostly important for?

Development

(3) ways to diagnose and locate ruptured aneurysm?

Diagnose with CT Lumbar puncture - CSF blood staining Cerebral Angiography to locate

Different types of afferent fibers decrease in which (3) aspects from I → IV?

Diameter Myelination Conduction Velocity

Muscle Spindles are not present where? (2)

Diaphragm/facial muscles

Colour blindness is also known as

Dichromacy

Growth Cones seek out

Different *gradients* of *growth factors* (chemical and electrical gradietns) that will attract them, so groups of cells will find their home in a particular area of the brain

How are Astrocytes different?

Different Origin

Where are motor nuclei in the brainstem? Connect to muscles through?

Different parts of the brain stem which connect to muscles through cranial nerves

What are the other 4 waves?

Different processing centers in the brainstem to the inferior colliculus

Abnormal postural reflexes (4)

Difficulty rising from chair or rolling over in bed Stooped posture Several steps to turn Falling

Individual Unitary Potentials

Direct recording, from a single cell or nerve fibre (single unit potential) - Technique not used in humans https://o.quizlet.com/EuVnxMh23ltprm.5btC8Yg_m.jpg

DS Ganglion Cells are

Direction-Selective Ganglion Cells

Dorsal Column/Medial Lemniscus Tract - Type of sensation

Discriminative Pathway Fine Touch and Pressure, Proprioception

What can cause the aneurysms that cause SAH? (5)

Disease of CT Genetic Smoking High BP High Alcohol

2 Point Discrimination of Receptive Field? (Describe, example, analogy)

Distinguish between 2 adjacent points Small for fingers, large for belly Like resolution https://o.quizlet.com/qok4S8AilEh4hlUANxZqGg_m.jpg

Memantine has side effects yeah?

Dizziness, headache, confusion etc.

What is special about the Mesencephalon?

Does not develop into further structures (besides the formation of colliculi). This explains why we have big cerebral hemispheres and hind brain, but small midbrain.

*Hue*

Dominant wavelength

What are some Cholinesterase inhibitors?

Donepezil or Rivastigmine

Loss of these neurons results in loss of what to where?

Dopamine to the straitum

DARP32 an Meis2 tell the cells to become responsive to (3) and produce a lot of (1)

Dopamine, Glutamate and GABA and produce a lot of GABA

Which cells (located where) die in particular?

Dopaminergic Neurons in Substantia Nigra

What are the (2) somatosensory pathways?

Dorsal Column/Medial Lemniscus Tract Anterior/Lateral Spinothalamic Tract

In the Myotatic Reflex, a branch of the Ia Afferent goes to

Dorsal Spinocerebellar Tract Cells (so brain is also notified)

What are the (2) pathways that receive somewhat integrated information from the eyes?

Dorsal and Ventral Pathways/Streams

ON/OFF DSGCs can be divided into 4 types, differing in which (4) directional preferences?

Dorsal, ventral, nasal or temporal

The Dorsal and Ventral horns contain

Dorsal: Sensory Nuclei Ventral: Motor Nuclei

Dementia is reversible when the disease is due to?

Drugs or hormonal

Teratogens

Drugs, alcohol, smoking, carbon monoxide

2 processes for localizing sound in the horizontal plane: (1) Interaural Time Delay (20-2,000Hz) (2) Interaural Intensity Difference (2,000-20,000Hz) What is this theory called?

Duplex Theory

Short-term/Working Memory is limited in (2)

Duration and Capacity

Behaviour Animal Model

E.g. socially isolate animals to model depresseion

Neurons that respond to Interaural Intensity Difference (High Frequency Sound)

EE is both ears and EI is contralateral ear only https://o.quizlet.com/gYHlFEq.p7wTHH4b66u6qQ_m.jpg

Not so common techniques used to monitor the different phases of injury? (take too long)

EEG MRI NIRS (Brain oxygenation) Doppler (Blood flow)

What can we use to chelate (bind up) intracellular calcium ?

EGTA - Inhibits LTP

What happens to the vibrations that travel through the basilar membrane?

Each wave reaches its maximal amplitude at the position appropriate for the frequency of stimulation, *then* rapidly declines in size as it advances toward the cochlear apex https://o.quizlet.com/hnnBUqWUqV66URSIFXiY0g_m.jpg

Phases of LTP (3)

Early, Intermediate and Late https://o.quizlet.com/ZNN8enRlv3SRFw.t1Dlh3g_m.jpg

What is the phagocytic role of Microglial Cells?

Eating cells or cellular debris where other cells have died, cell turnover

Brain and skin are made of which germ layer?

Ectoderm

Formation of the notochord?

Ectoderm surface indentation called the *Primitive Pit* leads the formation of the lagging *Primitive Streak*, which is a migratory structure. https://o.quizlet.com/fenggXq.rpD8O634kxyUEg_m.png

BMP4 alone induces which germ layer to become what?

Ectoderm to become *Epidermal Cells*, (instead of forming brain, it forms skin)

What are the (3) germ layers?

Ectoderm, Mesoderm and Endoderm

Crystalline Lens

Elastic structure behind iris, focuses light to retina by changing shape https://o.quizlet.com/R3wZFnfRryjOXjniPz7cxw_m.jpg

Objective Methods: Auditory Potentials

Electrical activity of neural pathways, coding for sound

Synapses transform what information to and from each other?

Electrical and chemical

How are BAEPs recorded?

Electrodes placed on the skull of the patient and sounds are played to the ear (electrical activity is recorded)

What is the term given to recording these potentials?

Electrophysiology

Why must synapses be able to increase (LTP) and decrease (LTD) their strength? (3)

Enables a dynamic range of synapse function Prevents saturation of synaptic responses Prevents loss of plasticity

Motion *is* encoded where?

Encoded after just a few synapses

What allows you to convert Short-term/Working Memory into Long-term Memory?

Encoding

Memory

Encoding, storage, retrieval of learned information

Surgical procedure removing the thrombus is called

Endarterectomy

The *sensory transduction* process is based on which special potential?

Endocochlear Potential of +80mV https://o.quizlet.com/V9GDHV-i8nAHrgOBX4VZcQ_m.jpg

[2] Induction

Endogenous (inducing) *Signalling Molecules* secreted by distinct embryonic cell classes or tissues (such as the primitive pit and notochord) which results in *spatial and temporal* gene expression in *adjacent* cells or tissue.

Leukocytes will always make contact with the which cells first?

Endothelial Cells

Color is created by utilizing which (2) properties of light?

Energy/intensity and frequency of vibration/wavelength

What are cell culture models?

Engineered or cancer cell lines that have gene knockouts/ins

First Pathway: GABA co-transmits with what and the pathway has which receptors? (all of which is lost in HD)

Enkephalin Cannabinoid and *Dopamine Receptors*

Braille: Training leads to

Enlargement of reading finger cortical representation. Takes days/week.

Increased exposure to an _____ environment during childhood leads to what?

Enriched environment, it becomes more likely that more neurons will retain these synapses after pruning occurs

What are phosphatases?

Enzymes that remove phosphate groups from proteins

Examples of disorders of movement (5)

Epilepsy, Polio, Parkinson's, Huntington's, MS

Types of Declarative Memory (2)

Episodic and Semantic

How can Germline Gene Therapy be used?

Eradication of genetic disease before baby is born

The middle ear is a cavity that communicates with the pharynx through the

Eustachian Tube (permits equalization of pressure on each side of the eardrum)

Left and Right fields are

Everything you can see on the left - left field Everything you can see on the right - right field

Do humans have a VNO?

Evidence of small, VNO like structure in adultnasal floor, not sure if functional

Chemical senses elicit what responses in humans?

Evoke very strong emotional responses

Flexion (withdrawal) Reflex

Evokes fast withdrawal of limb from a nociceptive stimulus https://o.quizlet.com/f0-ho-bh2yuy6SU82Zk0NA_m.jpg

Once we have a confirmed depressed animal model, what can we do (before giving them drugs)?

Examine pathophysiology of depression at cellular/moleuclar level

Glutamate excitotoxicity

Excessive release of glutamate -> Death of postsynaptic neurons

New neurons that form at the olfactory bulb are very _____. This means

Excitable, Will readily convert short term memory to storage of memory (long term)

Neurons at the developing age are super _____. This means

Excitable, they learn better when they are excitable (very high in teenage years)

The moving of the Organ of Corti will cause

Excitation and Inhibition of the Hair Cells, producing a receptor potential https://o.quizlet.com/R7sEkGJziFhjP2Az.vXFRw_m.png

Modality: Receptor Potential

Excitation leads to electrical response

Because microseizures are EEG *spikes*, we assume them to be

Excitatory Events

Ventriculomegaly

Expansion of the ventricles as a result of holes and diffuse white matter lesions

Why don't we have disease modifying drugs?

Expensive ($1bil) and time consuming (10 years from preclinical research → Approved drug)

Olfactory organ organised into Zones which express

Express *a particular subset of receptor genes* https://o.quizlet.com/e.1Q47xEua1RtKZXfKn3vQ_m.jpg

Aß42 forms what where?

Extracellular plaques

Muscle Spindles are in parallel with

Extrafusal Fibers

αMNs innervate

Extrafusal Muscle Fibres https://o.quizlet.com/caoarFRemNyXFf1vGVe9aQ_m.jpg

Conditioning: Motor skills

Eye blink conditioning (cerebellum) Sound and air shot at your eyes causing a blink Eventually, beep causes blink https://o.quizlet.com/Wk6z5DfjDE6xpl0aFcoo5g_m.jpg

Vision requires which (3) basic parts?

Eyes Optic connection to the brain Brain https://o.quizlet.com/gKf0zVcO.WY0aevE426oEA_m.jpg

Most common example of False Memory?

Eyewitness misidentification → leading cause of wrongful conviction

Gastrocnemius has mainly what fibers?

FF Type

When BMP4 is present alongside _____, what forms?

FGF (Fibroblast Growth Factor), posterior neuroectoderm forms (spinal cord)

Examples of Neurotrophic Factors (2)

FGF, BDNF (Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor)

Delivering high frequency stimulation will

Facilitate excitability - LTP *like*

Patterned theta burst stimulation: Intermittent

Facilitates excitability (LTP-like) https://o.quizlet.com/J1VaHeQWEUYFSZ2x9G8dnA_m.png

Dementia

Failure of recent memory and intellectual abilities

Size of DSGC receptive fields and sensitive to which type of changes?

Fairly large, sensitive to small changes

What is (1) colour vision test?

Farnsworth Panel D-15 https://o.quizlet.com/wAHEUg-cpnEcYqubj5UrAg_m.jpg

Aδ (III) Fibers (speed and to where?)

Fast Pain to PSC (Discriminative)

Large Ganglion Cells process

Fast, transient impulse trains

What is another taste that may have its own specificity?

Fat https://farm6.staticflickr.com/5050/5383384526_19ae18883b_m.jpg

Conditioning: Emotion

Fear conditioning (amygdala) Associating sound with foot shocks for mice Eventually, sound causes mice to jump

Affective-Motivational Area

Fear, anxiety, painful experiences

What is the problem with these drugs?

Feeling better/therapeutical onset occurs weeks after/lags behind the serotonin/noradrenaline reuptake

Impaired oxygen delivery

Fetal hypoxia → Anaerobic metabolism and lactate production → Metabolic Acidosis

S/FF: # of axon terminals

Few/Many

Skin can have _____ or _____ fields

Fine or diffuse

What does stimulus intensity affect? (2)

Firing rate of neuron Number of neurons firing (like recruiting more myocytes for forceful contraction)

Treatment of acute ischaemic stroke: Treatment must be administered before irreversible damage has occurred, which is how many hours?

First few hours after insult

Sir John C Eccles (Nobel 1963). What did he do?

First person to investigate neurons (motor) with intracellular micro electrodes in 1950

Flexion (withdrawal) Reflex Effector

Flexor Muscles (flexor/fetal)

Aqueous Humor

Fluid filling space between lens an cornea https://o.quizlet.com/qYBY-zH.9Pzvw9N6b-jTlA_m.png

Extrafusal Muscle Fibres are responsible for

Force generation

Motor System Components (6)

Forebrain, brainstem, spinal cord and all muscles (~750) with inputs from basal nuclei and cerebellum https://o.quizlet.com/2C0LsLu2AceMRafBVAL7QA_m.png

What happens to tau and what does it do?

Forms fibrils inside cells (neurofibrillary tangles) and this ccauses injury to the cell

What are the (2) major processes during sound transduction?

Forward and Reverse Transduction

What forms at the anterior end of the neural tube? (2 names)

Fourth Germ Layer or Neural Crest Cells

What type of receptors (physiological) are thermoreceptors?

Free Nerve Endings

(5) receptors in skin

Free Nerve Endings/Tactile Disc/Merkel Cells Root Hair Plexus Meissner's/Tactile Corpuscles Lamellated (Pacinian) Corpuscles Ruffini Corpuscle (Fred Rooted Miss Tracy's Large Peachy Rearside)

Possible Pathophysiology of neuronal death in Parkinson's disease? (4)

Free radical Neurotoxicity Excitotoxicity Mitochondrial dysfunction Loss of neurotrophic support

Ultrasounds

Frequencies above 20,000 Hz

Infrasounds

Frequencies below 20 Hz

(2) ways to ↑muscle force?

Frequency Encoding - ↑frequency of APs @ individual αMNs Recruitment - ↑recruitment of additional Motor Units

The Primary/Secondary Auditory Cortices are tuned to (2)

Frequency and Intensity https://o.quizlet.com/xjQwb2FsOZBlJxMf7l6.SA_m.jpg

Cognitive decline spectrum

From normal memory loss → dementia and Alzheimer's Disease

What switch in migration occurs for the Rostral Migratory Stream to exist?

From the Subventricular zone (cells stop migrating *radially*) and start going *tangentially* towards the olfactory bulb

There is extensive feedback in the auditory pathways. Which example did he give?

From the Superior Olivary Complex -> OHCs, protection from sudden loud sounds (reduce sensitivity of the cochlea)

What does insertion of more AMPA receptors require? (Literally)

Fusion of an intracellular membrane compartment with the postsynaptic membrane https://o.quizlet.com/aegUTlKpNYN20y.5Np-TVw_m.png

Starburst Amacrine Cells release

GABA and ACh

CB1R is present in __(NT)___ and __(NT)__ synapses

GABA and Glutamate synapses

Give (2) examples of inhibitory neurotransmitters?

GABA, Glycine

What is happening now?

GDNF infusion restarting now

Which protein stains Astrocytes?

GFAP - Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein https://o.quizlet.com/peLKnZIs0WaDYH1RCDVurg_m.png

What type of receptors are Cannabinoid Receptors?

GPCR

Each different representation is carried by a separate class of

Gaglion Cell

Bipolar Cells synapse directly onto

Ganglion Cells

What is Cross Innervation?

Gastrocnemius became slow like and soleus became fast like when αMNs switched https://o.quizlet.com/dlb-GIMdIwr2bLQmpjWHpg_m.jpg

The genetic aetiology (i.e. polyglutamines) of HD is an example of

Gene Dosing

Ischemia can be of (2) types

Generalised - whole body Specific - Specific tissues/organs

Differences in paternal or maternal inheritance of CAG repeats is called

Genetic Anticipation

What are (2) causes of Polymicrogyria?

Genetic or in utero infection

Cellular Tropism: Use different serotypes to? (2)

Get different expression patterns (e.g. focused or diffuse) Infect different cell types

Why is classification based on appearance better than being based on *functional markers*?

Gets too complicated

GABA Agonists

Give GABA to ↓hyperkinesia

How can we block the protective response?

Give adenosine blocker (inhibitory neurotransmitter) https://o.quizlet.com/YmOY59LSJqNsp74stlRdTA_m.png

What is the advantage of this?

Gives us opportunity to treat before post injury damage

Which CNS/PNS cell type is the most numerous is most mammalian species?

Glial Cells

Schwann Cells and Oligodendrocytes are ____ cells that form a

Glial cells that form a rigid substance

Astrocytes are the major origin of which aggressive form of brain tumor?

Glialblastoma

Axons of sensory neurons specific to a particular odorant converge to form a ____ in the olfactory bulb

Glomerulus https://o.quizlet.com/Alkh4.hIj43O5BNakIo61w_m.jpg

Which nerves take gustatory sensations from the back of the tongue and the epiglottis?

Glossopharyngeal (9) and Vagus (10), also to the Nucleus of the solitary tract (Gustatory nucleus) https://o.quizlet.com/rh4lx8IaEhdG73.kKvTQug_m.jpg

What does the BBB allow to pass easily?

Glucose

Pathophysiology of ischaemic stroke: Brain physiology

Glucose primary energy source Receives 20% of CO

(2) Production of ATP (energy) under anaerobic conditions

Glucose → 2ATP + lactate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter is?

Glutamate

Pax6, Emx2, Dlx2 tell the cells to become responsive to and produce a lot of (1)

Glutamate

Memantine

Glutamate Antagonist, prevents excitotoxicity

How can we stop seizures, nevertheless?

Glutamate antagonists - minimize excitatory effects of glutamate

What is the main primary excitatory transmitter in the CNS?

Glutamate https://o.quizlet.com/i/mrStyH5yQUbIeO11JXuEIw_m.jpg

Short Term Memory involves

Glutamate → NMDA activation → ↑Ca → CaMKII activation → AMPA receptor phosphorylation + AMPA receptor insertion → ↑ AMPA current https://o.quizlet.com/l-.L-xJ-KKpheVEUOAZixA_m.jpg

LTP is observed at what type of synapses?

Glutamatergic

How do you speed things up?

Go straight from skin cells → mature neuron through a different set of genes (Brn2 / Ascl2 / Myt1l) - takes a week

What are (2) proprioceptors?

Golgi Tendon Organ Neuromuscular Spindle

Reverse (Inverse) Myotatic Reflex utilises which physiological receptor?

Golgi Tendon Organ https://o.quizlet.com/3oG4xcZBQNKvtyqosXtqeQ_m.jpg

Reverse (Inverse) Myotatic Reflex Receptors

Golgi Tendon Organs monitoring tension during contraction

The BBB regulates the entry of other proteins and molecules which are

Gradient or Receptor mediated

At term Perinatal Brain Injury is predominantly

Grey Matter Injury

What are the two types of matter in the nervous system?

Grey and White

Myotatic Reflex Afferents

Group Ia (Small/fast stretch) Group II (Sustained stretch)

Dementia isn't a disease, it's a

Group of symptoms

What is the progression of aneurysms?

Grow in size, cause complication only when ruptured

Dendritic growth, like the axon, occurs at a

Growth Cone

Growth of axons occurs at a

Growth Cone

Induction occurs through secreted

Growth Factors

In the development of the CNS, why are growth factors important?

Growth factors help to aid growth or restrict areas of the CNS for proper folding, turning, twisting etc https://o.quizlet.com/7HONHcY.1IiK3mxoruK5Fg_m.png

Name for taste cortex?

Gustatory Cortex

Taste buds synapse with what at which end?

Gustatory afferent axons at basal end

Anterograde Amnesia Patients (2)

HM and RB

RB

Had cardiac issues → Ischemic episode during surgery → loss of neurons in the CA1 region of hippocampus https://o.quizlet.com/5KgduaO9fFBuDcbzKyOSdw_m.jpg

What does the electro-chemical K+ gradient account for?

Hair cell depolarisation

By 16, how many of the original synapses remain?

Half

What happens to preterm baby at 23 weeks, if we let it grow until 40 weeks and compare with a normal 40 week birth?

Has a smaller brain and less cortical folding compared to at term counterpart (not always) https://o.quizlet.com/5lpmsT9zb2X7IMOraWmfGw_m.png

Outer Hair Cells OHC (function - how much amplification - and shape)

Have a role in cochlear amplification - amplify sound by about 50-60 dB, Cylindrical Shape

What have animals done in regards to their sensory systems?

Have adapted their sensory systems to their environment

Why is giving mother corticosteroids to tackle foetus RDS bad?

Have negative affects on baby

Common: General Freatures

Have sensory receptors Have >1 Neurons (1˚, 2˚ etc)

Where can we derive cell cultures?

HeLa, other cancer cells

Noramally, CB2R expression is low in

Healthy Brain Tissue vasculature

What is a treatment of loss of OHCs? But?

