MEH Unit 3: The Islamic Golden Age (610-1258 CE)
Who was Umar and what role did he play in the appointment of Abu-Bakr as the successor to Muhammad?
(c. 584-644) was one of the closest companions of the Prophet Muhammad and played a significant role in the early history of Islam. Umar was known for his intelligence, strength, and commitment to the Islamic cause. He became the second Caliph (successor) to Prophet Muhammad after the death of Abu Bakr. When Prophet Muhammad passed away in 632 CE, the Muslim community faced the crucial task of selecting a successor, known as the Caliph, to lead them. This process led to the event known as Saqifah of Banu Sa'ida. After initial discussions and deliberations, a group of prominent Muslims, including Umar ibn al-Khattab, gathered at the Saqifah (an open area) to decide on the new leader. At the Saqifah, Umar spoke in favor of Abu Bakr, another close companion of Prophet Muhammad, and proposed his name for the position of the Caliph. Umar highlighted Abu Bakr's loyalty, knowledge, and commitment to Islam as qualities that made him a suitable candidate. The gathering ultimately accepted Umar's nomination, and Abu Bakr was chosen as the first Caliph of Islam.
What was the Shu'ubiya? In what ways did the Persians, particularly those in the bureaucratic class, utilize their knowledge of literature to support their claims? While accusations were made by Arabs and what were the true aspirations of the movement's scholars and bureaucrats, and what did they seek to achieve within the system?
A less spectacular ladder for upwardly mobile Persians was a literary movement called the Shu'ubiya; The Persians, especially in the bureaucratic class, used their knowledge of literature to prove their equality with (or superiority over) the Arabs. After all, they reasoned, Persians had built and managed mighty empires, prospered, and created a high culture for centuries while the Arabs were riding camels in the desert; The Arabs were quick to accuse the Shu'ubiya of attacking Islam and the Prophet, but its scholars and bureaucrats really sought equality within the system.
What happened after Abd al-Malik took over the caliphate?
Abd al-Malik took over the caliphate on the death of his aged father, Marwan, who had ruled briefly during what was (for the Umayyads) the worst year of the second fitna. When Abd al-Malik took charge, the northern Arab tribal confederation was rebelling against his family, in league with Abdallah ibn al-Zubayr, who was in Mecca claiming the caliphate. Every province except Syria had turned against Umayyad rule. The martyrdom of the Prophet's grandson, Husayn, had further antagonized many Muslims, especially the Shiites.
What measures did Abu-Bakr take to ensure the unity of the Arab tribes after Muhammad's death, and what were the motivations behind these measures?
Abu-Bakr (r. 632-634) called himself khalifat rasul Allah (successor of the messenger of God), soon shortened to khalifa, or caliph in English. Among his Muslim followers, the caliph was called amir al-muminin (commander of the believers). Abu-Bakr surely earned the title. As soon as the Arab tribes heard of Muhammad's death, most of them broke with the umma. Later Muslims would call this event ridda (apostasy), seeing the break as a renunciation of Islam. To the tribes, however, the leader's death had ended all treaties that would have required them to pay zakat—which they viewed as a form of tribute—to Medina. Abu-Bakr realized that if they could evade paying the required tithe, the unity of the Arabs would be sundered and the umma would lose revenue. Islam might vanish entirely. To avert these dangers, he sent his best generals, Khalid ibn al-Walid and Amr ibn al-As, to force the tribes to rejoin the umma. Although the ridda wars were costly, the tribes capitulated one by one and were eventually forgiven
What role Abu-Muslim play in the early Abbasid period?
Abu-Muslim was popular in Khurasan, where the Persians viewed him as their leader, not merely the standard-bearer of the Abbasid revolution; The first two Abbasid caliphs, Abu al-Abbas and Mansur, used him to defeat the Umayyads and crush the Shiites. But Mansur feared that the Persians might turn on his own dynasty; The Persians later charged that Mansur treacherously summoned Abu-Muslim to his court and had him put to death. Some Arabs called Abu-Muslim a zindiq ("heretic"), meaning that he practiced a pre-Islamic Persian religion.