Hearing Aids to restore the intensity of sound, but cannot restore the speech discrimination (still have problem understanding speech)

The Y axis represents

Hearing Loss in dB

Which centers overlap at the Auditory Cortex? (2)

Hearing, Speech and Language Centers

3. What can cause reduced systemic perfusion pressure? (2)

Heart failure (Infarction) Hemorrhage or dehydration

VR-1 receptor responds to? (3) (Temp and 2 chemical)

Heat Acidic Conditions Capsaicin (chilli)

Extrareceptors

Help to guide motor movements

Glia have very important _____ function and are the brain _____ _____ cells

Helper, Brain resident immune

GDNF does what?

Helps dopaminergic neurons to survive

Sufferers with damage to Primary Somatosensory Cortex suffer?

Hemineglect

The brain can be divided into left and right

Hemispheres

Stage 4: What part of the tectorial membrane will come into contact with the IHC stereocilia and cause subsequent IHC depolarisation?

Hensen's Stripe https://o.quizlet.com/-jsmlETcajY5W05QGpBVJg_m.png

Opponent Colour Theory: First proposed by

Hering in 1872

Spina Bifida Occulta

Hidden/ *mildest* form. The outer part of some of the vertebrae is *not completely closed*. Sometimes *hair* on skin at the site of the lesion. *Asymptomatic*.

Age Related Hearing Loss starts at which frequency region?

High Frequency region https://o.quizlet.com/po-4s68yyl-7iKnGV1PO2w_m.jpg

How is the intensity of sound distributed when the high frequency sound comes from the *right*?

High for the right ear, casts a *complete sound shadow* on the left ear (lower intensity for left ear) - cues auditory system that sound is from right https://o.quizlet.com/KykiHgdzh7YQKtzRNYoT8A_m.png

In which (2) ways can we elicit a large calcium influx to evoke LTP?

High frequency (tetanic) presynaptic stimulation *or* Low frequency presynaptic stimulation plus significant postsynaptic depolarisation (pairing)

Knock-in Huntington's Mice: Normally (i.e. no HD)

High frequency stimulation → LTP induced → baseline potential changes → larger amplitude in response to neurotransmitter

In diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's, what blocks the removal of PSA?

High levels of insulin/glucose

S/FF: Abundance in average muscle

High/Low

S/FF: Capillaries

High/Low

S/FF: Mitochondria

High/Low

S/FF: Myoglobin

High/Low

What happens to high/low frequency sound as it travels through the cochlea?

High: It dissipates quickly Low: Travels much further, to cause displacement of basilar membrane closer to the apex

Cones allow us to detect

Higher levels of light (higher threshold to light) - day vision, colour vision

Somatosensory Association Cortex is for what kind of processing

Higher order processing (e.g. object recognition) Giving meaning/making associations with sensation

Ageing Population means

Higher proportion of elderly in population at a given time

What are synapses?

Highly specialised sites of the neuron (neuronal contact)

Other name for Rhombencephalon

Hindbrain

What have these studies used in vitro?

Hippocampal slice preparation

What was invented in the 1960s?

Hippocampal slice preparation

Cells in which other (2) structures of the brain have some regenerative abilities?

Hippocampus (memories) and Cerebellum (coordination)

Hippocampal slice preparation

Hippocampus can be easily be dissected from the brain, sliced like a loaf of bread, and kept alive in *oxygenated artificial cerebrospinal fluid* https://o.quizlet.com/pjTJO0Z4M8OuQoHXGPK7pg_m.png

Which structure in the brain is important in Declarative (explicit) memory?

Hippocampus https://o.quizlet.com/BOmnjtdNzUR9KsCRMsB2lQ_m.png

Where do we see neuronal loss/atrophy? (3)

Hippocampus, Frontal or Temporal Cortex

MRI allows us to detect (3)

Holes (Cavitary) Diffuse white matter lesions Ventriculomegaly https://o.quizlet.com/Ugwu1tUrq-jc1pobV9eZZw_m.png

Myotatic Reflex Effectors

Homonymous (same) Muscle (Extrafusal only)

Reverse (Inverse) Myotatic Reflex Effectors

Homonymous Muscle

Sound Localisation (where sound is coming from) can occur in which planes? How many ears are needed for these? (2)

Horizontal (need both ears) and Vertical (need only 1 ear)

3. Posterior circulation infarct (POCI): Other clinical features may include:

Horner's syndrome (drooping eyes) Nystagmus (REM), vertigo (dizzy), vomiting Coma Choreoathetosis, hemiballismus (movement disorders)

LTP can decay over

Hours

Adaptation of mechanoreceptors?

How quickly a receptor returns to normal state

Factors: Spatial Frequency

How rapid the stimulus changes across space (something that moves)

Expression

How synapse strength is increased

Maintenance

How the increased synapse strength is maintained

The branching of DS Ganglion Cells seems to be related to

How they sense orientation

Voluntary temperature responses?

Huddling Physical activity (hand rubbing) Shelter next to heat

All colours can be fully specified in terms of which (3) characteristics? (Munsell Colour System)

Hue, tone and saturation https://o.quizlet.com/1TrKD0XGuN5GUApIBYc3cw_m.jpg

What decreases with age? (2)

Human brain weight (loss of neurons) Synapse counts in cortex = ↓connectivity between neurons

Why are animal models better than human models?

Humans can have multiple pathologies (↑BP, diabetes) and vary in genetics, age etc. Lab animals are consistent, healthy, specific weight/age (i.e. controlled variables for an experiment) which give reproducible results

How many olfactory receptor cells in Humans, rats and dogs?

Humans: 12 million Rats: 15 million Dogs: 1 billion https://o.quizlet.com/KTtXuh2T4FC.rSBpQEG.uQ_m.png

What do we observe in the secondary phase? (4)

Hyperperfusion Secondary Oxidative Metabolism Failure Seizures Oedema https://o.quizlet.com/NAGHYy7zyceKB2BjH.i36Q_m.png

What does Cl- influx do to the postsynaptic membrane potential?

Hyperpolarises it https://o.quizlet.com/JXdKKKvIS4-MC37KU7om9w_m.png

Causes of Intracerebral Haemorrhage (ICH) (3)

Hypertension Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy (CAA) Other causes

Retina Projection: Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

Hypothalamus - Which regulate the circadian rhythms

Causes of Perinatal Brain Injury (4)

Hypoxia-ischemia (main cause) Infection Accident/trauma (maternal) Teratogens

Opponent Colour Theory: What does the theory mean by responding in an antagonist way?

I.e. Either red or green is perceived and never greenish-red (i.e. some other colour forms) https://o.quizlet.com/4icxgqnokKrCMs6JTtjqNg_m.png

What part of the blastocyst forms the baby?

ICM (Inner Cell Mass)

These cells resemble what without the problem of what?

ICM of blastocyst, without ethical issues of using embryonic stem cells

Forward Transduction

IHC Stereocilia - hair cells convert mechanical stimuli into electrical responses

Afferent Fibers innervate mainly the _____ (type of cell). What is the function of these cells?

IHCs - They vary in frequency response and spontaneous firing rate, providing frequency and intensity coding

What is the name given to the chloride ion current flow into the postsynaptic cell?

IPSC - Inhibitory Postsynaptic Current

What is the name given to the resulting transient hyperpolarisation of the resting membrane potential?

IPSP - Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential

Intrafusal Fibre belly is innervated by

Ia Afferent Fibres

Myotatic Reflex Synaptic Relays

Ia afferents → (Glutamate) → αMNs in spinal cord segment

Which fibers do Proprioceptors use?

Ia and Ib fibers (fast)

Reverse (Inverse) Myotatic Reflex Afferents

Ib Fibers

Reverse (Inverse) Myotatic Reflex Synaptic Relay

Ib afferents → (Glutamate) → Ib interneurons → (Glycine - Inhibit) → αMNs controlling homonymous muscles

How are chemical senses (olfactory and gustatation) evolutionarily beneficial? (3)

Identify food (bitter to spit out something that is poisonous), noxious substances, suitability of mate

How are disease models used specifically? (3)

Identify treatment targets See how effective treatments are Establish proof of treatment/theory behind treatment before clinical trials

How is LTP prevented with the use of blockers?

If blockers bind NMDA receptors during LTP induction (not afterwards) Red: What happens if the blocker is introduced during induction Black: What happens if the blocker is introduced after induction https://o.quizlet.com/LfyBX7wBk-V3..FRsQcDvg_m.png

Motor Disorders can be Motor or Sensory. What does this mean?

If sensory is damaged, can affect motor function

Modality Dependent Learning

If you are hungry, and you experience things with food, you are more likely to remember that

Why is myelination beneficial? (Insulation)

If you don't have the insulation of long distance neurons, the action potential could propagate to areas other than intended, so myelin helps direct the signal

Why is myelination beneficial? (Motor Neuron)

If you have long axons (motor), myelination makes it easier (less effort, energy required) to send a potential to a far away location

What is the first component of the visual pathway?

Image processing in the retina

The somatosensory system gives us information about the

Immediate Environment

Consolidation can be from (2) to LTM

Immediate Memory or STM → LTM

Types of memory based on Duration of retention (3)

Immediate/Sensory memory Short-term/Working Memory Long-term Memory

Microglial Cells are what type of cells

Immune Cells

CB2 widely expressed in the

Immune System

CB2 Receptor

Immune System, poorly expressed in CNS

In diseased state, where is CB2 expressed?

Immune cells and on the brain vasculature

What type of classification of human microglial subsets is poor?

Immunological

Knock-in Huntington's Mice: Pathology/Experiment

Impaired LTP → could not maintain LTP (*EPSP declines over time*)

The Acidosis causes

Impaired cardiovascular system → Reduced brain blood flow and oxygen → Hypoxia-ischemia → Brain Injury

Umbilical cord occlusion leads to (2)

Impaired oxygen delivery Impaired waste removal

Forgetting - Why important?

Important that we don't retain everything (immediate, STM etc.)

What is Multisensory integration?

Improves detection, localisation, attention Visual and auditory systems have interactions I.e. When they see *and* hear the dog barking, the stimuli are small but the output is large due to combination of the systems When the dog is close, and both auditory and visual output is large, the additive output is not big anymore https://o.quizlet.com/o8c9mJsmWvqICUdXfS5EqQ_m.png

Antidepressants

Improves mental wellbeing

Touch

Impulses propagate through spine and up to cortical regions https://o.quizlet.com/sxQa.LkpKokWKuMt2x6oFQ_m.png

The Outer Hair Cells are arranged in how many rows?

In 3-5 rows

What are (2) mechanisms of Gene Delivery?

In Vivo and Ex Vivo

Interneurons

In contrast to sensory and motor neurons that synapse with the skin or muscle at one end and neurons at the other, interneurons synapse with neurons at both ends (Dendrites and axon)

Creatine Monohydrate

In meat, for muscle recovery

The stationary stimulus appears to move in which direction?

In the opposite direction to the original (physically moving) stimulus

Motion is not encoded where?

In the photoreceptor layers of the visual system

Ischemia

Inadequate blood supply

Abnormal Huntingtin (Htt) accumulates to form?

Inclusion Bodies

What are the abnormal aggregates of protein that develop inside nerve cells in Parkinson's disease?

Inclusion Bodies or Lewy Bodies

What leads to LTD and LTP in terms of phosphatase and kinase activity?

Increase in Phosphatase activity - LTD Increase in Kinase activity - LTP

What happens to synapses?

Increase in size, perforate or split to form additional spine heads https://o.quizlet.com/ee6wV-fNnYTnzRk6C0KM8g_m.png

What is Hypothesis 1?

Increase in transmitter release

What are (4) possible LTP expression mechanisms (things that contribute to increase in synapse strength)?

Increase in... 1. Transmitter release (more glutamate) 2. The number of postsynaptic receptors (AMPA/NMDA) 3. The conductance of existing receptors 4. The number of synapses

Changing in strength means either increase or decrease in

Increase or decrease in synapse strength (the amplitude of the postsynaptic currents)

What is Hypothesis 2?

Increased AMPA Receptor number https://o.quizlet.com/AJLJUyK3MW7hjrPa1FxZtw_m.png

What is Hypothesis 4?

Increased Synapse Number

What if we have mutations in the APP protein?

Increased chances of production of Aß42 https://o.quizlet.com/dXlJ4tHJDQBIy7E6Oqkwpg_m.jpg

What is Hypothesis 3?

Increased pre-existing postsynaptic receptor conductance

Rigidity

Increased resistance to passive movement of limbs

What does myelination do?

Increases the speed and specificity of neural conduction

What was the result?

Incredible improvements in patient symptoms (PD) and went to Phase 2 Clinical trials as a result (one patient post mortem brain showed sprouting of new neurons)

What (2) Objective recordings can we make?

Individual Unitary Potentials Compound Potentials

What can CaMKII injection into a postsynaptic cell do?

Induce LTP (is sufficient to do so) https://o.quizlet.com/irRkn9sQJWvxfyKhQ5sh7w_m.png

What are (2) derivatives of iPSCs?

Induced Neural Stem Cells (iNSC) Induced Neural Precursor Cells (iNPC)

What are these cells called?

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSC)

The notochord is responsible for what process during development?

Induction

Endocytosis of receptors is a critical step in

Induction of LTD

What are the (3) phases of LTP? (What are axis?)

Induction, Expression and Maintenance https://o.quizlet.com/R7MjliJ7r7KMd-pjZyOeTA_m.png

Retrovirus (RV)

Infect dividing cells only (i.e. only stem cells and not neurons) Can't control where gene is inserted (e.g. if near oncogene → cause cancer)

Causes (3)

Infections Genetic Environmental Toxins

Adenovirus (Ad)

Infects neurons well

Microglial Cells show up in the presence of

Inflammation

What is produced by astrocytes that may be detrimental to neuronal cell health?

Inflammatory Mediators

In the shunting inhibition, the inflow of negative ions negates the

Inflow of positive ions

The AP at the *presynaptic* membrane results in the

Influx of Ca2+ ions through voltage gated Ca channels concentrated around the terminal

Visual Pathway

Information received from the photoreceptors passed to specialised cells. E.g. for colour, contrast, shape perception https://o.quizlet.com/sqE4-uga.WdqpC1JytN2mg_m.jpg

How do you get HD?

Inherited

What are three types of gene therapy for PD?

Inhibition therapy Neurotransmitter Enzymes Neuroprotective agents (Neurotrophic Factor GDNF)

What type of synaptic transmission do Interneurons mediate?

Inhibitory

Lamellated Corpuscles

Initial contact/high frequency vibration

Tactile Corpuscles

Initial contact/low frequency vibration

Ex Vivo Gene Delivery

Inject viral vector into donor cells then implant them into host

In Vivo Gene Delivery

Inject viral vector into host

∆ cortical representation can occur in response to (2)

Injury or Experience

When is dementia irreversible?

Injury or disease

In-utero MRI allowed us to discover that

Injury/injurious events can occur well before birth

Astrocytes have which immunological function?

Innate Immunity - resident brain innate immune cells

What (4) things make up the BBB?

Inner endothelial layer Basement membrane A continuous layer of pericytes SMCs (sometimes) https://o.quizlet.com/HqpGdue90MSMJB49PqteGw_m.png

Number of muscle fibres innervated by individual MNs is called the

Innervation Ratio

AMPA and NMDA receptors are

Inotropic

Neurotransmitters

Insert gene into striatum that codes for *enzymes involved in the endogenous biosynthesis of dopamine*, to indirectly increase dopamine

Inhibition Therapy

Insert gene into subthalamic nucleus (6OHDA rats) that expresses GAD - precursor for GABA. GABA is inhibitory so dampens the overexcitability imbalance of DA/ACh at the striatum.

Neuroprotection

Insert gene that encodes for synthesis of a neuroprotective factor such as GDNF (Glial-Derived Neurotrophic Factor) over years

How does AMPA receptor insertion and removal represent LTP and LTD?

Insertion is LTP and removal is LTD - they are constantly being recycled https://o.quizlet.com/0rAwVzN3koAM1GErFNQcgQ_m.png

Which (2) factors likely underlie LTP expression?

Insertion of new AMPA receptors AND an increase in the conductance of existing AMPA receptors

How could AMPA receptor number increase?

Insertion of receptors into the postsynaptic membrane from an intracellular pool

Proprioceptors

Inside body, in muscles/joints provide feedback information

Anterior Spinocerebellar Tract

Integrates proprioceptive information with *Descending inputs*

Declarative Memory Consolidation depends on (2)

Integrity of the hippocampus Hippocampal connections to the *mammillary body* and *dorsal thalamus* https://o.quizlet.com/AwOByCrXV16i941vI3VgLg_m.jpg

Frontal Association Cortex function? (4)

Intelligence, behaviour, mood, personality

Aδ Mechanosensitive Nocioreceptors

Intense Mechanical Stimuli

Aδ Mechanothermal Nocioreceptors

Intense Mechanical and Thermal Stimuli

What are the (2) things we detect in sight?

Intensity (amount of light) and Wavelength (colours)

Which (2) components of sound contribute to Noise Induced Hearing Loss?

Intensity of noise and duration of exposure to noise (Intensity * duration = sound dosage)

Perception of sound - (3) features of sound waves (think physics)

Intensity, pitch and direction

What other cue do we rely on to localise high frequency sound?

Interaural Intensity Difference

What is the delay called between ears?

Interaural Sound Delay

What else can Microglial Cells secrete? (3)

Interleukins, Growth Factors and Support Factors

What evidence shows that apoptotic pathways are essentially brewing in the latent phase?

Intermediates such as Bax, CytC and Caspase-3 increase https://o.quizlet.com/3OsTTuzZ66PObjG0oq7bSQ_m.png

The Globus Pallidus and the Substantia Nigra can be broken down into

Internal & External Globus Pallidus and Pars Compacta & *Pars Reticulate*

1. Anterior circulation

Internal carotid artery → (1) middle and (2) anterior cerebral arteries, and (3) Ophthalmic artery (1) Supplies lateral hemisphere (2) Supplies anterior three-quarters of medial hemisphere. (3) Supplies optic nerve and retina

Perception (L1)

Interpretation modified by experience

Peripheral Nerve Somatosensory Injury Types? (3)

Intra-nerve damage Mono-neuropathy Poly-neuropathy

Tau is assocated with

Intracellular Microtubules

Muscle Spindles contain multiple

Intrafusal Fibres https://o.quizlet.com/i9DPkDXlFA4P-CI.y0Hi6w_m.jpg

𝛾 Motor Neurons innervate

Intrafusal Muscle Fibres in Muscle Spindles

Motion detection is studied in

Invertebrates and low vertebrates

Non-Declarative memory

Involves skills and associations, at the unconscious level (i.e. guitar)

Brown-Squared Syndrome (hemisection)

Ipsilateral loss of proprioception, vibration, light touch Contralateral loss of crude touch, pressure, pain (dissociated sensory loss) https://o.quizlet.com/HMDt-36OziJCro4JcYvetQ_m.jpg

Noise

Irregular sound with no particular frequency https://o.quizlet.com/P4IQPGmiIoZYgtN18Q7qXw_m.jpg

Eventually ischaemia leads to

Irreversible cellular damage

Tegmentum

Is the path of the *anterolateral* (spinothalamic) system (pain and temperature).

When blood flow to part of the brain is reduced, survival of the affected brain tissue depends on

Ischaemia severity Ischaemia duration Availability of collateral blood supply

(3) types of stroke

Ischaemic stroke (Infarction) Intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH) Subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH)

What is another colour vision test?

Ishihara Test https://o.quizlet.com/jTwlgyKBQ91PPQCapF7ULg_m.jpg

How severe can Lissencephaly be?

It can be global (whole cerebral cortex) or regional areas of smoothness

What happens if you electrically stimulate presynaptic axons?

It induces AP firing in that presynaptic neuron, leading to glutamate release from the presynaptic terminal

What is special about the NMDA receptor?

It is ligand gated AND voltage gated

What happens to the vesicle after NT release?

It is recycled by endocytosis, taking along with it NT for recycling also

How does myelination affect the size of the brain?

It is responsible for quite a bit of enlargement of the brain

How do we activate an NMDA receptor?

It requires glutamate AND a depolarised postsynaptic membrane potential (to unbind the Mg) https://o.quizlet.com/C2.0WVGvuZdY9G2Tj1y81Q_m.png

So what can we say about Hypothesis 1 (Increase in transmitter release)?

It's crap (fail)

What part of the stapes is inserted where?