Why was Abu-Muslim widely popular among the Persians in Khurasan during the Abbasid revolution? How did the early Abbasid caliphs, Abu al-Abbas and Mansur, utilize Abu-Muslim's support to defeat the Umayyads and suppress the Shiites? However, what led to the suspicions and accusations against Mansur regarding Abu-Muslim's fate?
Abu-Muslim was popular in Khurasan, where the Persians viewed him as their leader, not merely the standard-bearer of the Abbasid revolution; The first two Abbasid caliphs, Abu al-Abbas and Mansur, used him to defeat the Umayyads and crush the Shiites. But Mansur feared that the Persians might turn on his own dynasty; The Persians later charged that Mansur treacherously summoned Abu-Muslim to his court and had him put to death. Some Arabs called Abu-Muslim a zindiq ("heretic"), meaning that he practiced a pre-Islamic Persian religion.
How did the Shiite branch of Islam emerge and how did it shape the religious and political landscape of the Islamic world? Explain the key doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shiite Muslims
After the battle at Karbala, the partisans of the Prophet's "martyred" descendants, Ali and now Husayn, vowed never to recognize the Umayyads as legitimate caliphs. They came to be called Shi'at Ali (the Party of Ali), from which came the name Shiites. From Iraq they spread throughout the empire, wherever Muslims sought a pretext to defy Umayyad rule. Nowadays the Shiites make up the second largest Muslim sect, as contrasted with the majority group, Sunnis, who accepted (often reluctantly) the ruling caliphs. --The religious differences that exist between Sunnis and Shiites are mainly to the latter's conviction that only Ali and his descendants had any right to lead the umma. To Shiite Muslims, Abu-Bakr, Umar, Uthman, Mu'awiya and his heirs, were usurpers, whereas Ali was the first imam (leader) and he bequeathed special powers and esoteric knowledge to his sons, his sons' sons, and so on.
How did Muhammad's relations with the Jewish tribes in Medina change after his victories at Badr and Uhud and what actions did Muhammad take in response to the perceived disloyalty of the Jewish tribes during the siege of Medina's trench?
After winning at Badr, Muhammad expelled one of the Jewish tribes for conspiring with his Meccan foes but let its members keep their property. The Muslims expelled another Jewish tribe after their defeat at Uhud, seizing the tribe's groves of date palms; According to traditional accounts, the last of the three tribes suffered the worst fate: the men were killed, and the women and children were sold into slavery. Muhammad believed that this tribe, despite an outward show of loyalty, had backed the Meccans in 627 during their siege of Medina's trench. Muhammad sought the advice of an associate who seemed neutral but who in fact coveted the Jews' property. His advice led to a slaughter that enriched some Muslims and raised Muhammad's prestige among the Arab tribes, for it showed that he had no fear of blood reprisals.
How did the arbitration between Ali and Mu'awiya and the subsequent rise of the Kharijites impact the early Islamic community and the authority of Ali as caliph?
Ali and Mu'awiya each chose a representative and agreed to let them decide whether the Umayyads were justified in seeking revenge for Uthman's murder. Soon afterward, some of Ali's men turned against him for agreeing to the arbitration. Called Kharijites (seceders), these rebels harassed Ali for the rest of his caliphate, even after he defeated them in battle in 659. Before then, the appointed arbiters of Ali and Mu'awiya had met.
What did the death of Ali mark the end of and who emerged as a key figure in saving the umma and the caliphate from anarchy?
Ali's death ended the period known to Muslims as the era of the Rashidun (meaning "rightly guided") caliphs--The man who saved the umma and the caliphate from anarchy was the Umayyad governor of Syria, Mu'awiya. He possessed a virtue prized among Arabs—the ability to refrain from using force unless absolutely necessary. As Mu'awiya put it: "I never use my sword when my whip will do, nor my whip when my tongue will do. Let a single hair bind me to my people, and I will not let it snap; when they pull I loosen, and if they loosen I pull."
What were the key events surrounding the Umayyad conquest of Iraq and Arabia?