Its footplate, into the oval window of the cochlea

Vitreous Humour

Jelly like tissue filling the eyeball behind the lens https://o.quizlet.com/0wkq3K162Ywi7z5A5gxDdg_m.jpg

How does this compare with non-depressed controls?

Just keep swimming, just keep swimming, just keep swimming, swimming https://farm8.staticflickr.com/7108/7415156290_8ac1ec3dbc_m.jpg

Stage 2: What is located at the tips of the stereocilia?

K+ *M*echano-*E*lectrical *T*ransduction Channels (M.E.T channels) https://o.quizlet.com/Ccp1LPhGHZt6279d-eG1LA_m.jpg

What is the role of 𝛾 Motor Neurons innervating the intrafusal fibers (non-belly sections)?

Keep intrafusal fibres taut/at appropriate length to they remain active during muscle shortening

How does the anterior neural tube give rise to the adrenal glands?

Kidneys are in the chest in development, they descend down when we are born

What are phosphatases the exact opposites of?

Kinases that are activated by high calcium levels during LTP induction

Levodopa (L-Dopa) and Dopa decarboxylase inhibitors

L-Dopa converted to Dopamine by Dopa Decarboxylase (everywhere in the body) L-Dopa converted into dopamine during digestion - nausea and vomiting (peripheral side effects) L-Dopa given with Dopa decarboxylase inhibitors (they can't cross BBB) so L-Dopa remains as L-Dopa in periphery but crosses BBB by itself and is converted into dopamine there

A small calcium influx results in

LTD

What is different about LTD induction compared to LTP?

LTD requires more time (15 mins) compared to LTP (1 min)

A large calcium influx results in

LTP

Knock-in Huntington's Mice: Result

LTP ability maintained *i.e. increased ESPS)* even in these induced Huntington's mice

Why do we say (i.e.) LTP *like* for human trials?

LTP and LTD are reserved for animals

What happens if induction is blocked?

LTP cannot be expressed or maintained

What happens if membrane fusion is blocked?

LTP expression is prevented

Supportive Evidence: What can be induced with brief trains of stimulation in vivo?

LTP/LTD

Find Engram: Step 2 - Label?

Label cells of engram via viral transfection

What is the pathophysiology of Polymicrogyria?

Lack of cell death or abnormal cell migration

Symptoms of Polymicrogyria?

Lack of coordination and failure to thrive at school

What is the capacity of Immediate/Sensory memory?

Large

What are the (2) types of ganglion cells?

Large Ganglion Cells and Small Bushy Ganglion Cells

Type I spiral ganglion neurons (Size and myelination)

Large and Meylinated

Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)

Large so can fit ↑genetic material

1. Arterial disease.

Larger Artery - Atherosclerosis Small artery - Lipohyalinosis

Myelination is early or late in development?

Late

Age Related Hearing Loss: Average onset?

Late 40s

Cerebral Cooling must begin in which phase to have effect?

Latent Phase

Which tract takes nociceptive information?

Lateral Spinothalamic Tract

Which tract takes temperature information?

Lateral Spinothalamic Tract (Non-Discriminative)

Retina

Layer at back of eyeball, contains light sensitive cells https://o.quizlet.com/i/yo54Z51mD1KcTgx2hELYcg_m.jpg

Declarative Memory Consolidation

Learning Facts

Although these studies have given us great knowledge about the function and molecules involved with LTP/LTD, there is no direct relationshi with

Learning and memory (the behavioural manifestation of the physiology)

Semantic Declarative Memory

Learning facts, for tests or birthdays

Supportive Evidence: Saturation of LTP can block

Learning, although this is controversial as there *may* be a physiological limit to memory?

Subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH)

Least common, <5% Younger patients Bleeding into subarachnoid space - aneurysm

Lecture 1 - Huntington's

Lecture 1 - Huntington's

Lecture 2 - Parkinson's

Lecture 2 - Parkinson's

Lecture 3

Lecture 3

Lecture 3/4

Lecture 3/4

Lecture 4

Lecture 4

Lecture 4 Alzheimer's 2

Lecture 4 Alzheimer's 2

Lecture 5 Stroke

Lecture 5 Stroke

*Total Visual Field* is the sum of the

Left and Right hemifields

[Diagram] Layers of the cortex

Left: Anatomical Order Right: Developmental Order https://o.quizlet.com/XfIZhWnTSW-kVKQfZCLcQA_m.png

What does fewer AMPA receptors in the synaptic membrane mean?

Less current flow in response to transmitter release, and a weaker synapse

At *high* concentrations of stimulus (specific taste) most papillae are

Less selective

Deuteranopia

Less sensitive to green https://o.quizlet.com/ll0oJenDFl960tDARy2ZVg_m.jpg

Protanopia

Less sensitive to red https://o.quizlet.com/OMa2EYfbpXldXrSl5qL9UA_m.jpg

Endothelial CAM →

Leukocyte CAM

Treatments (5):

Levodopa (L-Dopa) and Dopa decarboxylase inhibitors Dopamine agonists Anticholinergic agents COMT inhibitors Surgical treatment

What type of gated receptors receive GABA and glycine on postsynaptic membranes? These receptors/channels are permeable to?

Ligand gated, permeable to Cl-

Free Nerve Endings/Tactile Disc/Merkel Cells

Light Contact

Which stimuli can end organs respond to? (5)

Light, heat, sound, movement, chemicals

CP Symptoms (6)

Limb Weakness Abnormal/No walking Limb Contractures/Spine Curvature Swallowing/Feeding Problems Learning Disabilities Social Alienation

In AD there is a diffuse loss of neurons in (5)

Limbic structures (memory, emotion and language) Hippocampus Amygdala and associated cortices Some brainstem nuclei Basal Forebrain

Problems with Viral Vectors (6)

Limit to insertable *DNA size* Can cause *cytotoxicity* Can elicit *immune response* *Cellular tropism can be bad* - targeting a cell type different to the one you want to target *Stable gene expression* - sometimes viral vectors do not integrate into host DNA and just float in cytoplasm (expressed) for a bit then bugger off *Imperfect regulation systems* - e.g. add tet to tet-on and the promoter does not actually turn on

What is the stereocilia arrangement in the IHCs?

Linear https://o.quizlet.com/QExAlMKhO8sLBkC0WNcowg_m.jpg

Cannabinoids are

Lipophilic

S/FF: Fatigue

Little/Rapid

Receptors may be _____ to give

Localised to give *higher definition* (eg fovea of retina, has high density and small receptive field) (Fine resolution for fingertips, but not for thighs for example)

Axons have specific targets that are located

Located enormous distances away

Low frequency stereocilia

Long

Studies have found that LTP could last

Long enough to underlie the storage and retention of memories

Increases in size and number of synapses are perhaps more for _____. Why?

Long term modification, as changes in spine structure take many *minutes to hours* to manifest

In LTD induction, AMPA receptors are activated over a

Long time period (5-15 mins) to induce weak depolarization

L-Cones, maximum sensitivity to

Long-wavelength sensitive, Red, 565nm https://farm4.staticflickr.com/3568/3306122583_3cc61e7d6e_m.jpg

What is happening when we look to the left?

Looking at our left field, all information going to right visual cortex of the brain

What is happening when we look to the right?

Looking at our right field, all information going to left visual cortex of the brain

First Pathway to Degenerate

Loss of Striato-pallidal (GPe) Neurons

Third Pathway to Degenerate

Loss of Striato-pallidal (GPi) Neurons

Anterograde Amnesia

Loss of ability to create new memories after injury https://o.quizlet.com/if5H0lT6G.42SDp-tvzQ2g_m.png

Permanent Hearing Loss - Loss of (2)

Loss of both Sensory Hair Cells and Auditory Neurons

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of memories acquired prior to injury https://o.quizlet.com/CdIdzRbu1wclseu3CThoHA_m.png

Central Cord Syndrome

Loss of proprioception, vibration Motor impairment in arms (legs spared due to more external location) https://o.quizlet.com/YRSnHd2BooOUpu9ViZN3mg_m.jpg

Posterior Cord Syndrome

Loss of proprioception/discriminative touch Crude touch/pain remains intact https://o.quizlet.com/PbT7pVtVihwCUAdT5-jjIg_m.jpg

Spinal Cord Somatosensory Injury symptoms?

Loss of sensory function below spinal segment

The principal of Interaural Time Delay works well for

Low Frequency Sound https://o.quizlet.com/e-EfyZeK7JaywAdXFsVGNw_m.jpg

The Attenuation Reflex works better with which frequency sounds?

Low frequency sounds

Pairing (2)

Low frequency stimulation (1 Hz) of *presynaptic axons*, AND *postsynaptic depolarisation* by aritificial current injection for 1 minute

How can we elicit a small calcium influx to evoke LTD?

Low frequency stimulation of the presynaptic cell. Results in a weak depolarisation of the postsynaptic cell

S/FF: Glycogen

Low/High

Spinal Border Cells Integrate information from (3)

Lower limb Descending input Flexor reflex arcs

CSF Scanning

Lumbar Puncture/Spinal Tap Low CSF Aß42 in AD High CSF phosphorylated tau in AD

How do lung development problems cause Perinatal Brain Injury?

Lung development problems, poor surfactant, postnatal apnea → ↓BP → ↓blood flow to brain

Which genes cause the formation of a smooth cortex?

Lys genes (pronounced liss)

Which chemokines do astrocytes produce?

MCP-1, IP10, IL-8, MIP1 and others

Polymicrogyria can be picked up by

MRI

Integration into a *global motion* estimate occurs in which area?

MT/V5 in the human *visual cortex* https://o.quizlet.com/1M2kA76xfszGP5njIlmYig_m.jpg

What are some special sense adaptations of animals?

Magnetic electrical fields and pressure to detect surroundings for fish or migration https://o.quizlet.com/aRv18aZ.463b1Idh-LIqbw_m.png

Parasol Cells

Magnocellular/M Pathway/M Cells

Perforant Path

Main input to the Hippocampus. Entorhinal Cortex -> Dentate Gyrus Neurons

(1) Maintenance of intra/extracellular ionic gradients by ion pumps

Maintaining Membrane potential

Supportive Evidence: LTP/LTD are robustly expressed in all

Major pathways in the hippocampus, a region of the brain profoundly important in memory formation

How does induction of LTP affect the amplitude of AMPA EPSC?

Makes it more negative (see previous question)

Conditional Expression

Makes the promoter turn on only in certain conditions. E.g. you put in tetracycline which turns on promoter

ICH Other causes

Malformations, infections, tumors, disorders and drugs

What are the (3) middle ear ossicles (very small bones)?

Malleus (hammer) Incus (anvil) Stapes (stirrup) https://o.quizlet.com/QNOkFXwh2WAYZr.U8oDmAQ_m.jpg

Polyneuropathy

Many

How long can hippocampal slices stay alive for?

Many hours after hippocampal dissection - they can even be grown in vitro for weeks

Where do cells hop off?

Marginal Zone

What do we see in neurological diseases?

Massive increase in CB2 receptor expression

What is the olfactory bulb used for by rodents? (3)

Mate selection, smelling danger, spatial awareness

Infection

Maternal, fetal/postnatal (chorioamnionitis)

Biomarkers

Measurable indicators of the state of disease Pitsburg, Radioactive Glucose, CSF Aß and tau etc.

Mechanoreceptors fire in response to

Mechanical Pressure/Distortion

The basilar membrane is a _____ _____ of sound frequency

Mechanical analyzer

What (3) nociceptive sensations?

Mechanical, Temperature and Chemical

The transduction channels in auditory hair cells are what type of gated?

Mechanically Gated, by the movement of stereocilia

The Organ of Corti is the site of

Mechano-electrical transduction

What are (4) receptors?

Mechanoreceptors Thermoreceptors Nocioreceptors Proprioreceptors

Myelencephalon

Medulla

The brainstem is made up of (3)

Medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain

Mechanical Transduction: Muscle spindle detecting muscle displacement or position

Membrane has stretch sensitive channels, when the muscle is moved it opens and closes the channels, direct coupling with mechanical movement and influx of ions https://o.quizlet.com/zTb9jvllEq8danJrWIMvrA_m.png

Why do you see many mitochondria in neurons?

Membrane recycling, neurotransmitter generation, exocytosis - high energy demand

Phylogenetic Memory

Memories stored in genes - experience of a species over generations

AD: Clinical features - Impairment of/changes in (6)

Memory Language skills Visual-spatial orientation Abstract thinking Judgement Personality

For Immediate/Sensory memory, each modality has its own

Memory *register*

What do LTP and LTD underlie?

Memory formation at a sub-cellular level

What did Hebb (1949) propose?

Memory is stored in networks of neurons and changes in synaptic function in networks is memory storing (at synapses)

Other name for Midbrain

Mesencephalon

Seeing in average illuminated areas (dusk/dawn)

Mesopic

mGluRs are

Metabotropic

At the 5 vesicle stage, the Rhombencephalon divides into the (2)

Metencephalon, Myelencephalon

What did Susumu Tonegawa do?

Method to label neurons during memory formation

Different functional subsets of microglia exist. This means they express different and have different?

Microglia express different immunological markers *and* have different morphology/locations

Which cells have phagocytic properties?

Microglia, Astrocytes and Pericytes

Astrocytes are similar to _____ Cells

Microglial Cells

What is the autoimmunity function of Microglial Cells?

Microglial cells present antigens to other immune cells and therefore have an Antigen Presentation Capacity

Why is it difficult to observe these changes (increase in synapse number)?

Microscopy preparation kills biological material and so we cannot do before and after comparisions. Instead, we have a no LTP induced control and an LTP induced preparation, and we compare these.

Retina Projection: Superior Colliculus

Midbrain - Which control orienting eye movements reflexes

Retina Projection: Pretectum

Midbrain - Which control the pupillary light reflex

M-Cones, maximum sensitivity to

Middle-wavelength sensitive, Green, 545nm https://farm5.staticflickr.com/4064/4633177036_28512e1d76_m.jpg

Based on projections and functions, which are the (4) main classes of retinal ganglion cells?

Midget Cells (parvo) Parasol Cells (magno) Bi-stratified Cells (Koniocellular/K Pathway) *Melanopsin* Ganglion Cells (Photosensitive)

Stage Theory: Green/Red information is conveyed to which cells in the Retina and in the LGN?

Midget Ganglion Cells (P Cells) -> Parvocellular Neurons at LGN https://o.quizlet.com/GfO0M1zaix136jaL0QHwyw_m.png

The notochord helps to define the embryonic

Midline

Under most ambient conditions, most graded potential retinal neurons operate at or near which point?

Midpoint of their response range - so they can signal in response to more light and less light (graded potential)

Polysialylation (3)

Migratory Neuroblasts, Synaptic Plasticity, LTP learning and memory

The Neural Crest Cells follow an initial

Migratory route and give rise to other structures

HD Treatments (7)

Minocycline Coenzyme Q/Q10 Latrepirdine Creatine Monohydrate GABA Agonists Antidepressants Neuron replacement or Gene therapy

The axons of the sensory neurons synapse with the dendrites of _____ cells in the glomerulus

Mitral Cells https://o.quizlet.com/QhdWQTNHahKjK1n7.qHjag_m.jpg

What are the (4) sensory system attributes?

Modality (type), Location, Intensity and Timing

Stage Theory: Why called the stage theory?

Modern model of normal colour vision which *incorporates both the trichromatic theory and the opponent colour theory* into two stages

Prevention of Ischemic Strokes and TIAs

Modify Risk Factors Anti-platelet drug (asprin) Treatment with anticoagulants Carotid Endarterectomy

Substantia Nigra

Modulates *mood* and *movement*. Fibres bidirectionally connect this to the *striatum*. It contains large, black, dopamine producing cells.

Sialic Acid molecules impair the capacity of glycoconjugates to interact and thereby act as

Modulators of Cellular Interactions https://o.quizlet.com/1eJBBSxeKbzKcQr.9lHtEw_m.png

Chemokine

Molecule that is secreted by one cell, creates a gradient to another cell, and the other cell will follow the gradient (attractant) - soluble chemical signal

However, these studies have focused on

Molecules involved in synapse plasticity, required for changes in synapse strength

Neurotrophic Factors

Molecules that support neurons, help control the growth and survival of the neurones, by generating an environment around the neurons

Muscle Spindles

Monitor muscle length, and the rate of change of length

Golgi Tendon Organs

Monitor muscle tension

Joint receptors

Monitor position, signal hyper extension/flexion of the joint

People who see black and white?

Monochromats https://o.quizlet.com/.8hdIt4mRBtNe4bUth.JYw_m.jpg

What is the Microglial Cell origin?

Monocytic and Myeloid

Myotatic Reflex is the only

Monosynaptic reflex in body

How long can stable recordings be made for?

Months

Supportive Evidence: LTP/LTD has been shown to last for how long in awake, behaving animals (rodents)?

Months

What are the advantages of animal models? (2)

More complex than cell cultures Can determine proof of concept

4. Lacunar infarct (LACI)

More focal

Benefits of using the H-Reflex (Hoffman) over the conventional Myotatic Reflex?

More precise Also yields EMG response

Laminar Cell Death (define and what structures of brain affected)

More severe Striatum and Cortex

Hippocampal Lesion tests in mice (2)

Morris Mater Maze and Radial Arm Maze https://o.quizlet.com/5eBFD2R2CSYreQX8kpUJ9A_m.png

Ischaemic stroke (Infarction)

Most common (80-85%) Loss of blood flow to part of the brain/spinal cord → poor oxygen/glucose → necrosis

In a normal, healthy person (CNS), where do we see CB2?

Mostly in the brain vasclature

The M Cells are _____ detectors

Motion Detectors

Large Ganglion Cells are concerned with processing

Motion detection and alerting the animal to threatening, moving visual imagery

Association and Motivation in Memory

Motivation helps to strengthen memory

Somatosensory Association Cortex projects to

Motor Cortices (voluntary movement)

Broca's Area function and location?

Motor aspect of speech, Inferior Frontal Gyrus

Exner's Area function and location?

Motor control of hand for writing, Middle frontal gyrus

Neurological injury + neurodevelopmental handicaps include (4)

Motor dysfunction, lower IQ, cognitive problems, behavioural problems

Find Engram: Result?

Mouse froze without foot shock, when memory recalled

Implanting False Memory: Step 1

Mouse placed in Box A (red triangle) → learns about Box A (only beeps) → formation of Memory A

Implanting False Memory: Step 3

Mouse placed in Box A → Freezes in response to sound only (false memory generated)

Implanting False Memory: Step 2

Mouse placed in Box B (grey square) Foot shocks accompany beep Memory A activated (recalled) via ChR2 stimulation with blue light https://o.quizlet.com/iwCJfcR.KSNWONh3TLy.Eg_m.jpg

Implanting False Memory: Step 4 (optional)

Mouse placed in Box C → Mouse does not associate any Box A/B memories with this new Box so → New Memory

Athetosis

Movement away from midline (opposite to normal)

M Cells signal temporal variations in

Movement of a stimulus

Locomotion

Movement of entire cell, including its leading and lagging process, over considerable distance (Glial guided radial movement of neurons) https://o.quizlet.com/p9jh2HkPzrUkNGyLShroDg_m.png

Sensory Transduction: Stage 1

Movement of the Basilar Membrane Up and Down https://o.quizlet.com/SXzmiIsET9GPjlyKWDOKww_m.jpg

How is hyperpolarizing the membrane potential related to the firing threshold?

Moving the resting membrane potential away from firing threshold (making it more negative)

The M Cells are (size compared to P Cells)

Much larger than P Cells

Endothelium of the BBB have *MDR* Proteins

Multi Drug Resistance Proteins

Difficulties: Learning likely involves activation of

Multiple pathways and brain areas

Long Term Memory involves

Multiple receptors, kinases, transcription and translation leading to morphological changes https://o.quizlet.com/bgHIFgD7gFsYtYu2n-1ekg_m.jpg

Type III and IV Fibres project to

Multiple spinal segments - branches - to yield response from many muscles

Sources of synaptic inputs into αMNs (4)

Muscle Receptors Segmental (Spinal) Interneurons Propriospinal Neurons Descending Tracts

Myotatic Reflex utilises which physiological receptor?

Muscle Spindle

Proprioceptors types (4)

Muscle Spindles, Golgi Tendon Organs, Pain Receptors and Joint Receptors

Mesoderm forms (2)

Muscles and *CT*

Why Transgenic Models < Gene Therapy Models?

Mutation only expressed in specific cells (e.g. dopaminergic cells in PD) ^ also used to infect one side and use other side (of brain) as control Sometimes mutation in transgenic kills model before adulthood - can't study adult

White is due to _____ made by _____ in the CNS

Myelin, oligodendrocytes

Stretch Reflex is (2) reflexes

Myotatic/Tendon/Monosynaptic Reflex/Knee Jerk H-Reflex (Hoffman)

AMPA receptors are permeable to (2)

Na+ and K+

NMDA receptors are permeable to (3)

Na+, K+ and *Ca2+* (highly)

The left part of the visual field is projected onto which part of the retina? (assuming left eye)

Nasal part of the retina (right)

Classical Conditioning

Natural reflex is modified by associating its normal triggering stimulus with an unrelated stimulus (food with bell)

Why animal models > cell culture models?

Necessary to *model a complex disease* and *test new drugs* before human clinical trials.

What are the (8) layers of the retina? (Outside in)

Nerve Fibre Layer Ganglion Layer Inner Plexiform Layer Inner Nuclear Layer Outer Plexiform Layer Outer Nuclear Layer Photoreceptor Outer Segments Pigment Epithelium https://o.quizlet.com/91lvHZWO.FCrBCrJTrfSkw_m.png

Motion aftereffect is believed to be the result of?

Neural Adaptation

Where will the brain and spinal cord end up sitting?

Neural Groove

Neural Precursor Cells are ____ ____ cells that give rise to (4)

Neural Stem Cells, more stem cells, neurons, astrocytes and oligodendroglial cells

The Neural Crests come together to from the

Neural Tube https://o.quizlet.com/Fy8w548bO5acv4wswrHESw_m.png

Neural Fatigue

Neural adaptation of neurons stimulated by downward movement reduces their baseline activity, tilting the balance in favour of upward movement

Phantom Limb: Injury?

Neural inhibition lost, so other areas spread https://o.quizlet.com/2TaZMI5jsmJZagorQmjmgA_m.jpg

Radial Migration (2)

Neuroblasts migrate on and guided by radial fibers. Somal Translocation of Cell Body

Neural Precursor Cells directly above the notochord form the _____ (2) through the process of _____?

Neuroectoderm or Neural Plate, through Neurulation

Lewy Bodies contain

Neurofilamants

Another name for Glia?

Neuroglia

Necrosis results in

Neuroinflammation

What type of classification of human microglial subsets is often based on appearance?

Neurological

>50% of preterm infants have (2)

Neurological injury + neurodevelopmental handicap

The olfactory receptor (in contrast to other sensory organs) is a

Neuron - nerve terminals in the mucosa of the nose and the other end at the olfactory bulb https://o.quizlet.com/7XfNx1ofeZqWrBUw9aytWw_m.jpg

[Diagram] Responses of olfactory receptor neurons to selected odorants

Neuron I responds similarly to three different odorants. In contrast neuron 2 responds to only one of these odorants. Neuron 3 responds to two of the three stimuli. https://o.quizlet.com/VRFzXTKPOeWT572G4fUjsg_m.jpg

Physiological Recovery after stroke (3)

Neuronal Plasticity Recruitment of 2ndary motor areas on ipsilateral hemisphere Activation of homologous areas of contralateral hemisphere

Cerebral Blood Flow <10 ml/100g/min

Neuronal cell membrane function is severely affected

What are (8) cell types in the human CNS?

Neurons *Glia*: Oligodendrocytes, Astrocytes and Microglia *Others*: Endothelial Cells, Pericytes, Fibroblast like and Stem Cells https://o.quizlet.com/UkA7J6-DMTl5ol9qu5-BHA_m.png

Ice Cube Model

Neurons (a mixture) respond to: Interaural Time Delay Interaural Intensity Difference https://o.quizlet.com/3WjwZMmTAvZKcFSWz4qdEQ_m.jpg

What does experience-dependent learning require?

Neurons acquiring responsiveness to new stimuli *and* losing responsiveness to previously effective stimuli

Cerebral Blood Flow <5ml/100g/min

Neurons cannot survive for long

Modality: Specificity of response underlies *labelled line*

Neurons from specific receptors are modality specific (they only care about their sense)

In the rodent brain, there is a constant supply of _____ to which structure?

Neurons to the Olfactory Bulb

In which cells don't we see expression of CB2 (2)? Where do we see a little bit of expression (1)?

Neurons, Astrocytes (maybe a little on microglial cells)

What is MPTP?

Neurotoxin accidently made by drug addicts that induces PD in humans (death of dopaminergic neurons)

MPTP

Neurotoxin, affects SN dopaminergic neurons, variable response

What (2) things are required at the synapse for synaptogenesis?

Neurotransmitters and Receptors

Astrocytes are important sources of

Neurotrophic Factors

Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor is a

Neurotrophin

Other name for BBB

Neurovascular Unit https://o.quizlet.com/-W0n0pdVRu.KjenObI9OtA_m.png

Learning

New information acquired by NS, leads to change in behaviour

Name of pathway from SN -> Striatum?

Nigrostriatal Pathway

Can you get activation of phosphatases is the presence of phosphatase inhibitors?

No - duh

How long does CP last?

No cure - life long

Genetic (2)

No direct genetic link Hereditary predisposition and familial pattern of inheritance (11 genes)

(Non-cystic) Diffuse White Matter (myelination) Injury

No holes but selective death of oligodendrocytes (less myelin, less white)

What happens if we block SNA activity with drugs?

No vasoconstriction → CBF remains normal → Brain activity not suppressed → more microseizures

Are Microglial Cells all the same?

No, they are a mixture of cells (different functional subsets) that can have different localised functions

Are Neurons self sufficient?

No. They are not sufficient to look after themselves, need glial cells to help out (astrocytes are critical in their survival)

Flexion (withdrawal) Reflex Receptor

Nociceptors

Pain Receptors

Nociceptors in skin

What inhibits BMP4?

Noggin and Chordin

Oxidative Stress

Noise exposure -> overproduction of free radicals by mitochondria in OHCs -> damage cells

What are (3) causes of hearing loss? (Neurosensory Pathology)

Noise-induced hearing loss Age-related hearing loss Drug-induced hearing loss (ototoxicity) (the mycin drugs)

What are the two amyloid processing pathways?

Non-Amyloidogenic and Amyloidogenic https://o.quizlet.com/V1zl0QGZFZUh2rqomjhE-Q_m.png

Anterior/Lateral Spinothalamic Tract - Type of sensation (2)

Non-Discriminative Pathway Anterior: Crude Touch and Pressure Lateral: Pain and Temperature https://o.quizlet.com/1vD50NogugBeRhnX8IAKFg_m.jpg

Desialylation (1)

Non-Migratory Neurons

Damage to Primary Somatosensory Cortex leads to partial loss of... (also why?)

Non-discriminative sensation (can't accurately localise), not complete loss as tracts *project to other areas as well*

The neurons that migrate from the ventricular layer up are ___-______ neurons?

Non-dividing neurons

Just Dopaminergic Neurons affected in PD?

Non-dopaminergic cells are also affected elsewhere in the brain

HD symptoms early in life?

None

Innate Immunity

Nonspecific defense mechanisms that come into play immediately or within hours of an antigen's appearance in the body

Most people can live with Lissencephaly or Polymicrogyria and

Not even know lewl (asymptomatic)

How is bitterness reception perceived?

Not possible to distinguish bitter compounds only that they are "bad"

What are the afferent OHC neurotransmitters?

Not quite clear, but ATP probs

This experiment was being done on the hippocampus on one side. What was happening to the contralateral side?

Nothing - no stimulation so no potentiation

BMPs are produced by

Notochord

Where does the Facial Nerve synapse?

Nucleus of the solitary tract (Gustatory nucleus)

Reverse Transduction

OHC Stereocilia - the electrical signals of hair cells evoke a mechanical output (rather than sending information to the brain)

Efferent Fibers innervate mainly the _____ (Type of cell). What is the function of these cells?

OHCs - Regulate excitability depending upon feedback from brainstem auditory pathways. This contributes to dynamic changes in hearing sensitivity as ambient sound levels change.

What are the most sensitive cells in our ears prone to pathology (leading to deafness)?

OHCs - loss of these = loss of amplification of sound, 50-60dB decrease in hearing https://o.quizlet.com/xiPK9g3Em2cFPggHnN3eMw_m.jpg

Ventral "What" Pathway/Stream

Object Processing - Colour, texture, pictorial *detail*, shape and size

Braille: What evidence for visual cortex being recruited for somatosensory function?

Occipital lobe impairment → Braille recognition disrupted

What are the (5) junctional proteins used in the BBB?

Occludin Claudins ZO-1 (Zona Occludens) Cadherins JAMs (Junctional Adhesion Molecules)

3. Lacunar infarcts

Occlusion of a small penetrating branch of a larger cerebral artery. Penetrating arteries supply the deep white matter.

1. Total anterior circulation infarct (TACI)

Occlusion of internal carotid artery or middle cerebral artery. Clinical features: (1) Focal higher cerebral dysfunction (2) Homonymous vision defect (3) Unilateral motor/sensory deficit

3. Posterior circulation infarct (POCI)

Occlusion of vertebral, basilar or posterior cerebral artery. Clinical features: (1) Motor/sensory deficit (2) Messed up eye movements (3) Cerebellum problems (4) Homonomous vision problems

Which species have the retina at the front?

Octopus and molloscus

Brief olfaction mechanism?

Odorant molecules activate a G Protein receptor (Adenylate cyclase and cAMP) resulting in activation of the neuron/receptor https://o.quizlet.com/9UVF-ZesCkd35zJ9JkphbQ_m.jpg

What is an example (mouse) of Accessory olfactory systems?

Odors from female mouse cause male mouse to mate, but odors from other males may make him aggressive

Spatial arrangement of receptors enables resolution

Of fine detail of stimulus or environment

Spatial arrangement of receptors enables descrimination

Of size and shape of object

What structure is first to be affected in Alzheimer's or Parkinson's?

Olfactory Bulb - loss of sense of smell

In Alzheimer's and Parkinson's, the areas become affected, starting from the _____ and moving through and up to the _____ in Parkinson's

Olfactory Bulb, Substantia Nigra. https://o.quizlet.com/Kr-dp9DaiikiPTrbvNZOgQ_m.png

Name for smell cortex?

Olfactory Cortex

What is the olfactory pathway starting from the receptors in the nasal mucosa?

Olfactory Receptors -> Olfactory Nerve (I) -> Olfactory Bulb -> Olfactory Tract -> Pyriform Cortex https://o.quizlet.com/g-jJ7zxuOHQkcc.ax0fCRw_m.jpg

How do we test and develop new drugs?

On disease animal models

Spatial arrangement of receptors provides information

On location of stimulus source on body or in space

On which part of the cells and why is PSA used?

On the *spines* of dendrites that *forage* for new connections, putting PSA on top allows for a smooth slide through

Which hypothesis is used for olfactory genes?

One gene, one receptor

Each receptor is specialised to

One or few specific odorant molecule

Of the three sensory cells, how many seem to be receptors?

Only 2

Each muscle fibre is innervated by

Only one MN at a single NMJ

Ribbon Synapse (only present in 2)

Only present in the *ear and the eye*, simultaneous and fast release of neurotransmitter

LTD Specificity

Only synapses that are stimulated by the 1 Hz protocol are depressed

Input Specificity

Only the activated synapses are potentiated (other synapses on the same neuron are not)

Sensory System Attribute: Timing

Onset, duration and offset of stimulus coded by frequency of the neural activity https://o.quizlet.com/kuPjWm4b0df.Ljd8kkQ11Q_m.png

What happens as a result of the presynaptic glutamate release?

Opening of glutamate receptors on the postsynaptic membrane -> conduction of current (influx of Na) -> action potential

What is the expression pattern of the CAM molecules?

Ordinarily not expressing them, but expression elevated during inflammatory response

What is the central part of the cochlea?

Organ of Corti

High level of stress/injury destroying affecting the IHCs and OHCs leads to?

Organ of Corti is completely collapsed, so complete deafness (hearing aids are not helpful)

What are (2) simple aspects of the hippocampus? What does this enable?

Organisation and Architecture. This enables stimulation of specific axonal paths and recordings from specific postsynaptic pyramidal cells in a certain area

What is the collective name for the 3 ossicles?

Ossicular Chain

How do we detect the location of sound?

Our brain interprets the time difference between the sound reaching one ear vs the other ear

How we interpret the words depends on

Our experience!

The decline of sense of smell with age affects

Our sense of taste and food will lose its flavour as we age

Environmental Toxins

Outbreak in drug addicts MPTP - Narcotic Analogue

What are the (2) Hair cells and (%)??

Outer (75%) and Inner (25%) Hair Cells

How did the patients involved in the trial respond?

Outraged - they thought they were getting better. 4 of 6 on trial were actually on placebo

Pure Tone Audiograms are recorded in normally hearing subjects

Over the course of their life

Structural Plasticity

Over time stable enlargement of cortical representation can occur

(2) Production of ATP (energy) under aerobic conditions

Oxidative Phosphorylation Glucose → 38 ATP + 6 CO2 + 6 H20

Limiting factor to maintain energy production is what and is not what?

Oxygen (≠ glucose)

Partial Pressure is the driving force for

Oxygenation in body

Which groups interact between leukocytes and endothelial cells that causes the leukocytes to roll along the endothelium?

P-Selectin on endothelial cells and Oligosaccharides on the leukocyte cell surface

What are the (2) drivers of acidosis?

PCO2 and Lactic Acid

Microglia can respond to cytokines during inflammation to increase their _____ activity

PHAGOCYTIC

Neural crest becomes the PNS/CNS?

PNS https://o.quizlet.com/1RW.AQf4cuprezjhkvwBYA_m.png

Blood Oxygenation depends on (3) factors

PO2 dissolved in the blood Hb O2 saturation Hb concentration

Cells in the Rostral Migratory Stream have what on them that helps them with locomotion?

PSA (a sugar chain) on the outside of NCAM (on the outside membrane) = Polysialylated-neural cell adhesion molecule

Nocioreception

Pain sensation

Conditioned Learning

Pair a novel stimulus (chocolate) with a pre-existing stimulus (telling penny to be quiet) to generate a response (she stops talking)

What is more commonly used to induce LTP today?

Pairing

By which (2) mechanisms can leukocytes infiltrate the BBB?

Paracellular or Transcellular

Complex Deficits

Parietal (Association Cortex or other somatosensory areas) Damage

Optic Disc

Part of retina at optic nerve entry, lacks visual receptors so creates blind spot https://o.quizlet.com/i/NOVvlYLASZLc3AZKpDWGTg_m.jpg

A visual field defect is a loss of

Part of the usual field of vision

What are the limitation of animal models? (3)

Partial Model (not perfect as human would be) No co-morbidity (in practice we see multiple risk factors contributing to disease) Have to extrapolate rodent physiolgoy to human physiology

Pathological

Partial or total loss of memory From CNS injuries or disease

How is the intensity of sound distributed when the high frequency sound comes from any *oblique angle*?

Partial sound shadow for one ear, some reduction in intensity https://o.quizlet.com/6GSLTM7GSu64leSUY57YeA_m.png

When they have reached the appropriate location, what happens to the neurons?

Particular genes (for *growth/transcription factors*) are turned on, which leads to the *growth* of axons, dendrites and synapses.

Rhythmic Motor Patterns are?

Partly voluntary, partly involuntary

Midget Cells

Parvocellular/P Pathway/P Cells

Frequency distribution along the human cochlea basilar membrane is known as _____ Tonotopy

Passive Tonotopy https://o.quizlet.com/6jUFN8-v7Tw8TajWB6x-Gg_m.jpg

Monochromats are usually associated with

Pathology later in life

Farnsworth Panel D-15

Patients are asked to arrange 15 coloured caps in sequential order based on similarity from the pilot colour cap

Normal Macroscopic anatomy of striatum and cerebrum?

Pear shaped striatum and thick, tightly packed gyri

Braille: What else changes?

People who read braille often blind - areas involved with sight (Occipital Lobe) used for somatosensory (reorganisation and redistribution)

What is a theory of the Motion Aftereffect?

Perception is coded as the balance among the baseline responses of neurons coding all possible directions of motion

Trisynaptic Loop (3)

Perforant Path, Mossy Fibres, Schaffer Collaterals https://o.quizlet.com/WjPV.048fF5ioZPa5l6x5A_m.png

Ischaemic penumbra

Peripheral - Electrical failure and dysfunction of neurons Salvageable if early re-perfusion

Somatosensory Injury can occur in (4)

Peripheral Nerve Spinal Cord Thalamus Cortex

Compare and contrast swelling in peripheral tissues and the brain

Peripheral tissues can have oedema and swelling, no problem. But for the brain it is encased in a skull so there is nowhere for that pressure to go

What cells are in close proximity or wrapped around the vessel?

Perivascular Microglial Cells

What else can Microglial Cell be called (types)? (7)

Perivascular, foamy, phagocytic, non-phagocytic, antigen presenting (disease), activated (inflammation) and ramified

Phantom Limb: Loss of input from amputated limb?

Permanent *reorganisation* of the cerebral cortex via *sprouting* of other axons

What are the negative effects of pregnant mothers taking cocaine?

Permanently *stall* out the neuron as it is migrating on the Radial Fibre. Neuronal function depends on their position, and if the cells are stalled, they will end up in the wrong location and formation of other cells is affected

What is CaMKII known to do?

Phosphorylate many proteins

Seeing in well illuminated areas (day) (about 0.03 cd/m2)

Photopic

Different Types of Memory/Learning (4)

Phylogenetic Association and Motivation Modality Dependent Meaningfulness

Engram

Physical embodiment (change associated with storage) of memory in neuronal machinery

Senses detect and convey _____ information about _____ and _____ environment

Physical information about external and internal environment

The Black Box Analogy: Output

Picture (Perception - not just seeing)

What are the characteristics of the neurons that degenerate in Parkinson's? (5)

Pigmented Melanin-containing Located in Pars compacta (substantia nigra) Project to striatum (caudate nucleus and putamen) Use Dopamine (as NT)

Autonomic temperature responses?

Piloerection, Vasoconstriction/dilation, Sweating, Shivering, Thermogenesis

Causes of Fetal Hypoxia-Ischemia (8)

Placental abruption Umbilical cord knot Twisted umbilical cord Meconium staining Prolonged birth Cardiovascular instability or congenital heart disease Cardiorespiratory arrest Preterm lung development

Pre-Motor Cortex

Planning of movement for finer control

As the cells differentiate, the organism looses _____ in favour of _____

Plasticity, function

How can we (scientists) measure interaural time delay? (Low frequency sound)

Play sound at left ear, AP will arrive at Superior Olivary Complex (SOC). Some ms later, sound will elicit AP at the right ear. The left ear APs will travel further along the SO axons in the time it takes for the APs from the right ear to reach the SOC. APs meet up closer to the right and fuse to form an AP that represents sound coming from the left. https://o.quizlet.com/FjjKzPoeeah32p74afyILg_m.jpg

What does smell evoke?

Pleasant and unpleasant responses

C (IV) Fibres respond to all three pain sensations. This is known as being

Polymodal

What does the fourth ventricle have in front and behind it?

Pons in front, cerebellum behind it

Field of Vision

Portion of the surrounding that can be seen at one time (what you can see with both eyes open) https://o.quizlet.com/V42cX-MAmE18e00Ulw4YPg_m.jpg

Sensory System Attribute: Location

Position of stimulus in space (spatial component)

Types of Operant Conditioning (3)

Positive reinforcement, Negative reinforcement and Punishment https://o.quizlet.com/D0gSqTqsvlOa6pyT9JDVeA_m.jpg

Why do the muscles change their physiology?

Possible involvement of *trophic factors* released simultaneously with ACh

Spinal Cord Injuries (4)

Posterior Cord Syndrome Anterior Cord Syndrome Brown-Squared Syndrome (hemisection) Central Cord Syndrome

Postsynaptic Apparatus is made up of (2)

Postsynaptic density and Postsynaptic receptors

(2) Perinatal Brain Injury types (temporal)?