Although he took office in 685, Abd al-Malik waited until 691 to take Iraq from Abdallah's forces. The next year Hajjaj, an Umayyad general famed for his harsh government in Iraq and Iran, captured Arabia. His men had to bombard Mecca (even damaging the Ka'ba) before Abdallah's army surrendered. Hajjaj spent two years wiping out Kharijite rebels in Arabia before he went into Kufa --The Kufans, thus intimidated, gave no more trouble, and Hajjaj restored prosperity to the Umayyads' eastern provinces. Abd al-Malik laid the basis for an absolutist caliphate, one patterned after the traditions of the divine kings of the ancient Middle East instead of the patriarchal shaykhs of the Arab tribes. You can see the change not only in the policies of such authoritarian governors as Hajjaj but also in Abd al-Malik's decree making Arabic the administrative language
Who were the Aghlabids, and what factors contributed to their rise to prominence in North Africa and their subsequent raids on Sicily, Italy, and southern France?
An Abbasid governor, sent by Harun in 800 to Tunis, founded his own dynasty, collectively known as the Aghlabids. Intermittent Arab and Berber revolts did not stop the Aghlabids from raiding nearby Sicily, Italy, and southern France; These raids enhanced their prestige among Muslims at a time when Harun's successors were no longer taking Christian lands. Rather, Egypt's Christians overthrew their Abbasid governor in 832, and a Byzantine navy invaded the Nile Delta some twenty years later; Ahmad ibn Tulun, a turk, was sent by the Abbasids in 868 to put Egypt in order, made the country virtually independent. As the Abbasids declined, the Byzantine Empire revived. Under its tenth-century Macedonian rulers, that Christian state would briefly retake southern Anatolia and even Syria.
What were the key developments in the intellectual and administrative spheres during the High Caliphate period?
As the caliphal state grew larger and more complex, it needed more people to run it. The early Umayyads had inherited Roman bureaucratic traditions, but now Persian administrators took over and introduced Sasanid practices. At the same time, there grew up a class of pious Muslims who could recite and interpret the Quran, relate and record hadiths (authenticated accounts of Muhammad's sayings and actions), systematize Arabic grammar, and develop the science of law (called fiqh in Arabic). Eventually they became known as ulama, which means "those who know," or experts on Muslim doctrines, laws, and history. Muslims also became interested in classical philosophy, science, and medicine, as Greek works were translated into Arabic. One result was the evolution of systematic Islamic theology.
How did the tactics and geographical advantages of the Arab armies contribute to their victories against the Roman and Persian forces?
Because the Arab armies were small, usually under a thousand men, thus fewer in number and less well equipped—but more cohesive—than their Roman or Persian foes. They fought few engagements and chose them carefully. Their decisive victories enabled them to gain vast expanses of territory. Their horses were the essential ingredient in their speed, but their camels gave them endurance and mobility in the desert. Arab victories took place in or sufficiently close to the desert to enable the troops to get away from Roman or Persian legions if they needed to. A common Arab tactic was to draw enemy forces into a valley and then use the terrain to trap them. One of the Arabs' triumphs, the Battle of the Yarmuk River in 636, resulted from a dust storm that enabled Khalid to conceal his men from the Romans. This victory gave the Arabs control over Syria. Another dust storm helped the Arabs to defeat the Persians in 637 at Qadisiya and hence to overrun Iraq. The Arabs later conquered western Persia after trapping the Sasanid army in a ravine.
What were the Quranic provisions regarding marriage and the number of wives allowed for Muslim men, and how did Muhammad's own marriages reflect his personal circumstances and the alliances he sought to establish?