Pre Term and At Term

If there is more co-activation of the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes there will be more Ca influx through the NMDA receptor. Therefore the level of Ca entering the NMDA receptor is a measure of

Pre and postsynaptic co-activation

Aetiolgoy

Predominantly Genetic 1:1 M:F

Technical term for Age Related Hearing Loss?

Presbyacusis

CB2 expression relates to presence of _____ and the activation of _____

Presence of Immune cells (leukocytes) and activation of the BBB

P Cells are good at signalling (2) of a visual stimulus but poor at signalling (1)?

Presence, colour and duration, stimulus movement

What are the (3) key genes that cause familial AD?

Presenilin 1, 2 and APP

What are the two CNS synapse components?

Presynaptic Terminal and Postsynaptic Apparatus

What else increases as people age? (2 examples)

Prevalence of neurodegenerative diseases and dementia, especially cerebrovascular disease and stroke

COMPT inhibitors

Prevent breakdown of dopamine in synaptic cleft

Treatments of acute ischaemic stroke (3)

Prevent thrombus/embolism Thrombolysis Mechanically remove thrombus

Supportive Evidence: What does Genetic removal of the CaMKII gene do?

Prevents LTP and induces learning deficits in rodents

(1) Insult Phase

Primary Insult Cannot prevent - cells destroyed in the event gone E.g. Hypoxia Insult to foetus

What are (3) key structures in the Frontal Lobe?

Primary Motor Cortex, *Pre-motor Cortex* and Association Cortex

(5) Somatosensory Brain Regions

Primary Somatosensory Cortex (S1) Secondary Somatosensory Cortex (S2) Somatosensory Association Cortex Cerebellum Thalamus

However, motion detection logic also applies to

Primate cortex, human physiology, psychophysics and to the vertebrate retina of some species (mice, rabbits)

During brain injury, what do Microglial Cells produce? (Be specific)

Pro-inflammatory Cytokines

During neuroinflammation the endothelial cells respond to what (and 2 examples)?

Pro-inflammatory cytokines, Interleukin 1, TNFα in the blood

Types of Non-Declarative Memory (3)

Procedural, Motor skills and Emotional

What can Astrocytes do being in close proximity to neurons?

Produce and metabolise NT via connections with neurons

Meaningfulness and memory

Professional Chess Player vs. Beginners/Logical positioning vs Random positioning https://o.quizlet.com/mE2PjJGvdmgVol8qk.PQ.Q_m.jpg

Microglial Cells are known as the brain's (not RICs)

Professional Phagocytes

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death

During or shortly after birth injuries caused by (3)

Prolonged labor, cord problems, blood pressure instability

Transgene Expression Cassette is made up of (4)

Promoter - Cell Specific and regulatable Transgene - Report (GFP) + Gene of interest Regulatory Elements - Conditional

Example of Transgene Expression Cassette

Promoter - Tet on (tetracycline addition turns it on) Transgene - BDNF and GFP Infect animal with 6OHDA to induce PD and see if BDNF protects cells from dying

I → IV types of information carried?

Proprioception → Touch → Pain/Temp

Brodmann Area 3a

Proprioceptive

Posterior Spinocerebellar Tract

Proprioceptive information from *limbs and body*

Other name for Forebrain

Prosencephalon

What are the (2) forms of dichromacy?

Protanopia and Deuteranopia

Normal function of the *huge* Huntingtin (Htt)? (3)

Protein Transport Anti-apoptotic ↑neurotrophin levels

c-fos

Protein which is expressed (transcribed/translated) in active cells that hold the memory

Overproduction of dendritic branches lead to

Pruning

What happens after the maximum synapse number is reached?

Pruning

Common: Cell in dorsal root ganglion is

Pseudounipolar https://o.quizlet.com/a-O5zLHXZ2JcF-yEUxLA3Q_m.jpg

How was GDNF administered in humans?

Pumps installed in abdomens and tubing travelled to substantia nigra (both sides) → GDNF infused periodically into brain

What is a common Subjective Method?

Pure Tone Audiograms https://o.quizlet.com/3QgY4t3JfPp1hNJotgMVNQ_m.jpg

Pure Tone Audiogram

Pure tones are played to the ear and the subject indicates when they hear the sound

How do we test proof of concept?

Putting animal models through tests

PSA-NCAM is like

Putting soap and water on your before going down the hydro slide to reduce friction, you don't form any 'connections' with the slide

After Neural Tube Closure, what begins to form, that will form the scaffold on which the neurons will travel up?

Radial Glial Fibres made by Radial Glia https://o.quizlet.com/8UTYHMw6hIfx-6MnXTKC-A_m.png

Which type of pattern does this form?

Radial Inside-out pattern https://o.quizlet.com/glVsngcPQkt2XQVVux47QQ_m.png

What are the two forms of migration?

Radial and Tangential

PET Scanning (+ 2 examples)

Radioactive tracer binds to certain molecules in the brain and can be scanned. (1) Radioactively labeled glucose (decreased energy metabolism in AD) (2) Pittsburg Compound B binds Aß

Synapses enable _________, forming complex _________ through the brain

Rapid communication, neuronal circuits

Remodelling process for synaptogenesis is rapid during _____ but slower during_____

Rapid during development, slower during adulthood

What was the rat model experiment setup that involved Allopregnanolone?

Rats socially isolated (SI) to induce depression, which lead to subsequent loss of motivation

When does Ischaemic penumbra → Core Ischemic Zone?

Re-perfusion is not achieved early enough Severe biochemical changes due to ischemia

AADC

Reached Phase 1 trials twice, on it's third phase 1 trial as we can't get dosage right

Find Engram: Step 3 - Reactivate?

Reactivate/recall memory without stimulus Apply blue light with *optical fibre implant* → stimulate memory

Loss of tissue often replaced by?

Reactive Astrocytes

How is sound localisation manifested at the Superior Olivary Nucleus? (Low frequency sound)

Receives neurons from both ears -> there are a range of neurons that fire in response to different Interaural Time Delays (e.g. a subset of neurons respond to 0.8ms, so effectively they are activated when sound comes from directly left or right) https://o.quizlet.com/C6DwIt2hjLydmah-aK.gKQ_m.jpg

Postsynaptic Apparatus

Receives neurotransmitter, converting chemical signal back to electrical

Spatial arrangement is the

Receptive Field (I.e. only *that* receptor receives the stimulus, and nothing around it)

Ganglion cells have

Receptive Fields

Stage Theory: What are the (2) stages? (not trichromatic/opponency)

Receptor Stage and Neural Processing

Vision

Receptor is retina, light is directed to this, visual cortex https://o.quizlet.com/uU-OaQPaIKYxtceolNL7-A_m.png

What are the (5) elements of Spinal (+Brainstem) Reflexes?

Receptors (Physiological) Afferent (sensory) Fibres Central Synaptic Relays Efferent (motor) Fibres Effectors (muscles)

Modality: Receptor Specificity

Receptors are *morphologically* specialised for specific form of energy

Hearing

Receptors in the ear pick up the vibrations https://o.quizlet.com/Mxs-ZmCl9JF94jyFDirUSA_m.png

How is Dichromacy inherited?

Recessive, sex linked

What does the Myotatic Reflex manifest?

Reciprocal Inhibition https://o.quizlet.com/1fZHev1TFLxfBt8rjI3BvQ_m.jpg

What does our retina and brain do after separating intensity and wavelength?

Recombines them into colour perception

Compound Potentials

Recorded at a distance from origin, sum of unit potentials

Compund Potential Example: Electrocochleography

Recording compound potential, insert electrode through tympanic membrane to round window, shape different from AP - technique used in humans https://o.quizlet.com/OoIHuE8YdymsQlY2g952Vg_m.jpg

Objective Methods

Recordings of electrical activity at various stages along the auditory pathway (cochlea -> cortex)

Most injury occurs during when and when not?

Recovery, not primary insult

What does ACh esterase do?

Recycles ACh → AcetylCoA + Choline at synapse

Components of Light

Red to blue parts https://o.quizlet.com/fEMjIHBG74pLXGDN5CRIzg_m.png

Colour of S Type/Type I?

Red, ↑myoglobin, ↑blood supply

What is Post Asphyxial Hypoperfusion?

Reduced brain blood flow after the reperfusion phase, as a protective response

Hypomimia

Reduced degree of facial expression

Abnormal gait

Reduced or absent arm swing, shortened stride length

What is the proof of concept of Allopregnanolone?

Reduced the time mice stay immobile in the water (i.e. less depressed even with isolation)

Blocking CB2 has which (2) effects?

Reduces infiltration of blood leukocytes Protective function towards the BBB

miRNA: With added BDNF

Reduces specific miRNA levels and increases expression of specific proteins (<4%)

Hemineglect

Reduction in *attention* to and *spatial awareness* of the contralateral side of body (relative to damage)

What do Cajal Retzius Cells produce? What does this do?

Reelin, tells the cells to hop off from the Radial Fiber and *form the next layer*

*Value*/Tone/Brightness

Reflectance and luminosity

Brainstem and spinal cord are for what type of movements? (2)

Reflex Movements Rhythmic Motor Patterns

The tectum/colliculi are involved with

Reflexes/body orientation (Neck/eyes) towards a stimulus

Pure Tone

Regular wave of a single frequency https://o.quizlet.com/1gCauVZRFT1k9qoiEzB0VQ_m.jpg

The scala vestibuli and scala media are separated by?

Reissner's Membrane

What is a better way of classifying cells?

Relating the name to the cells function, however this can get confusing

Sensory Transduction: Stage 5

Release of neurotransmitter from these Hair Cells -> Sound information is sent to the brain

What does tetanic stimulation of the presynaptic terminals result in?

Releases large amounts of glutamate that activates AMPA receptors on the postsynaptic cell and results in depolarisation of the postsynaptic cell

What does dephosphorylation of AMPA receptors lead to?

Removal of AMPA receptors from the postsynaptic membrane https://o.quizlet.com/j4G.24M1PywDmWgF6a0ycQ_m.png

Sources: Segmental (Spinal) Interneurons (example think FF6/7)

Renshaw Cells

(2) Recovery Phase can be broken into (3) (and durations)

Reperfusion (0-30min) Latent (30min - 6h) Secondary (3h - 2/3d)

What happens after the insult is removed?

Reperfusion phase - CBF restored in first ~30 minutes https://o.quizlet.com/3mnckwm9ZDl8eFUzH3x2RA_m.png

What was applied to the Perforant Path of anaesthetised rabbits?

Repetitive trains of stimuli

How can gene therapy be used? (3)

Replace damaged genes with normal ones Insert genes that synthesise therapeutic molecules that prevent cells from dying Insert genes that code for enzymes involved in metabolic functions

How can we test if our viral vector is working?

Replace viral genes with GFP - if cells glow green your retrovirus worked

History of gene therapy

Replaced damaged gene with corrected gene in children with Bubble-Boy Disease in late 1990's → cured 9/10

Viral vectors cannot induce further cell infection. This is called?

Replication deficient

What is used to insert genes into a patient's DNA (be specific)?

Replication-deficient viral vector

YFP

Reporter gene (enhanced yellow fluorescence protein) → can visualise when expressed (when memory recalled)

What is cell reprogramming?

Reprogramming mature cells to become pluripotent

What is the relationship between normal sensation and nociceptive sensation?

Requires greater stimuli (intensity) to evoke noxious response (weaker will evoke normal thermoreception etc.) https://o.quizlet.com/DpYhhHoO72U03cjjiLKHCQ_m.jpg

The density of receptors define the

Resolution of the stimulus https://o.quizlet.com/82nm.WPjR7m3B-pTCh1OkA_m.png

Presynaptic Terminal

Responsible for transmitter release, converting the electrical signal to chemical

(6) Cardinal Clinical Features

Rest tremor Cogwheel Rigidity/Increased Tone Bradykinesia/akinesia Abnormal gait Abnormal postural reflexes Hypomimia

Current flow through the AMPA receptor can be measured when the postsynaptic cell is close to its

Resting membrane potential (~-65mV) https://o.quizlet.com/O9ptlpTafpvOpYCCp8o9wg_m.png

Recovery Phase: Reperfusion

Restore oxygen/blood flow to brain

Examples of Extrareceptors? (other modalities)

Retina (powerful), vestibular, auditory, olfactory, skin https://o.quizlet.com/WfwbtKE-7Gz1GJoovUXqMQ_m.png

The cells that travel up the radial fibers have to do what to their processes when they reach their appropriate location?

Retract their leading and trailing processes and differentiate

What takes Long-Term → Short-Term/Working memory?

Retrieval

Types of amnesia (2)

Retrograde and Anterograde

Unconscious Proprioception (example)

Righting Reflex - stop body from falling over

Involuntary Movements include (5)

Rigidity Extrapyramidal Hyperkinetic Movements Chorea Athetosis Late stage hypokinesia

Which (2) cell types are the only ones that process light in the retina?

Rods and Cones

Factors: Dark Adaptation

Rods and cones recovery function

Root Hair Plexus

Roots of hairs

The neurons migrate via which highway to get to the Olfactory Bulb?

Rostral Migratory Stream https://o.quizlet.com/YAnCjTihuQ3ccO3IPic7ew_m.png

Subarachnoid Haemorrhage (SAH) usually due to

Rupture of berry aneurysm (site of wall weakening)

Higher risk of developing Parkinson's for people living where due to what?

Rural, herbicide or pesticide exposure

Recruitment/Size Principle of motor units

S recruited first during weak contractions, FF recruited when high muscle force required

What are the (3) types of cone photoreceptors? (Not BGR)

S-cones, M-cones and L-cones

Secondary Somatosensory Cortex (S2) have projections to (3+2)

S1, association cortex, motor cortex, amygdala and hippocampus

Which site is phosphorylated in LTP?

S831 (Serine 831)

Transduction mechanism of *salt* (Type 1 Cells)

Salt is NaCl: Na+ influx through *Amiloride*-sensitive sodium channel -> depolarisation of the receptor cell membrane -> More Na and Ca influx ->exocytosis mediated release of *Serotonin* https://o.quizlet.com/TmeP22FY-sADjNYnQDT.ug_m.png

Music Tone

Same as pure tone but characteristicsof timbre or tone colour exist https://o.quizlet.com/2T81Ynu-cGOqGryySlXvJA_m.jpg

*Chroma*/Saturation

Saturation of the signal (how much of the colour/signal is present)

What are (3) key features of LTP?

Saturation, Specificity and Associativity

(2) cochlear compartments are filled with

Scala Tympani and Scala Vestibuli, Perilymph

Cells that do myelination in the PNS and CNS?

Schwann Cells in the PNS, Oligodendrocytes in the CNS

Seeing in poor illuminated areas (night)

Scotopic

Structure of the brain is as much a product of ____ as much as it is a product of growth

Sculpting

Methodological Difficulties in animal experiments

See below

Unwanted depolarisation leads to (2)

Seizures Abnormal brain activity

Secondary Seizures

Seizures are the *result* of cell death, they do not *cause* cell death https://o.quizlet.com/W37khM-UJXumKl1jHozjLw_m.png

Recovery Phase: Secondary

Seizures, decline in function

(3) At term Perinatal Brain Injury types

Selective Neuronal Death Laminar Cell Death Focal Grey Matter lesions (holes) https://o.quizlet.com/IYsu3Dy-u46kE-xvjHa1eQ_m.png

The BBB is known to be a _____ _____ membrane, as there is no _____ barrier in biology

Selectively Permeable, Absolute

What does a low level of calcium influx through NMDA receptors do?

Selectively activates protein phosphatases

What are chemical sensations?

Sensations from interaction of molecules in air and fluid with *chemoreceptors*

Proprioception

Sense of movement and body position

S2 invovled with ___(compound word)__ integration of sensation from

Sensorimotor, sensation from both sides of body

Sensory 2 - Gustation and Olfaction

Sensory 2 - Gustation and Olfaction

Sensory 3 - Auditory 1

Sensory 3 - Auditory 1

Sensory 4 - Auditory 2

Sensory 4 - Auditory 2

Sensory 5 - Vision 1

Sensory 5 - Vision 1

Sensory 6 - Vision 2

Sensory 6 - Vision 2

The tectorial membrane is in close contact with

Sensory Hair cells of the Organ of Corti

What are (3) ways of tract segregation?

Sensory Modality Somatotopic Arrangement Medial-Lateral Rule

The Neural Crest Cells give rise to (6)

Sensory Neurons and Glial Cells Ganglia (a structure containing a number of nerve cell bodies) Cartilage (Face) CT (Face) Adrenal glands Pigmented cells (like dopaminergic cells of the brain and of the skin)

Modality: Transduction

Sensory receptors transform signal (from stimulus) into electrical energy

Which pathways carry information about a single type of stimulus? (3)

Sensory, afferent or ascending pathways

What do current drugs for depression target?

Serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake

Focal Cystic Necrosis is an example of a _____ insult

Severe

Thunderclap headache

Severe and sudden-onset headache

Which (3) aspects of vision does the retina process - what do we see? (Not physics)

Shapes, colours and borders

Which mammal has a very large Olfactory Bulb? Why? (2)

Sheep, used for detecting types of grass and their babies

High frequency stereocilia

Short

BDNF Functions: Can activate (2)

Short Term: CaMKII Long Term: PI-3K, PKA, PKC, CaMKII

S-Cones, maximum sensitivity to

Short-wavelength sensitive, Blue, 440nm https://farm1.staticflickr.com/5/4649941_3878ff663e_m.jpg

Trichromatic Theory: Cone Spectral Sensitivities

Shows that the cones are responsive to a specific range of wavelength https://o.quizlet.com/ltXYII66Hp6HjwsoMfYuEg_m.jpg

[Figure] Functional MRI of the Auditory Cortex

Shows tonotopic organisation https://o.quizlet.com/omYFQ9QQm0n.Wns9AuzzNw_m.png

The inhibitory synapse near the soma of the body activates and hyperpolarises this segment of the dendrite. This electrically shunts (dampens) the excitatory depolarisation arriving from the upstream region of the dentrite is called

Shunting Inhibition https://o.quizlet.com/uITzx3ByJ-ED0izXTZ6WLQ_m.png

Asphyxial insult - we observe what in EEG?

Shut down of brain activity (EEG fluctuations reduced) https://o.quizlet.com/2fpl533pTygaZUK5Pg74Ow_m.png

Intracerebral Haemorrhage (ICH) symptoms (3)

Similar symptoms as Stroke Thunderclap headache Loss of consciousness

H-Reflex (Hoffman)

Similar to Myotatic Reflex but you apply an electrical stimulus instead of hammer

Mononeuropathy and causes

Single Nerve Trauma, infection, loss of blood supply, compression (pins and needles)

Motor skills Non-Declarative Memory

Skills (subconscious) - Cerebellum

Procedural Non-Declarative Memory + Part of Brain Associated

Skills (subconscious) - Striatum

(2) types of adaptation?

Slow Adapting/Tonic Rapidly Adapting/Phasic

S/FF: Contraction Speed

Slow/Fast

Bradykinesia or akinesia

Slowness of movement (computer mouse)

Type II spiral ganglion neurons (Size and myelination)

Small and Unmeylinated

The M Cell receptive field is more sensitive to

Small center-surround brightness differences

Mechanoreceptor Receptive Field

Small for fine sensation - Fingers Larger for crude sensation - Back

Papillae

Small projections scattered about the surface of the tongue. Shaped like ridges, pimples or mushrooms https://o.quizlet.com/xwTke2fG02wzZJ26eBywPw_m.jpg

Small Bushy Ganglion Cells are concerned with processing

Small stationary, fine detail in tonically activated messages

Stage Theory: Blue/Yellow information is conveyed to which cells in the Retina and in the LGN?

Small-Bistratified Ganglion Cells and Koniocellular Nerons https://o.quizlet.com/20RNOEPhB5Tg2H8arfuiVg_m.png

S/FF: Muscle fibres size

Small/Large

S/FF: Size of cell body

Small/Large

S/FF: Tetanic Tension

Small/Large

Small cells are in layers __ and large cells (example) are in layers __

Small: 2 and 4 Large: 3 and 5, Motor Neurons

Accessory olfactory systems detect pheromones to mediate which (2) types of behaviours?

Social and sexual behaviours

Reflexes can be (2)

Somatic (our focus) or Autonomic

What are the (2) types of Gene Therapy?

Somatic and Germline

Name for touch cortex?

Somatosensory Cortex

∆ cortical representation termed? (2)

Somatosensory or Cortical Plasticity

Cerebellum is also organised?

Somatotopically https://o.quizlet.com/hyle1CItLffj8N1kF9XRLA_m.jpg

Activation Thresholds of mechanoreceptors?

Some activate with light touch, some with heavy

What do umami receptors detect?

Some amino acids (protein eg. glutamate and aspartate)

What are some visual adaptations of animals?

Some can detect infrared, some only colours except for red https://o.quizlet.com/0eSaegoLdXswal7H1upXtQ_m.png

However, there is no doubt that memory consolidation requires

Some form of synapse remodelling, and the mechanisms of synapse plasticity fit this requirement

Germline Gene Editing laws internationally differ how?

Some have bans with criminal penalties, some have guidlines

Selective Neuronal Death (define and what structures of brain affected)

Some neurons die off Hippocampus, cortex, striatum

Sound vibrations are filtered along the cochlear partition to produce focused displacement of the basilar membrane at frequency specific regions.

Sound moves through the cochlea and causes movement of hair cells at specific regions (each region is specific to a certain frequency)

How is the intensity of sound distributed when the high frequency sound comes from the *front*?

Sound shadow behind head, equal intensity for both ears https://o.quizlet.com/G4injpDwbLa1KROBaBYh4A_m.png

Type 3 Cells

Sour Taste Innervated directly GABA or serotonin NT here https://o.quizlet.com/YqfIKMCO7pIJcPreGRPffg_m.png

Transduction mechanism of *sour* (Type 3 Cells)

Sour is Acidic: H+ influx through channel or *blocking K+ channel* -> depolarisation of the receptor cell membrane -> More Na and Ca influx -> exocytosis mediated release of *Serotonin* https://o.quizlet.com/i4LjFwYf0KHrvbuKdH8b0w_m.png

Supramarginal/Angular Gyrus function (right)?

Spatial 3D recognition, arty side of the brain

Sense of smell is linked to ______, somewhat for us and more so for redents

Spatial Awareness

Supportive Evidence: Agents that block LTP/LTD also prevent

Spatial learning in rats (eg NMDA receptor blockade)

Most models focus on

Specific aspects of a disease. Aetiology Pathophysiology Symptomatology Response to drugs

How did Tim Bliss and Terje Lomo find LTP 40 years ago?

Specific stimulation of the Perforant Path (1) led to increased strength of the synapses onto Dentate Gyrus Cells (2)

(Choosing the right) Vector Tropism

Specificity of viral vectors targeting a specific cell type

Failure of the posterior end of the neural tube to close is

Spina bifida

Reflexes Golgi Tendon Organ generates? (2)

Spinal Supraspinal

Cerebellum pathway

Spinal Cord → Spinocerebellum → *Interposed Nucleus (Deep Cerebellar Nuclei)* → Thalamus → PMC https://o.quizlet.com/ZrgPCK5QjMW2FLBEqpAuwg_m.jpg

Somites become

Spinal Vertebrae

Where are processing centers found? (4)

Spinal cord, brainstem, thalamus and cerebral cortex https://o.quizlet.com/GxOUlDDcX3dtPRjVKV63xg_m.png

Cerebellum has input from which (3) areas?

Spine, Cerebral cortex and Vestibule (ears)

What are the (3) cerebellum regions based on input?

Spinocerebellum Cerebrocerebellum Vestibuloverebellum https://o.quizlet.com/cEiuk.MiBLvHnHjUNhqixg_m.jpg

What are (5) types of animal models?

Spontaneous Chemical Transgenic Genetically Induced Behaviour Models

Recovery Phase: Latent

Stability - don't observe any problems (Baby may look normal)

The Incus makes a ligamentous connection with the

Stapes

What is the meaning of *Astrocytes*?

Star-looking

Which cells are the candidate regulators of DS ganglion cells?

Starburst Amacrine Cells

Glialblastoma

Start with being fine, 4 months and size of golf ball tumor - fast and aggressive

How do you genetically reprogram cells?

Step 1: Get a Somatic (Skin) Cell (Biopsy) Step 2: Put in *pluripotency inducing genes* Step 3: Cells can form all cells of the body

What are the steps from umbilical cord occlusion → Brain injury?

Step 1: Occlusion of the umbilical cord Step 2: ↓oxygen + glucose delivery to foetus Step 3: Impaired foetal cardiovascular function Step 4: ↓BP + blood flow to brain Step 5: Brain injury results

How does glutamate excitotoxicity as a result of the primary insult cause cell damage and death? (8 steps)

Step 1: PRIMARY INSULT - cerebral energy deficit Step 2: Glutamate transporters cannot re-uptake glutamate from synapse Step 3: Glutamate accumulates at synapse Step 4: Excessive activation of glutamate receptors (LTP) Step 5: RECOVERY PHASE - Cerebral energy levels restored - Glutamates levels at synapse restored Step 6: Glutamate receptors now hypersensitive to glutamate Step 7: Glutamate release causes excessive postsynaptic cell activation (microseizures) Step 8: Excessive Ca influx into postsynaptic cells triggers apoptosis

Apoptosis Mechanism

Step 1: Pre Apoptotic Cell Step 2: Early Apoptotic - Membrane blebs form Step 3: Late Apoptotic - Apoptotic Bodies bud off Step 4: Macrophages/Microglia Clean these up https://o.quizlet.com/vha9UlVswSWBug-hiDUzEQ_m.jpg

Secondary Oxidative Metabolism Failure

Step 1: Something is triggered during the insult OM Failure Step 2: Develops during the latent phase Step 3: Causes mitochondria to start failing Step 4: Failure of OM (second time) Step 5: Cells start dying Apoptosis AND Necrosis

Mechanical Transduction: Detection of vibration by the cochlear, vestibular and lateral line sensory hair cells

Stereocilia on surface of the hair cells, have tiny linkages, at the tip there is a mechanically gated ion channel, when these are bent back in the presence of sound, channels open and close → ion influx → AP https://o.quizlet.com/08dpc-9C7802FuvdQvFw.A_m.png

Deuteranomalous trichromats

Still see all colours, but weaker green https://o.quizlet.com/47Jap1YHhHi6O7mlbEpjpA_m.jpg

Protanomalous trichromats

Still see all colours, but weaker red https://o.quizlet.com/s15qoTyIJYOl-IEOKx2N2w_m.jpg

Neuron replacement or Gene therapy

Stimulate cells in striatum to endogenously repair or produce more GABA etc.

How can we help patients with IHC and OHC loss?

Stimulate nerve endings -> *cochlear implants*, directly stimulating nerves

What may dying cells or astrocytes do in an inflammatory response?

Stimulate the recrutiment of immune cells to help with fighting the bacteria or clearing up the mess

Saturable

Stimulated synapses increase in strength, but only up to a maximum level

Trichromatic Theory: E.g. How is yellow light picked up?

Stimulates L (Red) and M (Green) cones equally but S (Blue) weakly https://o.quizlet.com/LcvB1vlqbhK40BPvpvkUUg_m.jpg

Peripheral Nerve Stimulation and Paired Associative Stimulation (PAS)

Stimulating the peripheral sensory nerve and depolarising the neuron that synapses with this peripheral sensory nerve (in the CNS - *pairing*) 90 times (with 5 second spacings) shows LTP when comparing the corticomotor excitability. Need to be very careful with timing https://o.quizlet.com/BS8VFXODNSh.oD.1r9H5BQ_m.png

What did Tim Bliss and Terje Lomo find?

Stimulation of excitatory synapses of the *Perforant Path* into the hippocampus lead to a long-term increase in synapse strength

Induction

Stimulation protocols induce an increase in synapse strength

Long term depression (LTD)

Stimulation that leads to decreased synaptic strength

Long term potentiation (LTP)

Stimulation that leads to increased synaptic strength

M Cells respond maximally to

Stimuli moving across its receptive field

The P Cell receptive field produces weak responses in response to which type of stimuli?

Stimuli that move across its receptive field

The Intensity (amount) of stimulus (sensation) is determined by

Stimulus amplitude

What does a whole cell recording give us a measure of?

Strength of synapses at an individual neuron

Negative reinforcement

Strengthens behaviour because it stops or removes an unpleasant experience Car beep and seatbelt

What are the (4) reflexes?

Stretch Reflex Reverse (Inverse) Myotatic Reflex Flexion (withdrawal) Reflex Crossed Extension Reflex

Ruffini Corpuscle

Stretch and Distortion of dermis

Where does the latency in the Myotatic Reflex come from? (Each arrow represents time - 7)

Stretch → Receptor AP → Afferent Path → Spinal Cord → Efferent Path → NMJ → Myocyte AP → Excitation-Contraction Coupling

Myotatic Reflex can be evoked by (3) of a muscle

Stretch, vibration or passive extension of a muscle https://o.quizlet.com/9VxWxa9TSw3YsDaPpll-yQ_m.jpg

Which (2) structures form the *lateral wall* of the cochlea?

Stria Vascularis and Spiral Ligament

The endocochlear potential depends on an active secretion of K+ by the (2)

Stria vascularis and *Fibrocytes* of the spiral ligament

Second Pathway to Degenerate

Striatum to Substantia Nigra (Striato-nigral Neurons)

Injury to thalamus is usually due to a

Stroke

Upregulation of *ICAM-1 (CD106)* and *VCAM-1 (CD54)* causes

Strong interaction with blood leukocytes

The cells that travel up the radial fibers are

Structurally and Functionally Immature

Where are these viral vectors targeted?

Substantia Nigra/Striatum or both

Glutamate excitotoxicity can cause

Sudden Deafness

Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA)

Sudden onset of focal neurological symptoms <24 Hours No infarction

A stroke is recognised by

Sudden onset of focal neurological symptoms Persists for >24h.

Trichromatic Theory: This theory is based on what?

Suggests that a combination of three channels (colours) can yield all colours of the visible spectrum

Knock-in Huntington's Mice: Experiment

Supplementation of BDNF and *EPSP's* recorded at *CA1 region* after *Schaeffer collateral* stimulation

Type 1 cells

Supporting Cells, Salty Taste No Neural connections Might take up glutamate https://o.quizlet.com/i3XIrcrc6eN5L6OdcORMVA_m.png

What are the hair cells surrounded by?

Supporting cells that provide structural and metabolic support

Could synapse plasticity underlie memory?

Supportive Evidence follows

Delivering low frequency stimulation will

Suppress excitability - LTD *like*

Patterned theta burst stimulation: Continuous

Suppresses excitability (LTD-like) https://o.quizlet.com/J1VaHeQWEUYFSZ2x9G8dnA_m.png

Reflexes Neuromuscular Spindle generates? (1)

Supraspinal

When we look at an object, we are actually seeing its

Surface Reflectance

LTD results in a decrease in

Surface synaptic AMPA receptors

Slow Adapting/Tonic (+ sensation example)

Sustain response, slow to return Touch, pressure

S Type motor units are best suited for carrying

Sustained but small loads

Type 2 cells

Sweet, bitter and umami Pseudo-innervation by Gustatory https://o.quizlet.com/.gyAj50psWLx-3aq92sB7Q_m.png

Type II: Inhibitory synapses are also called

Symmetric

Proposed treatment targets?

Symptoms Push remaining function neurons (but they die progressively)

In which (3) ways can we determine what part of the brain the disease is affecting, and how it is affecting it?

Symptoms (e.g. smell means olfactory bulb) Post Mortem Material (Degeneration/inflammation) Genetic Mutations

LTD is thought to underlie the synaptic weakening that occurs before

Synapse elimination (but this has not been directly shown)

What (2) things need to happen simultaneously for LTP to be induced?

Synapses must be active and Postsynaptic cell must be depolarised (associativity)

Difficulties: LTP can only be measured at a subset of

Synapses, and these may *not* be the same synapses that are being modified during the learning task

Physical embodiment of memory occurs via which cellular process?

Synaptic Plasticity

What allows the postsynaptic synapse to be repaired?

Synaptic Plasticity

Although IHCs are quite resistant to noise, the noise mostly affects the

Synaptic region of the IHCs, causing swelling of neurons

Long Term Potentiation (LTP) is an increase in

Synpatic Strength

Tonotopy

Systematic organization of *characteristic frequencies* along the basilar membrane

Smell and taste complement each other but

Systems are separate except at highest levels in the brain

Receptors used in amino acids (umami)

T1R receptors

Receptors used in sweetness

T1R receptors

Which T1R receptors are needed to detect amino acids (umami)?

T1R1 and T1R3 https://o.quizlet.com/Zts3YdRY0yhhMHvXQ5A3lA_m.png

Which T1R receptors are needed to detect sweet compounds?

T1R2 and T1R3 https://o.quizlet.com/7b4tQqs9U0BgFKoZSI.bNg_m.png

Receptors used in bitterness

T2R receptors https://o.quizlet.com/wISyV7oNZ5-rNuv18cDFyQ_m.png

Which (2) enzymes are part of the endogenous biosynthesis of dopamine?

TH (Tyrosine Hydroxylase) and AADC (L-Amino Acid Decarboxylase)

What are the (2) TRPs?

TRP *M8* (Cold) TRP *V3/4* (Warm)

What type of receptors (biological) do thermoreceptors utilise?

TRP - Transient Receptor Potential Channels

Why projections to amygdala and hippocampus?

Tactile learning and memory

Benefits of Cell reprogramming?

Take skin cells or diseased cells from patients and study them (try out drugs, etc) and/or after fixing them put them back in

What is the problem with this method?

Takes too long to go from skin → Pluripotent → Multipotent → Neuron

What is the problem with this method this time?

Takes you to a neuron (doesn't give rise to anything else) so after you do experiments on them, they are useless

Cells in the Rostral Migratory Stream migrate by which mechanism?

Tangential Migration, use one another as a scaffold

What happens if you co-culture astrocytes and neuronal cells, and kill either/or off?

Target and destroy *astrocytes*, neurons will be out in about 24-48 hours Target and destroy *neurons*, not much effect on astrocytes

What would be the function of a drug used to treat, for example, MS? (3 Examples)

Targeting anything that recruits the immune cells. Interfere with the way: (1) Cells attach to the vasculature (Reduce CAM) (2) Immune cells respond to the inflammatory signals such as cytokines (reduce the sensitivity to interleukin-1 and Tnfα) https://o.quizlet.com/q0liDf1NRuFVgCdg-6bWnQ_m.png

What are the (2) chemical senses?

Taste (gustation) and Smell (olfaction)

Taste buds are a collection of

Taste Receptors

What covers the Organ of Corti?

Tectorial Membrane https://o.quizlet.com/FlN1GBxR4FGKm7kOwem1LA_m.jpg

What are the two subdivisions of the prosencephalon after the three vesicle stage?

Telencephalon and Diencephalon

The Prosencephalon divides into the (2) by the __ vesicle stage.

Telencephalon, Diencephalon, by the 5 vesicle

The audtory cortex is located in the

Temporal Lobe

Noise Trauma (loud sounds) can cause which (2) types of hearing loss?

Temporary or Permanent Hearing Loss

Golgi Tendon Organ monitors

Tension, pressure and joint movement https://o.quizlet.com/JuEw6t2i64mFrB50iIbQSQ_m.jpg

What are the (2) smallest in the body muscles in the ear?

Tensor Tympani and Stapedius

Who discovered LTP?

Terje Lomo (1966, Oslo, Norway)

Experiment: Fetal responses to maintain brain perfusion during asphyxia - Logistics?

Term fetal sheep Complete UCO (Umbilical Cord Occlusion) for 10 min ↓oxygen/energy supply to foetus (asphyxia) https://o.quizlet.com/xy5Rckq8LF5A9ER9heg60g_m.png

(3) Reorganisation Phase

Tertiary (Weeks+) The appearance of apoptosis Cells die → neighbouring cells lose support → they die → chain of events

Ishihara Test

Tests our ability to distinguish between the red, green and blue

What type of stimulation to only the presynaptic cell did Bliss and Lomo induce LTP with?

Tetanic Stimulation

Axons from the inferior colliculus lead to the? (Be specific)

Thalamus - Medial Geniculate Nucleus

Retina Projection: Lateral Geniculate Nucleus

Thalamus - the major subcortical centre relaying visual information to the *primary visual cortex*

What did Thomas Young (1802) propose?

That perception of colour can be coded by three *principal colour receptors* rather than thousands of colour receptors coding for individual colours

Although Neurturin failed, what has this and placebo trials showed us?

That the human brain *tolerates* viral vectors quite well and that the *procedure is safe*

What determines whether LTP or LTD is induced?

The *level/rate* of calcium influx through NMDA receptors

Where does the information travel after the Nucleus of the solitary tract (Gustatory nucleus)?

The *ventral posterior medial nucleus* of the thalamus and then to the gustatory cortex https://o.quizlet.com/wD-9u8hD.vFIAnxv8gN1qQ_m.jpg

What is the N1 (first peak) in the Electrocochleography recording?

The AP in the above card (Individual Unitary Potentials)

Volley Principle (Phase locking, not on every cycle and Tonotopy)

The APs are fired at a constant location, but will skip a few wavelengths (e.g. every 5 wavelengths). *1kHz - 4kHz* https://o.quizlet.com/6Kl2qjyOUZs.L3BNdWhgtw_m.png

Phase Locking (on every cycle)

The APs fired by the auditory nerve correspond to the frequency of sound (i.e. one AP per wavelength). Easy to determine the sound frequency (same as AP frequency) *<1kHz* https://o.quizlet.com/4lb3ha2q4.W3pMve8a863A_m.png

Where do projections from the thalamus lead to?

The Auditory Cortex

When we hear sound and the cochlear fluid moves, what moves along with it (2)?

The Basilar membrane and thus the Organ of Corti (moves up and down)

What was one of the first targets for AD treatment?

The Cholinergic System

The taste sensations propagate along which nerve?

The Facial Nerve (7th)

Which cells send photo information to the brain?

The Ganglion Cells

Stage 3: What happens now that the organ of corti is moving more vigorously?

The IHCs will come into contact with the Tectorial Membrane

What is the columnar organisation of the auditory cortex known as?

The Ice Cube Model https://o.quizlet.com/HcNP559ZnDHKE-un4aG8Aw_m.jpg

What determines whether Paracellular or Transcellular is used by the leukocytes?

The Inflammatory Environment and the Cells Migrating

What happens after the Reperfusion phase?

The Latent Phase - Post Asphyxial Hypoperfusion https://o.quizlet.com/3mnckwm9ZDl8eFUzH3x2RA_m.png

What is attached to the tympanic membrane?

The Malleus which forms a ligamentous connection to the Incus

The Rostral Migratory Stream supplies which Olfactory layer with neurons?

The Olfactory Granule Layer

What happens during Inhibition?

The Organ of Corti moves *down*, and the shear force between the tectorial membrane and the stereocilia causes the stereocilia to move in the *inhibitory direction* (towards the *spiral ganglion*) -> closes transduction channels and *hyperpolarises* these cells https://o.quizlet.com/kqOnf4MZ8SESdUcfl9qUKw_m.png

What happens during Excitation?

The Organ of Corti moves *up*, and the shear force between the tectorial membrane and the stereocilia causes the stereocilia to move in the *excitatory direction* (towards the *lateral wall*) -> opens transduction channels and *depolarises* these cells https://o.quizlet.com/BSuifRQPkpUw1M1DK4Lh7w_m.png

What are the (2) openings to the cochlea?

The Round and Oval Windows

What is synaptic plasticity?

The ability of synapses to change their strength in response to specific neuronal stimulation

Perception (L5)

The ability to gain knowledge through the senses

What is a specialised function of Astrocytes?

The ability to provide a crucial support network for neuronal cells (neurotransmitter levels, nutrient supply, waste removal etc.)

The first processing of sound information is at the level of

The afferent axons of the auditory nerve (from the hair cells)

Somatosensory receptors can give information about (3)

The beginning and end of the stimulus The duration of the stimulus The intensity (some are activated with more intensity etc) https://o.quizlet.com/JUPIdZ7YNCIksC540rnBDg_m.png

What are Ganglion Receptive Fields?

The bipolar cells and ganglion cells are organised in such a way that each cell responds to a small circular patch of photoreceptors https://o.quizlet.com/.rx9UTskV5d1Q86x03ULtQ_m.png

Why do we have more gyri in Polymicrogyria?

The brain has to form new folds to accommodate for the surplus of cells

So what does brain actively increasing SNA to decrease CBF show?