Before Islam, Arab men commonly took as many wives as they could afford and various forms of extramarital sexual relations were also accepted. Seeking to limit this license, the Quran allowed Muslim men to marry as many as four wives, provided that they treated them all equally, but this permission was granted in the context of a revelation concerning the welfare of widows and orphans—a natural concern, given Muhammad's own background and the heavy loss of young men in raids and battles. --It is true that after Khadija died, he gradually took other wives, possibly as many as ten. Several were widows of his slain followers, for whom he offered to provide support. Other marriages involved the daughters of tribal chieftains whom Muhammad wanted as allies. Aisha, who became his favorite wife, was the daughter of Abu-Bakr, his best friend, and she was nine when she came to live with him. Muhammad's critics pointed to his marriage to Zaynab, whom he came to know while she was married to his adopted son, Zayd. A new Quranic revelation allowed Zayd to divorce her, but even Aisha was quick to attack Muhammad for marrying her. Muhammad believed that his marriages were prescribed for him by God, and he always enjoyed the company of women.
What was the outcome of the Muslims' victory over the Arab tribes from Taif and what conditions did Muhammad impose on tribes seeking his support?
Bolstered by Meccan troops, the Muslims defeated a large coalition of Arab tribes from around Taif. The Hijaz was now united under Islam and from then on, other tribes and clans, recognizing Muhammad's power, began sending delegations to Medina, which remained the capital of the new state; As a condition for his support, Muhammad required the tribes to accept Islam and even to pay taxes, a condition that the Quraysh tribe had never been able to impose. Traditional accounts maintain that by nearly all the Arab tribes were Muslim. More probably, though, only some clans, factions, or persons within each tribe embraced Islam
How did the conquered peoples, including Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, and Manichaeans, respond to the Islamic conquests and the spread of Islam?
Conquered peoples went on speaking the languages they were used to. Few Jews or Christians rushed to convert to Islam, for they were protected as "People of the Book." Zoroastrians and Manichaeans in Iraq and Persia were less tolerated and more apt to become Muslim, but even they changed slowly.
How did the decline of Arab conquests, internal tribal conflicts, and the perceived incompetence of certain Umayyad caliphs contribute to growing discontent and the rise of dissident Muslim movements, particularly among the mawali?
Despite the fiscal reforms of Umar II and Hisham, the Umayyad caliphate remained an Arab kingdom. Muslims could endure this as long as the conquests continued. But as they slowed down in the 740s, the Arab tribes that supplied most of the warriors became worthless because of their constant quarrels. A few of the later caliphs also seemed useless, with their hunting palaces, dancing girls, and swimming pools filled with wine. Some of them sided with one or the other of the tribal confederations, raising the danger that the slighted tribes would stir up bitter Shiite or Kharijite revolts. Hisham faced these problems bravely; his less able successors did not. The best way for them to voice their discontent was to back dissident Muslim movements that might overthrow the Umayyads. Especially popular among the mawali was a Shiite revolutionary movement called—ambiguously—the Hashimites.
Describe tribal soldiers of the High Caliphate
During the High Caliphate, tribal soldiers from Arabia would gradually be replaced by salaried troops, notably Persians from Khurasan, then by Turkish tribal horse soldiers paid with land grants.
What led to the initial contact between Muhammad and the people of Yathrib (Medina), and what role did Muhammad play in resolving the conflicts between the pagan tribes of Yathrib?
During the pagan pilgrimage month in 620, Muhammad was visited by six Arabs from an agricultural oasis town called Yathrib (now Medina), located about 270 miles north of Mecca, just after they had completed their hajj rites at the Ka'ba. They told him that fighting between Yathrib's two pagan tribes had grown so bad that they could no longer protect themselves against the three Jewish tribes with which they shared the oasis. They asked Muhammad to come and, because of his reputation as an honest man, arbitrate their quarrels. The next year more pilgrims came from Yathrib, and some embraced Islam. In return for Muhammad's services as an arbiter, they agreed to give sanctuary to the Meccan Muslims.
How did the concept of honorary Arab status and the influx of non-Arab converts, particularly Persians and Arameans, impact the demographics and cultural dynamics of cities like Basra and Kufa?
Early Muslims conferred honorary Arab status on any non-Arab male convert by making him a client member (mawla; plural mawali) of an Arab tribe. Persians and Arameans who flocked to the garrison towns were especially apt to turn Muslim. Soon the mawali outnumbered the Arabs living in such towns as Basra and Kufa. How ironic, considering that those cities had been set up to keep the Arabs from being corrupted by Persian civilization! They soon became melting pots and centers of cultural interchange.
Mu'awiya adopted some of the Byzantine imperial customs and the bureaucratic practices familiar to?
Egypt and Syria
How did the Kharijite revolt against Ali impact his authority and what were the subsequent events that allowed Mu'awiya to proclaim himself caliph in 660?
Emboldened by the Kharijite revolt against Ali, Mu'awiya's representative, Amr, convinced Ali's arbiter to agree to his master's deposition from the caliphate. Ali did not resign, but the arbitration sapped his authority. His followers faded away. One province after another defected to Mu'awiya, who had himself proclaimed caliph in Jerusalem in 660. Finally, in 661, Ali was murdered by a Kharijite seeking revenge for his sect's defeat.
Who were some of the key individuals among Muhammad's early converts to Islam, and what were their backgrounds and relationships to Muhammad?
Even though Muhammad's uncle, Abu-Talib, never embraced Islam, he went on protecting his nephew. Abu-Talib's son, Ali, raised in Muhammad's home, was probably his first male convert. Later, he would marry the Prophet's daughter, Fatima, and become a leader of early Islam. Other early converts were Abu-Bakr, Muhammad's best friend and a man of wealth and social standing. Arkam, a young member of a strong clan, who let the Muslims meet at his home. Umar, an imposing figure from a weak clan. Uthman, an elegant but quiet youth of the powerful Umayyad family. Bilal, an Ethiopian slave set free by Abu-Bakr and Zayd ibn Haritha, a captured Christian Arab whom Muhammad adopted.
What were the symbolic acts of Abd al-Malik during his rule, and how did they impact the region?
Following the old Roman imperial tradition of erecting fine buildings, Abd al-Malik had the magnificent Dome of the Rock built atop what had been Jerusalem's Temple Mount. It was a shrine erected around what local tradition said was the rock of Abraham's attempted sacrifice and what Muslims believe to be the site of Muhammad's departure on his miraculous night journey to heaven. With the Dome of the Rock set almost directly above the Western Wall, the sole remnant of the second Jewish Temple, you can see why Arabs and Jews now dispute who should control Jerusalem's Old City, holy to all three monotheistic faiths. Another symbolic act by Abd al-Malik was the minting of Muslim coins, which ended the Muslims' dependence on Byzantine and Persian currency
What were the primary challenges to Uthman's rule around 650, and how did they manifest in the form of opposition from various groups, ultimately leading to his demise? Explain Kufa
From about 650, Uthman's rule was threatened by a mixture of people: pious old Muslims, mostly Medinans, who resented the way the Umayyads were taking over the same umma they once had tried to destroy, (Quran reciters who had lost power because of Uthman's authorization of a single version) and tribal Arabs who chafed at having no new lands to seize and plunder. Of all the garrison towns, Kufa was the most restive. An open revolt started there in 655, spread to Arabia, and reached Medina in 656. The insurgents besieged the house of Uthman, who got no protection from any of Muhammad's associates. A group of rebels from Egypt broke in and killed the aged caliph as he sat with his wife, reciting from the Quran. Five days later, Ali (r. 656-661) agreed, reluctantly, to become the fourth caliph.
To what extent did God's revelations, as recorded in the Quran, provide guidance for?
God's revelations now laid down laws about marriage and divorce, inheritance, theft and other crimes, and interpersonal relations, more than they told of God's power and the impending Judgment Day. Moreover, Muhammad's own sayings and actions concerning practical matters unaddressed by the Quran or traditional Arab customs were becoming an authoritative guide for Muslim behavior.
Explain the significance of Harun's reliability on his Barmakid viziers
Harun unloaded many of his burdens onto his Barmakid viziers, until he realized that he had let them take too much of his power and wealth. Then he dramatically killed the one to whom he was most attached. The Barmakids' power and prestige were eclipsing Harun's own position.
What were the key components of the taxation system implemented by Hisham (r. 724-743) during the Umayyad caliphate?