The brain's attempt to minimise microseizures

Pinna

The cartilage of the outer ear, diffracts and focuses sound waves https://o.quizlet.com/i/PZ-K5RVnsaEeuyUPlS_ePA_m.jpg

Nuclear Translocation/Nucleokinesis

The cell extends a leading process in the direction of migration, then moves the nucleus through the elongated process to its destination https://o.quizlet.com/sCDvag30Jz47PNT68T4dDA_m.png

What are (2) problems in microglial therapeutic approaches?

The cells are functionally heterogeneous - they are different but similar, so hard to target a specific subset Drugs need to be able to get across the BBB

What is the *mechanism* by which the neurons move? like actually explain how tf they move g

The cells extend leading processes, wrap it around the Glial Cell Fibers and take guidance from the Radial Glial Cells as to which way they should travel

Vestibule

The centre of the osseous labyrinth

Telencephalon

The cerebral hemispheres

What happened in the Phase 2 Trials?

The company providing the GDNF took over from the University research, changed the dosage, administration method and did the trial for 6 months.

(8) Neuronal Death

The death of neurons that are not needed

(1) Neural Proliferation

The dense proliferation of neurons in the *Ventricular/Subventricular Zone* of the prosencephalon. https://o.quizlet.com/o5anJxAKGeqUrSyCaz9Lzg_m.png

Interaural Time Delay (Governed by 2)

The difference in the time of sound arrival at both ears, governed by the (1) speed of sound and (2) the distance between the ears

Emotional Non-Declarative Memory

The emotions you associate with thing - Amygdala

Which cells control the decision of whether the leukocytes will pass, stick or infiltrate?

The endothelial cells or the leukocytes

Concha

The entry into the ear canal, a resonator https://o.quizlet.com/ASLqsaZwuy7rFSrGO2AHMQ_m.jpg

The smaller the receptive field

The finer the touch you can sense

(5) Dendritic Growth

The formation of the incoming information processes

[Diagram] Responses of a single olfactory receptor neuron to odorant concentration

The frequency and number in each panel of action potentials increases as the odorant concentration increases https://o.quizlet.com/xBCCbqQoLNGuTNus6J8fNA_m.jpg

Characteristic Frequency

The frequency at which a *specific* hair cell/afferent neuron has the highest firing rate (e.g. You play a 1500Hz sound at a constant intensity. Hair cell #25 has highest firing rate compared to the other hair cells along the basilar membrane) https://o.quizlet.com/zfV1Pk7TIR8EVX0SWGVhuA_m.jpg

What did Pasko Rakic say?

The function of a neuron is determined by its postion. Its position is determined by its time of birth.

(4) Axonal Growth

The growth of the outgoing information process https://o.quizlet.com/2HFVUCcy-GExuzrFaXajiQ_m.png

Perception Limit

The highest intensity we can hear (of a particular frequency)

Why do we observe ↓Brain Activity?

The initial insult triggers brain to ↑SNA → Vasoconstriction and ↓CBF. As a protective response, the brain ↓activity with ↓CBF https://o.quizlet.com/3mnckwm9ZDl8eFUzH3x2RA_m.png

In multisensory integration, what happens if the stimuli are strong?

The integration may be weaker

When focusing on a characteristic frequency for a certain hair cell (i.e. 1500Hz), what affects the firing rate?

The intensity (volume)

The neurons from the Superior Olivary Complex pass through what and lead to what?

The lateral lemniscus -> Inferior Colliculus (midbrain)

The Black Box Analogy: Input

The light source

(6) Synaptogenesis

The linking together of the billions of the neruons of the brain https://o.quizlet.com/Gk.dZu2xNJnza12GEqrZWA_m.png

Threshold

The lowest intensity we can hear (of a particular frequency)

(2) Neural Migration

The movement of neurons up the Radial Glial Fibres to form the Cerebral Hemispheres https://o.quizlet.com/dBZT7uO1kr1..twYGTJsuA_m.png

Attenuation Reflex is correlated with?

The muscles contracting in the ear

Waterfall effect

The neurons processing the movement (waterfall - flow of water) are saturated, so when you look away it takes a bit for them to get unsaturated

The amplitude (and therefore intensity) is coded by

The number of neurons activated and frequency (rate) of neural impulses (Strong relation between number of impulses of neural outflow and intensity of stimulus) https://o.quizlet.com/quqgNa2MX7HOX8ccg8ZPcg_m.png

Cochlea

The organ of hearing, fluid filled, deeply imbedded in the temporal pole (difficult to access)

Why does the principal of Interaural Time Delay not work well for High Frequency Sound?

The phase/frequency is too high - time delay cannot be recognised

Essentially, NMDA receptor activation requires depolarisation of (2)

The presynaptic terminal (glutamate release) *and* depolarisation of the postsynaptic terminal (Mg2+ release) (you can think of NMDA as an enhancer of the signal)

(7) Myelination

The process by which Glial Cells wrap them selves around axons https://o.quizlet.com/e9-.9zCZJGlXafE59bCRNw_m.png

[1] Gastrulation

The process of *proliferation* of ICM (epiblast) and *migration* to different regions, forming the primary *germ layers*

Postsynaptic Receptors

The receptors that *bind the neurotransmitter* and usually elicit *channel opening* leading to subsequent *depolarisation* as the initiation of an *action potential*

What is the postsynaptic current flow measured with?

The recording electrode

[Diagram] MS Lesions

The red arrows show lesions, had about 6-7 lesions, largest being about 9-10mm in diameter. Within these the oligodendrocytes are gone, and in the active lesions there are huge numbers of immune cells *expressing CD2* https://o.quizlet.com/Z-hX4z7bwO2ZL7ysWuqBIg_m.png

Pupillary Light Reflex

The reflex that controls the diameter of the pupil in response to varying intensities of light

What is the taste pore?

The sensitive part at apex of a taste bud

What force opens transduction channels?

The shearing force between the stereocilia of the sensory cells and the tectorial membrane

Presynaptic Active Zone

The site of neurotransmitter release

(3) Cellular Differentiation

The stem cell neuron that travels up the radial fiber becomes a more *restricted potential cell* https://o.quizlet.com/NKQ6m782ccrmR2GlLakKbA_m.png

What does a field recording give a measure of?

The strength of synapses from a *population* of neurons

What is special about the efferent IHC synapse?

The synapse is not between the neuron and the IHC, but between the neuron and the afferent neuron https://o.quizlet.com/44wpIUlPOkUFtnu5UGT.CQ_m.jpg

The right part of the visual field is projected onto which part of the retina? (assuming left eye)

The temporal part (left) https://o.quizlet.com/qNyP2vPev1SHpqNsnSZESw_m.png

Diencephalon

The thalamus

Horizontal Sound Localisation depends on

The time of arrival of the sound in both ears

Hair cell stereocilia are the site of mechano-transduction, which is

The translation of the sound vibration into a bio-electrical message to the brain

How does the Farnsworth Panel D-15 work?

The type of colour vision defect can be detected from their arrangement of the caps https://o.quizlet.com/VkBlQBpfF26BJ3h.bN1IKQ_m.jpg

Bony Labyrinth (inner ear) is made up of the (3)

The vestibule, semicircular canals, and cochlea

Potentiation

The*increase in strength of nerve impulses* along pathways which have been used previously, either short-term or long-term

What are synapses highly regulated by? What is a term for this?

Their own activity - plasticity

Why do we have our photosensitive cells at the back?

Theory - protective mechanism, to filter light

What is gene therapy?

Therapeutic genes deliberately inserted into patient's DNA

Ganglion cell receptive fields

There are ganglion cells that are connected with bipolar and certain photoreceptor cells - the bipolar cells are told what the photoreceptor cells are seeing

Localisation of sound in the vertical plane

There is a *direct* sound the goes into the ear canal and a *reflected* sound from parts of the ear pinna. The delay between the direct and reflected sounds change as sound moves up and down. https://o.quizlet.com/JLyXtV0CuoVEECwk4ftoGw_m.jpg

Fallibility of Memory - List of sweet words

There is a common emotion associated with *sweet* and the list of words. After reading the list, the emotion is recalled and you recall other words linked to that emotion → sweet

Why is inflammation of the brain not good?

There is a skull so inflammation will cause a buildup of pressure/fluids

Spikeless mode

There is no AP, where the membrane potential and synaptic transmission is continuous and graded

What have these studies shown in terms of in vivo and in vitro?

These studies have shown that LTP and LTD in vivo have the same properties as in slices

In MS, what happens to the oligodendrocytes?

They are attacked by the patient's immune system

What happens if neurons and corresponding synapses are not used?

They are lost

What is the problem with cell culture models?

They are not neurons (they are cancer cells) and often not even from humans

What is special about the notochord growth factors?

They are the *first* growth factors that help induce cells to differentiate

What does The Commission International de L'Eclairage (CIE) do? (2)

They assign the names to colours Everything about illumination

Stage 2: How do the OHC react to depolarisation? (By how much?)

They contract, due to the motor protein (*Prestin*) in the lateral membrane - shortens the cell by *2-3µm* -> cochlear amplification of the sound https://o.quizlet.com/zeCictkvduOqm4XIEBJNiA_m.jpg

Why are inhibitory synapses important?

They control/regulate the excitability of neuronal circuits

What happens to the Neural Crests once the Neural Tube is formed?

They drop to the lateral (superior) margins of the Neural Tube, beneath the ectoderm (like small mickey mouse ears)

Why are auditory sensory cells called hair cells?

They have a tuft of stereocilia

What happens if there are no signals for the leukocytes?

They will bugger off in the blood

Trichromatic Theory: Was explored by who?

Thomas Young and Helmholtz in 1802/1866 respectively

Basal Ganglia Connections: We focus on?

Three Pathways numbered by order of degeneration

When the Prosencephalon, Mesencephalon and Rhombencephalon are of equal size, this is refered to as the

Three Vesicle Stage

Semicircular Canals

Three fluid-filled bony channels in the inner ear. They are situated at right angles to each other and provide information about orientation to the brain to help maintain balance

How many fluid filled compartments are there in the cochlea?

Three https://o.quizlet.com/ERaW97.uUy3fHB3KONn5PQ_m.png

How many gustatory neural pathways lead up to the brain?

Three https://o.quizlet.com/Qochq7V9pdUBoye6eEgcWw_m.png

Stria Vascularis

Three rows of epithelial cells lining the scala media

Stage 2: What is the arrangement of hair cells?

Three rows, graded (short to long) https://o.quizlet.com/0LGgN.npBYmjJ.TOQaqXgg_m.jpg

Rods process (1)

Thresholds/intensities

Thrombolysis

Thrombolytic agents ("clot-busters") lyse thrombus (do this early)

2. Embolism.

Thrombus in heart → breaks loose into circulation, → lodge in artery in brain → block blood flow.

Thrombus and Embolus

Thrombus: Blood clot impeding blood flow Embolus: Moving in circulation

DSGCs are located

Throughout the retina

Subarachnoid Haemorrhage (SAH) Symptoms (3)

Thunderclap headache Vomiting Loss of Consciousness

At the cell junction cleft, which junctions are more apical and more basolateral?

Tight Junctions more apical Adherens Junctions more basolateral

Which (2) junctions are in high concentration in the BBB compared to the rest of the body?

Tight and Adherens Junctions

Endothelial cells in the BBB have a very high density of

Tight junctions

Stage 2: Stereocilia on hair cells are linked by (2)

Tip Links and Lateral Links (all stereocilia move in unison)

Flexion (withdrawal) Reflex Synaptic Relay

To *excitatory interneurons* → excite flexor αMNs at differnt spinal segments

What is the Tensor Tympani and Stapedius muscles' roles? How?

To attenuate loud sound - they contract and cause the Ossicular Chain to become more rigid

What is the function of Astrocytes in relation to the BBB?

To control, regulate and maintain the blood brain barrier - without astrocytes the BBB is not able to maintain the level of biointegritiy it has

Three person babies and Germline Gene Therapy?

To correct mitochondrial disease Paternal Sperm + Maternal Egg Nucleus + Third Party Maternal enucleated Egg

How else can TMS be used?

To deliver low and high frequency trains of stimuli to the motor cortex

External ear sound localisation

To determine sound direction

What are some auditory adaptations of animals?

To improve range and localisation (Hearing organs on the knees of crickets) https://o.quizlet.com/95NlYgIvyaUW33Med2zbYg_m.png

Why do we have gyri?

To increase SA in the brain

In vivo Gene Delivery

To insert pathogenic gene into model organism to induce disease e.g. CAG repeat in HD, α-synuclein/parkin in PD

Why are electrophysiology setups covered by a faraday cage?

To isolate the neurons from electrical noise (lights etc)

What is immunotherapy?

To mobilise body to attack Aß with its own immune system

Why is there a necessity to exercise?

To prevent atrophy of FF Units

Diagnosis of Parkinson's Disease: When would imaging be required?

To rule out other diseases that resemble Parkinson's disease

What is the potential of GDNF?

To stop the loss of and even causing the sprouting of new dopaminergic fibers

Where else do inferior colliculus axons lead to?

To the Superior Olivary Complex, where the visual and auditory information converges

The shunting inhibition prevents current flow

To the axon hillock and further spread of excitation

How is Conditional Expression used?

To turn on expression only during development, for example

How else can Gene Therapy be used?

To understand Disease Pathology

Why do we need good disease models?

To understand pathophysiology

Where are sensory receptors for taste found?

Tongue

Receptive field of auditory receptors is called

Tonotopicity

The hearing loss pathway

Too much sound -> overstimulate IHCs -> excessive glutamate release -> NMDA receptors become too much permeable to Ca -> Swelling -> Apoptotic Pathway -> destruction of postsynaptic spiral ganglion neuron https://o.quizlet.com/fnsi-qgmWqzrh363snezew_m.jpg

Reverse (Inverse) Myotatic Reflex function?

Too much tension in tendon of muscle causes muscle to relax and drop object (Arm wrestle) https://o.quizlet.com/u09si9RnJBDN.ARqFCm7qA_m.jpg

How many taste buds in the mouth?

Total of 2000-5000 taste buds in tongue

What is the Somatosensory Homunculus?

Touch representation in somatosensory cortex https://o.quizlet.com/xAw5yttuskObZWfjwZff.Q_m.png

How does Age Related Hearing Loss progress?

Towards the lower frequencies, which are important for speech understanding

What are (2) causes of Lissencephaly?

Toxin/Toxic or Genetic

What is the mechanism of Tangential Migration?

Trailing edge of one cell is wrapped around the leading edge of another cell, work via guidance

What are (4) aspects of Modality encoded in specific neural response?

Transduction Receptor Potential Receptor Specificity Labelled Line

Transgenic vs. Gene Therapy

Transgenic: Before Birth Gene Therapy: After Birth, but if germline then ambiguous

Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA) are due to

Transient lack of blood supply

Rapidly Adapting/Phasic (+ sensation example)

Transient response, quick to return Texture and vibration

What happens during the primary asphyxial insult (e.g. umbilical cord occlusion)?

Transient ↓HR, ↓Brain Activity, ↓CBF https://o.quizlet.com/3mnckwm9ZDl8eFUzH3x2RA_m.png

M Cells respond with what kind of response to which type of stimulus?

Transient, rapidly adapting response; maintained stimulus

C (IV) Fibres (Velocity and to where)?

Transmit slow pain to *Affective-Motivational Area*, and some PSC (Non-discriminative)

Cornea

Transparent layer at the front of the eye https://o.quizlet.com/i/uFz1rgQiOSooJmMTJBtsDw_m.jpg

What causes Peripheral Nerve Somatosensory Injury?

Trauma, infection, ischemia, disease (diabetes) Axon dieback, demyelination, nerve cell death

Spinal Cord Somatosensory Injury. Causes?

Trauma, infection, swelling, damage to blood supply

What was the result this time?

Trial stopped due to lack of efficacy and possible cerebellum lesions as a result of GDNF in monkey trials.

What are the (3) theories of Colour Vision?

Trichromatic Theory Opponent Colour Theory Stage Theory

People with normal colour vision are called?

Trichromats https://o.quizlet.com/N3.S4DOQIwSAdPdRu1dewA_m.jpg

Absorption of light by three different spectral classes of cones is known as

Trivariant

If someone has a neurodegenerative disease, and their cells are expressing CB2, what do we do?

Try and reduce the exacerbation of the disease once it has kicked off

By examining pathophysiology of depression at cellular/molecular level, what can we do next?

Try out novel drugs and look for proof of concept

Gene editing of human embryos in China?

Trying to fix fatal blood disorder from non-viable embryos (i.e. ones that cannot result in live births)

Pillar Cells form the

Tunnel of Corti

There is a constant turnover of

Turnover of taste cells, ~2 week lifespan

One AP causes a

Twitch

Organ of Corti contains

Two types of sensory hair cells and supporting cells

The ear canal (and external ear) ends at the

Tympanic Membrane/Ear Drum, a thin diaphragm about 9mm in diameter https://o.quizlet.com/nxlr-rQx2vtglgIahnXslg_m.jpg

What are the (2) types of spiral ganglion neurons?

Type I and Type II https://o.quizlet.com/u-025mFSXE9CVk4Dehb7kA_m.jpg

Flexion (withdrawal) Reflex Afferent

Type III and IV Fibres https://o.quizlet.com/j1zNTEQuAA4IX1m6S.2Piw_m.jpg

Paternal Inheritance of CAG repeats

Typically (-1 → +7) change from paternal repeat number

Pathway of Dopamine production in vivo?

Tyrosine (Tyrosine Hydroxylase) -> L Dopa (DOPA decarboxylase) -> Dopamine

Threshold of Reverse (Inverse) Myotatic Reflex is higher in

UMN disease - Clasp knife reflex

Spinocerebellar Tracts

Unconscious proprioceptive information → Cerebellum for muscle contraction control

Receptor density is not

Uniform throughout sensory organ

Non-Declarative: Short Term located

Unknown

These increases in size and number of synapses are

Unlikely to underlie the *immediate increase* in synapse strength seen with LTP

Saturability of LTP

Upon further trains of stimulation, the synaptic response increased but stopped eventually at a maximum level

Olfactory Receptors are localised in the

Upper nasal cavity https://o.quizlet.com/Cs4CtcVHt3-0bNAGwzm5qQ_m.jpg

Where is the olfactory bulb found?

Upper part of nose https://o.quizlet.com/MviNxzAE13zDQRq1kAM0Mw_m.jpg

(4) Match cellular metabolic activity (demand) to energy supply

Use EEG to measure brain activity when giving an asphyxial insult

How do you solve this problem?

Use another set of genes (Sox2 / Pax6 and / or Neural reprogramming media) to go from skin cells → Neural Precursor Cell - use these to make different neurons

What can we do for treatment?

Use drugs (*Cholinesterase inhibitors*) to inhibit *ACh esterase* to maintain ↑[ACh] at synpases

How can we inhibit microseizures?

Use glutamate antagonists to bind to NMDA receptors → ↓Microseizures → ↓Brain injury

Short-term/Working Memory example?

Used to achieve a short term goal You come up to lights, they turn green, you remember for 5 seconds that it was green and you go

Anticholinergic agents

Usefor for tremor treatment

Opponent Colour Theory: How was this theory created?

Using *hue cancellation* experiments, colour opponent channels were isolated through the use of subjects (humans)

Transduction mechanisms: Photoreceptors

Utilise intracellular *second messenger* systems

Transduction mechanisms: Chemical stimuli utilise inotropic/metabotropic?

Utilise intracellular *second messenger* systems or sense chemical directly (eg salt on tongue)

MRI Scanning

Utilising magnetic spin of H to visualise brain

What is the stereocilia arrangement in the OHCs?

V Shaped https://o.quizlet.com/8lqo4vSTYsOQnrME.-UeOg_m.jpg

What are the motion perception areas in the brain? (6)

V1, V2, V3, V4, V5 (V5 also known as Medial Temporal Area) and *Posterior Parietal Cortex*

Vomeronasal organ has which genes?

V1R and V2R

What part of the thalamus receives information from those pathways?

VPN - Ventral Posterolateral Nucleus

Which part of thalamus affected?

VPN damage → Loss of all somatosensory

What is the nociceptive receptor?

VR-1

What are (3) therapeutics used to slow AD progression?

Vaccines, Secretase inhibitors and anti-aggregants

The BBB is highly what? Why?

Vascularised Vascularised Vascularised, neurons rely on glucose

What are (3) ways we can modify viral vectors?