He finally set the taxes into a system that would be upheld for the next thousand years. Muslims paid the zakat, property owners (with a few exceptions) paid on their land or buildings a tax called the kharaj, and Christian and Jewish men paid a per capita tax called the jizya.
What inconsistencies in the behavior of the Prophet Muhammad can be observed?
He forbade wailing at funerals until his infant son died, forgave many of the foes he faced in battle, but not the poets who made fun of his mission and he thought that prophets were human beings, not plaster saints.
What significance did Abu-Bakr's close relationship with Muhammad hold in his selection as the successor?
He had been Muhammad's closest friend, the first person the Prophet had converted outside his own family, the father of Muhammad's beloved wife Aisha, and the designated worship leader during the Prophet's final illness.
What events unfolded after Ali assumed the caliphate, and what challenge did he face with the key figures that opposed his rule and why? Describe the Battle of the Camel and its significance in Islamic history
He proved to be a weak caliph. Either Ali came too late to do the office any good, or the caliphate came too late to do him any good. Soon after his accession, Ali left Medina, never to return. Kufa would serve as his capital. But when he reached Basra, he was challenged by two of Muhammad's associates, Talha and Zubayr. Aisha joined in, branding Ali unfit to rule because he had not tried to protect Uthman. This was a strange accusation, as none of the challengers had liked or defended the third caliph. Their real motives were political and personal. Ali had allegedly denied government posts to Talha and Zubayr, and Aisha had never forgiven him for having accused her of infidelity to Muhammad. --Ali and his troops defeated the challengers in a bloody affray, the Battle of the Camel, so called because it raged around Aisha's camel-borne litter. Talha and Zubayr died in battle (as, it is said, did 13,000 others), and Aisha was sent back to Medina. The Battle of the Camel was the first instance in which two Muslim armies fought against each other. It set an unhappy precedent.
What were the factors that led to the unpopularity of Yazid among Muhammad's old companions and some Arab tribes?
His mother, one of Mu'awiya's favorite wives, had detested the settled life of the Umayyad court and pined for the bedouin camps of her youth. To this effect she wrote a poem, grossly insulting to Mu'awiya, that convinced him that she and her son, still young at the time, belonged in the desert. Yazid grew up with his mother's tribe, Kalb. Upon his accession to the caliphate, he favored his tribe over its great rival, Qays. During the early conquests, the tribes had formed two large confederations involving most of the Arab soldiers: one "southern" and including Kalb, the other "northern" and including Qays. During Yazid's reign, their rivalries escalated into a full-scale civil war, part of Islam's second fitna.
How did Persians attain significant positions in the Abbasid administration and military, replacing the previously favored Arabs and Syrians? Elaborate on the roles and influence of the Barmakids.
Hundreds of Persians, mainly from Iraq and Khurasan, rose to high posts within the army and the civil administration, replacing the Arabs and Syrians favored by the Umayyads. Some Persians became ulama and helped to shape Islam. Loyal to their Abbasid masters, they helped them suppress dissenting ideas and movements, but in fact they Persianized the state from within; As the central administration grew more complex, Persian bureaucratic families rose to power. The greatest of these was the Barmakids, of whom three generations served the Abbasids from Mansur to Harun al-Rashid as bursars, tax collectors, provincial governors, military commanders, tutors, companions, and chief ministers; The title they bore, pronounced wazir in Arabic and vizier in Persian, came to be applied to any high-ranking official.
How did Persians, particularly those from Iraq and Khurasan, attain significant positions in the Abbasid administration and military, replacing the previously favored Arabs and Syrians? Elaborate on the roles and influence of the Barmakids. Lastly, how did the title "wazir" or "vizier" come to be associated with high-ranking officials beyond the Barmakids?
Hundreds of Persians, mainly from Iraq and Khurasan, rose to high posts within the army and the civil administration, replacing the Arabs and Syrians favored by the Umayyads. Some Persians became ulama and helped to shape Islam. Loyal to their Abbasid masters, they helped them suppress dissenting ideas and movements, but in fact they Persianized the state from within; As the central administration grew more complex, Persian bureaucratic families rose to power. The greatest of these was the Barmakids, of whom three generations served the Abbasids from Mansur to Harun al-Rashid as bursars, tax collectors, provincial governors, military commanders, tutors, companions, and chief ministers; The title they bore, pronounced wazir in Arabic and vizier in Persian, came to be applied to any high-ranking official.
What were the strategies employed by Muhammad and his followers in Medina and how did the Quranic revelations guide their actions during these events?
If Muhammad was ever to lead Medina's Jews and ansar, the emigrants would have to find ways to support themselves. The Quran suggested that they might raid the Meccan caravan and thereafter of a few fiascoes, Muhammad and his men hit the Meccans hard enough to hurt. They attacked even during the month in which pagan Arabs were forbidden to raid because of their traditional pilgrimage to Mecca, shocking many Arabs, but a Quranic revelation stated: "They will question you about the holy month and fighting in it, Say "Fighting in it is wrong, but to bar from God's way, and disbelief in Him, and the sacred Ka'ba, and to expel its people from it—that is more wicked in God's sight; and persecution is more wicked than killing."
What impact did the deaths of Khadija, Muhammad's first wife, and Abu-Talib, his uncle and protector, have on Muhammad's personal life and his mission?
In 619 after Muhammad lost Khadija and Abu-Talib, he would later marry many women, but none could match the loyalty and support of his first wife. Without his uncle, Muhammad had no protector within the Hashimite clan, and so the persecution grew worse
What was the role of the Hashimites and the mawali in the rise to power of the Abbasids in the early eighth century?
In the early eighth century, some of the Hashimites conferred their support on one branch of their clan, the Abbasids, so called because they had descended from Muhammad's uncle Abbas. The Abbasids exploited these Shiite revolutionaries and disgruntled mawali to gain power. Their power center was Khurasan, in eastern Persia.
What was the role of Turks in the Abbasid ruling system and how did their influence grow under al-Mu'tasim?
In the ninth century some Turkish tribes from Central Asia entered the Middle East, seeking grazing lands for their horses and employment for their warriors. Moreover, individual Turks were incorporated into the Abbasid ruling system. Some captured in war became slaves for the caliphs. But under al-Mu'tasim (r. 833-842) the induction of Turks into the service of the caliphate became more systematic and pervasive. Hundreds of boys were bought from traders in Central Asia, taken to Baghdad, converted to Islam, and trained to be soldiers, administrators, or domestic servants for the Abbasids --Taught from childhood to view the caliphs as their benefactors, these Turkic slaves seemed more trustworthy than the Persian mercenaries. Soon they became the strongest element in the Abbasid army. Then they were able to manipulate the caliphs and murder anyone they disliked. Hardy and disciplined, the Turks took over the caliphal state—both the capital and some of its provinces—from within.
How did the interplay between Persian and Arab influences, including the prevalence of Persian wives and concubines in the Abbasid caliphate, impact the succession struggle between Amin and Mamun?
Indeed, the Abbasids themselves were being Persianized by their harems. The caliphs had so many Persian wives or concubines that the genetic mix of the ninth-century Abbasids was more Persian than Arab. Harun's Persian mother pushed him into becoming caliph. The succession struggle between his two sons was intensified by the fact that the mother of Amin (r. 809-813) was Harun's Arab wife, whereas Mamun (the challenger and ultimate victor) was born of a Persian concubine.
What is the fitna in Islam? Furthermore, why was Ali highly qualified for the caliphate, and what were his notable contributions to the early Islamic community?
Islam's first time of troubles, which the Arabs call their fitna (temptation) started after Uthmans death; It seems unfair, for Ali appeared highly qualified for the caliphate being the son of Muhammad's uncle and protector, the Prophet's first male convert, the husband of his daughter Fatima, hence the father of his only grandsons, Hasan and Husayn. Ali had risked his life so that Muhammad could safely leave Mecca during the hijra. He had fought against the pagan Meccans, accompanied the Prophet on most of his expeditions, and advised the earlier caliphs on questions of dogma and policy. He was pious and generous.