Vector Tropism, Gene Promoters and Conditional Expression

The Auditory Nerve branches and innervates which (2) structures?

Ventral and Dorsal Cochlear Nuclei https://o.quizlet.com/APpMzD8ELzXNmAfwIYfcIQ_m.jpg

2. Posterior circulation

Vertebral arteries and basilar artery provide blood to: Brain stem, cerebellum, thalamus, medial part of the temporal lobes and the occipital lobes.

Adeno-associated Virus (AAV)

Very Small Enters cells easily

What do we see when we compare MS lesion tissue with non-MS lesion tissue?

Very different cellular morphologies observed in different lesions and within lesions. Blood vessels and capillaries are often *CB2 positive* https://o.quizlet.com/IN1klgcc4TEqrN4IaJNi3A_m.png

Rods allow us to detect

Very low levels of light (lower threshold to light) - night vision only, black and white

At *low* concentrations of stimulus (specific taste) most papillae are

Very selective

The Ca2+ influx elicits

Vesicle fusion, resulting in neurotransmitter release

Which (4) other Modalities can we add?

Vestibular (balance and acceleration?) Additional somatosensory (pain, temperature, itch and proprioception) Electrosensory Magnetic

Name for balance cortex?

Vestibular Cortex

What happens during a complex sound?

Vibration of the basilar membrane at several regions -> converted into receptor potentials -> send to brain -> processed and analysed there!

Damage to Primary Somatosensory Cortex leads to total loss of

Vibration, proprioception, discriminative touch

Normal Virus vs Viral Vector Virus?

Viral Vector has *viral genes* (gag-pro-pol) replaced with *transgene*. Cannot replicate but can still infect cell

Infections

Viral infections cause illnesses similar to PD Von Economo's and Japanese encephalitis Influenza A virus- infection of substantia nigra

The colours we see are part of the

Visible Colour Spectrum

What are the (5) major classic modalities?

Vision, Hearing, Taste, Smell and Touch

Somatosensory System excludes

Vison and Hearing

Name for seeing cortex?

Visual Cortex

The Motion Aftereffect (MAE)

Visual Illusion experienced after viewing a moving visual stimulus and then fixating on a stationary stimulus

Somatosensory Association Cortex has input from (different modality)

Visual areas

What happens when IHCs are depolarised by K+ influx?

Voltage Gated Ca Channels open (Ca Influx) -> Exocytosis of NT from synaptic vesicles https://o.quizlet.com/R39iUew.ZeD1Z94r6VxQjA_m.jpg

Forebrain is for what type of movements? (1)

Voluntary

What are (2) types of temperature responses?

Voluntary and Autonomic

What are the (3) Classes of Movements?

Voluntary, Reflexes and Rhythmic Motor Patterns

What is the special sense organ?

Vomeronasal Organ (VNO)

Name of scale to gauge HD progression?

Vonsattel Grading Scale

What type of injury is possible in at term perinatal brain injury?

WMI: Cystic and diffuse damage possible

Cones process (2)

Wavelengths and thresholds/intensities (which is why we can see colour with cones)

What is the meaning of adapting to stimuli?

We adapt to the clothes we are wearing or the seat we are sitting on etc.

Why are Microglial cells an interesting therapeutic target?

We can generate a vast repertoire of cytokines to influence the level of phagocytosis

What does this ~100x decrease represent?

We can see a lot, but it has been summarised down to send compact information to the brain

Why can't we make good drugs? (2)

We can't trial on humans and animal models aren't humans Post mortem brain lacks tissue we want to study

What happens in illusions?

We over saturate a group of *MT/V5 neurons* in our brain

When picking up, i.e. an egg, what happens?

We sense the weight and fragileness of it in our hands, so a *feedback system* allows fine control (not squashing the egg in our hand)

What is the benefit of weak contractions over strong ones?

Weak can be can be graded with greater precision

LTP lasts how long?

Weeks, months - up to 2 years (record)

Declarative: Long Term located

Wernicke's for meaning of words, temporal cortex for memories of objects and faces etc.

Visual Field

What you can see at a given time (constraints are the anatomical borders, like the nose)

When can current flow be measured through the NMDA-type glutamate receptor?

When the postsynaptic cell is depolarised to positive potentials (Mg is released) https://o.quizlet.com/.NYRfoEiJ9fPkG3JT0GyfA_m.png

Supportive Evidence: When does LTP reverse in rats?

When they explore a novel environment, reflecting the dynamic, plastic nature of memory

When else is the Attenuation Reflex activated?

When we speak, so we hear quieter than we actually sound

How do they complement each other (2 example)?

When you have a cold, you can't smell or taste food as well (becomes bland) When you have coffee, the smell aroma might be nice, but the taste can be bitter

Opponent Colour Theory: Hue Cancellation Experiment

When you keep adding the opponent colour, there is a transition seen but there is never a mix of the two opponent colours - another colour forms instead https://o.quizlet.com/aREYaVZZTOJbsokQfFZR6Q_m.jpg

Episodic Declarative Memory

When you recall an event and express it via combination

Chemical Animal Model

Where a chemical is used to induce the disease in an animal e.g. 6OHDA/MPTP for PD and QA for HD

Spontaneous Animal Model

Where the animal spontaneously acquires a disease e.g. Batten's Disease

Stage Theory: Neural Processing

Where the colour opponency occurs (in the *horizontal cells* in the retina *and* continues in the brain) https://o.quizlet.com/MeS1Irxpz43RTQ6rUwgMeQ_m.png

Transgenic/Genetically Induced Animal Model

Where there is a gene knockin/knockout to induce disease in an animal e.g. Increase HD repeat length

The height of stereocilia depends on

Whether that part of the ear specialises in high or low frequency hearing

ISCHAEMIC STROKE Symptoms depends on

Which blood vessel is occluded → which area that vessel supplies

The clinical features of an ischemic stroke depend on

Which part of the brain has been damaged (which cerebral artery has been occluded).

Most MS lesions are in which matter?

White Matter

Preterm Perinatal Brain Injury is predominantly damage to

White Matter

WMI

White Matter Injury

What is the external capsule and location?

White matter tract, divides putamen from claustrum

Sclera

White outer layer of eyeball, continious with cornea https://o.quizlet.com/i/Z5kHAib2awlt8xYI14FE6Q_m.jpg

Colour of FF Type/Type II B?

White, ↓myoglobin, ↓blood supply

Recording electrode is attached to a specific neuron and essentially becomes a part of that neuron is called

Whole Cell Recording

What was originally used in studying the plasticity in the hippocampus? What was the problem with this?

Whole animal preparations - very complicated and difficult to study mechanisms

Hippocampal slice preparation is the most

Widely used experimental preparation for studying synapse plasticity

Reelin Deficiency (hippocampus)

Wildtype on left, cortex has layers and hippocampus has distinct Granular Cell layer, tightly packed. Deficiency on right, dispersal of dense hippocampal migratory cell layer (the dense one) https://o.quizlet.com/WeANZXEpEIF-Of5bBNLq4g_m.png

Germline Gene Therapy

Will modify gametic DNA (sperm/egg) to prevent transmission of genetic defect to future generations (i.e. inherited)

How do we accomplish Gene Therapy?

With Viral Vectors

Large Ganglion Cells morphology

With open radiating branching patterns

Association Fibres (1 example)

Within the same hemisphere, Arcuate Fasciculus (bundle of white matter)

Which sex is a better sniffer?

Women

Angular Gyrus function (left) and location?

Writing, Inferior parietal lobule

CT Scanning

Xrays producing virtual slices

Can Astrocytes phagocytose?

Yes

Inhibition Therapy - did it work?

Yes - reached Phase 2 clinical trials and modestly successful Does not stop progression but does help symptoms

Since phosphorylation of AMPA receptors does occur during LTP, maybe this could increase the conductance of existing AMPA receptors?

Yes it does - Increase in conductance is observed - more Na influx, like widening of the channels (like inotropic state of the heart - increased conductance for the same amount of glutamate!) https://o.quizlet.com/NN9z7xi9jo6H3nfQflTKew_m.png

Thalamus and other regions it projects to are mapped?

Yes, somatotopically https://o.quizlet.com/eX5sC8cZO9pLdEtCq64Pcg_m.jpg

Can Astrocytes move?

Yes, they are mobile → actively migrate to site of inflammation, to clean up and protect (chemotaxis, in response to chemokines)

The Neural Tube closes up akin to a

Zip

Find Engram: Step 2 - Label with what specifically?

c-fos, YFP and ChR2

[Figure] Pathways

https://o.quizlet.com/.VDDgZ.j3yu41vxHAqACGA_m.png

[Diagram] Potentiation vs low frequency stimulation

https://o.quizlet.com/2cYa3jeDwZvkPGux8-D7VA_m.png

[Figure] Superior Olivary Complex (my version) (Low frequency sound)

https://o.quizlet.com/C3AMV5UOnlHOPAU4KCvNDg_m.jpg

[Figure] Summary of 1st half of lecture

https://o.quizlet.com/Ebl1Pr9dR8pJlCmPJiPRwA_m.jpg

[Figure] The overall pathway of Reprogramming Cells

https://o.quizlet.com/RM3wkwWS7Hc3zVF8psfj.g_m.png

NMDA receptor-mediated Excitatory Postsynaptic Current (EPSC)

https://o.quizlet.com/bWnkEyA-t6aR311fj26N8Q_m.png

Amyloid Cascade Hypothesis

https://o.quizlet.com/eVIM9hpesA0hMViD9ZSUeg_m.jpg

[Figure] Uncoiled cochlea

https://o.quizlet.com/h6KvSgz3ltNqp-TeN9YVZA_m.jpg

[Diagram] Overview of the taste qualities, the taste receptors that detect them, and examples of natural stimuli

https://o.quizlet.com/siOH-vN03GC2ySRlPEnFlg_m.jpg

miRNA: Normally

miRNA binds mRNA → Inactivates it → Inhibits protein translation

BDNF Functions: Inhibits

miRNA https://o.quizlet.com/A3ZmaAJHIPJ9gNztMYwYcQ_m.jpg

What are SNARE proteins?

v-SNARE proteins on the vesicles containing neurotransmitter interact with t-SNARE proteins on the active zone membrane to dock the vesicles

There is (x) types of rods and (y) types of cones

x = 1 y = 3

Amyloidogenic Pathway Secretases

ß and 𝛾 secretase cleave APP -> release of Aß42

Types of Motor Neurons (2)

α and 𝛾

Non-Amyloidogenic Pathway Secretases

α and 𝛾 secretase cleave APP

Genetic CS4

α-synuclein gene mutation (CS4), pre-synaptic nerves terminals

Neural Pathway of the IHC

• Afferent nerves: IHCs -> (Type I) -> Cochlear Nucleus • Efferent nerves: Lateral Superior Olivary Complex (Brainstem) -> IHCs https://o.quizlet.com/cB3M3ErMHe3Ez.PnDMmzxQ_m.jpg

Neural Pathway of the OHC

• Afferent nerves: OHCs -> (Type II) -> Cochlear Nucleus • Efferent nerves: Medial Superior Olivary Complex (both sides - brainstem) -> OHCs https://o.quizlet.com/CP94GJznlTDOXS6Qc1xAJQ_m.jpg

(2) Preterm Perinatal Brain Injuries (white matter)

• Focal Cystic Necrosis (Cystic Lesions/Holes) • (Non-cystic) Diffuse White Matter Injury https://o.quizlet.com/fZgK9vcKiFl5viRanm3XIQ_m.jpg

The retina projects to which (4) subcortical regions of the brain?

• Lateral Geniculate Nucleus • Superior Colliculus • Suprachiasmatic Nucleus • Pretectum https://o.quizlet.com/TOj-eRudL8bFjl07-wr64w_m.jpg

What are the (3) stimulation and recordings we can do with hippocampal slide preparations?

• Stimulate the Perforant Pathway axons and record the postsynaptic currents from Dentate Gyrus Neurons • Stimulate the Mossy Fibre axons and record the postsynaptic currents from CA3 neurons • Stimulate the Schaffer Collaterals and record the postsynaptic currents from CA1 cells

What happens when you have *onset* of stress / depression?

↑Allopregnanolone, neg. feedback to help you get back to normal

Hypercapnia

↑PCO2 (dissolved in blood) → Reacts with H2O → H2CO3

Relationships between CAG repeat number and disease? (2)

↑Repeats = Earlier acquisition ↑Repeats = More severe form

Sensory Disorders around the world - trend?

↑disorders = developing countries https://o.quizlet.com/1IqIQ0jayuSznqxTQSy53w_m.png

How do you get sustained contraction?

↑frequency of AP = summation of twitches https://o.quizlet.com/qi0TIMsxPU95MGHclaAk6A_m.jpg

Third Pathway: Loss (neurodegeneration) leads to?

↑inhibition of thalamus = Hypokinesia/Rigidity

Adding BDNF to AD induced transgenic mice?

↑performance in water maze ↑synaptophysin expression in hippocampus

If fetus has to face anaerobic conditions and generates reduced levels of ATP, what happens?

↓ATP → Ionic gradient failure → unwanted depolarisation

What happens when you have *chronic* stress / depression?

↓Allopregnanolone

(3) Delivery of oxygen/energy to brain cells (blood perfusion to brain)

↓BP leads to: ↑cell death and ↓ brain blood flow

Post Asphyxial Hypoperfusion is characterised by?

↓CBF due to vasoconstriction + ↓Brain Activity but BP/Oxygenation normal https://o.quizlet.com/3mnckwm9ZDl8eFUzH3x2RA_m.png

Cerebral Blood Flow <20ml/100g/min (2)

↓EEG activity, ↓cerebral metabolic rate of oxygen

Experiment: Fetal responses to maintain brain perfusion during asphyxia - Results?

↓HR (instant) to preserve energy (causes ↓BP) BUT early ↑BP due to peripheral vasoconstriction ↓brain blood flow (ischemia) + ↓blood oxygenation → CNS energy failure → Brain cell death https://o.quizlet.com/BWgqlhx1LP8LQof4EAs7tA_m.png

Hypoxia-ischemia

↓blood flow to brain + ↓oxygen to brain

Cerebral Cooling has shown to decrease (4) in human babies?

↓death ↓mental developmental index ↓disabling cerebral palsy ↓visual impairment

Why do we observe reduced activity?

↓energy supply = brain tries to reduce activity Protective response to prolong time before injury

First Pathway: Loss (neurodegeneration) leads to?

↓inhibition of thalamus = Hyperkinesia

Hypoxemia

↓oxygen in arterial blood

Which gyri are found in the temporal lobe?

Superior, Middle and Inferior

The Medulla Oblongata can be broken down into (2)

*Medullary Pyramids* (pars basilaris medullae) and the Tegmentum

The Pons can be broken down into (3)

*Pars Basilaris* (pontis), Tegmentum and Cerebellar Peduncles

Notochord

A distinct cylinder of mesoderm cells, which condenses at the midline of the mesoderm.

Medullary Pyramids (pars basilaris medullae)

Allow *decussation* of corticospinal (motor) fibres

Cerebellar Peduncles

Allow fibres to and from the cerebellum

What are (3) key structures in the Occipital Lobe?

Association Cortex, Primary and Secondary Visual Cortices

What are the (3) connection fibres?

Association, Commissural and Projection

What structure forms after the initial zygote cleavage?

Blastocyst (has a cavity)

What is Specialisation?

Cells take on particular roles (become more differentiated) - they cannot return to previous totipotent state

The centre of the Neural Tube is called the

Central Canal

The hindbrain is made up of (3)

Cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata

The basal ganglia receive their input from the

Cerebral Cortex

Primary Motor Cortex

Has all of the motor neurons, it does a rough job of motor movement so we need help from the planning area and other areas for finer movement and control

Thalamus function?

Complex relay station between (1) brain and target organs and (2) sensory information from periphery to the brain

Pars Basilaris (pontis)

Contains *corticospinal* fibres, from motor cortex to pyramids (where fibers decussate). Contains *brain stem nuclei* which relay information (from the cortex) to *cranial* nerves for the *face*.

The midbrain can be broken down into (4)

Crus Cerebri, Substantia Nigra, Tegmentum, Tectum https://o.quizlet.com/8xjvuK0rpLIXNRDpKWSN3w_m.jpg

Primary Visual Cortex

Detect light/movement in periphery, crude breakdown of what is in your visual field (the raw data) → is sent to the Secondary Visual Cortex

What is lateral to the claustrum?

Extreme Capsule

The Sensory and Motor cortices have a map called the

Homunculus

What are the (3) association cortices?

Frontal, Parietal and Temporal

What are the (4) lobes of the brain?

Frontal, Temporal, Parietal and Occipital

Basal Ganglia are which type of matter?

Grey matter, therefore contain many cell bodies

Inferior Colliculi reflex

In response to auditory stimulus

Superior Colliculi reflex

In response to visual stimulus

The notochord and primitive pit send _____ _____ to the overlying ectoderm that causes a subset of neuroectodermal cells to differentiate into ______ _____ cells.

Inductive Signals, Neural Precursor Cells

Lecture 1

Lecture 1

Lecture 2

Lecture 2

If you are right handed, which hemisphere is dominant?

Left hemisphere

How does a conversation take place for one individual?

Listens → auditory nerve → Primary Auditory Cortex, sound is broken down into tones → Wernicke's Area for interpretation → *Arcuate Fasciculus* → Broca's Area plans verbal response → Primary Motor Cortex at area of throat/tongue/mouth etc.

What happens to an individual when they are *asked* to *write* something?

Listens → auditory nerve → Primary Auditory Cortex, sound is broken down into tones → Wernicke's Area for interpretation → Angular Gyrus → Planning area for hand movements → Exner's Area → Primary Motor Cortex at area of hand

Surgical removal of the temporal lobe to reduce temporal lobe epilepsy also increases the probability of

Loss of memory

Temporal Association Cortex (3)

Memory, agression and intelligence

The tegmentum has which (3) parts? These parts are

Mesencephalic (midbrain), Pontine (pons) and Medullary (Medulla Oblongata). These parts are continuous.

Another name for midbrain?

Mesencephalon

White matter is made of (3)

Myelin, neurites and outgrowths

What part of the blastocyst forms the placenta?

Outer Trophoblast Cells

Another name for pons?

Pontine Nucleus

The Primary Sensory Cortex is located in which gyrus?

Postcentral Gyrus

The Primary Motor Cortex is located in which gyrus?

Precentral Gyrus

Striatum is made up of (2)

Putamen and caudate nucleus

Supramarginal Gyrus (left) function and location?

Reading (orientate head for writing, movement of eyes), Inferior parietal lobule

Primary Auditory Cortex function and location?

Receives information from Auditory Nerve, breaks it down into tones and projects this to the Wernicke's Area for interpretation, Superior Temporal Gyrus

When the sperm meets the egg, what is the name given to these highly developmentally active cells?

Stem Cells or Germ Cells

Which gyri are found in the parietal lobe?

Superior and Inferior

Which gyri are found in the frontal lobe?

Superior, Middle and Inferior

The top and bottom of the Neural Tube differentiate into

Roofplate and Floorplate, respectively. https://o.quizlet.com/92i4P7j6LtV7IgUwkIUvyw_m.png

The Neural Tube becomes the

Rudimentary CNS

The Neural Crests adjacent to the Neural Tube form

Sensory and Autonomic Ganglia

Wernicke's Area function and location?

Sensory aspect of interpreting sounds/speech, Superior Temporal Gyrus

The mesoderm adjacent to the Neural Tube thickens and subdivides to form

Somites https://o.quizlet.com/EDJOx4K3wiuMWEEclGg.Mg_m.png

Parietal Association Cortex function? (3)

Spatial skills, 3D recognition, shapes/faces

Crus Cerebri

The *bridge* between the midbrain and the forebrain which carries *motor* information down

Which Visual Cortex is tricked in optical illusions and why?

The Secondary Visual Cortex, the raw data is analysed incorrectly

The notochord, roof plate and floor plate are transient structures, which means

They disappear once early development is complete

Occipital Cortex function and location?

Vision, Posterior tip of occipital lobe

To see if neural development is fine, at which week stage do women receive a scan?

Week 12 - 14

What are the (5) basal ganglia nuclei?

[(Caudate Nucleus + Putamen) + Globus Pallidus], Subthalamic Nucleus, Substantia Nigra