How did the support and validation from Khadija's cousin contribute to Muhammad's understanding of his role as a messenger of God? Furthermore, what message did Muhammad believe he was tasked with delivering to the Arabs?
Khadija, as it happened, had a cousin who was a Hanif and when she went to see him, she assured her that Muhammad, far from being mad, was God's long-awaited messenger to the Arabs. She returned to her husband and gave him the backing that he needed. Hesitantly, Muhammad realized that what he had heard was God's exhortation to make the divine presence known to the Arabs. Also, he had to warn them (just as God had sent earlier prophets to warn the Jews and the Christians) of a Judgment Day when all would be called to account: "When the earth shall quake with a predestined quaking, When the earth shall bring forth her burdens, and men shall ask,"What ails her?" Upon that day shall she tell her news with which thy Lord has inspired her, Upon that day shall men come out in scattered groups to be shown what they have done. Then he who has done one atom's weight of good shall see it and he who has done one atom's weight of evil shall see it"
What were the Mu'tazila and how did they influence the Abbasid caliphate under Mamun's rule? How did Mamun's attempt to reconcile Sunni and Shiite Muslims ultimately backfire?
Mamun's penchant for philosophical and theological debate led him to espouse a set of Muslim doctrines known collectively as the Mu'tazila. This system of theology began as an attempt to refute Persian Zindiqs and the Shu'ubiya but became a rationalist formulation of Islam, stressing free will over divine predestination. Under Mamun and his two successors, each high-ranking Muslim official or judge was tested by being asked whether he believed that God had created all things, including the Quran. A yes answer meant that he was a Mu'tazilite, one who opposed the popular idea that the Quran had eternally existed, even before it was revealed to Muhammad. The extreme rationalism of the Mu'tazila antagonized the later Abbasids, who ended the test, and offended ordinary Muslims, who revered the Quran and believed that God had decreed all human acts ---Mamun also tried to reconcile Sunni and Shiite Muslims by naming the latter's imam as his successor. The plan backfired. Iraq's people resisted Mamun's concession to a descendant of Ali, and the imam died, probably of poison.
Once the umma was set up in Yathrib, renamed Medina ("the city of the Prophet"), Muhammad faced new challenges. What challenges did Muhammad face in Medina and how did he address these challenges during this period of his life?
Medina's Arabs did not become Muslims at once, their quarrels proved hard to settle, and it was harder still for him to win the allegiance of the city as a whole; If the Jews of Medina had ever harbored any belief in Muhammad as the Messiah or the messenger of God, they were soon disillusioned. His revelations differed from what they knew from the Bible. Muhammad's divine revelations, which now were becoming known as the Quran, repeatedly called Abraham a Muslim, a man who submitted to God's will. Muhammad had brought into Islam some Jewish practices (as he understood them), such as fasting on Yom Kippur (the Day of Atonement) and leading Muslim worship while he and his followers faced Jerusalem. The Jews were not convinced, and they rejected his religious authority; Even the Medinans who converted to Islam, called ansar ("helpers"), grew tired of supporting the Meccan emigrants, who showed no aptitude for farming, the economic basis of their oasis. The emigrants were cut off from commerce, so long as pagan Mecca controlled the caravan routes.
How did Umar II, in contrast to other Umayyad caliphs, address the issue of discriminatory taxation and treatment of non-Arab converts to Islam, known as mawali? What reforms did Umar II introduce to promote equality and fairness among Muslims, despite concerns about the impact on the treasury? What were the restrictions and rules imposed on non-Muslims, as outlined in the Covenant of Umar?
Most of their subjects were not Arabs, and they paid most of the taxes. Even those non-Arabs who became Muslims still had to pay the Umayyads the same rates as those who did not convert. The terminology and administration of these taxes were confusing, for they were rigged against the mawali, the non-Arab converts to Islam who had become as numerous as the tribal Arabs themselves. This problem was tackled by Umar II (r. 717-720), who alone among all the Umayyad caliphs is praised for his piety by later Muslim historians. Umar wanted to stop all fiscal practices that favored the Arabs and to treat all Muslims equally and fairly. When his advisers warned him that exempting the mawali from the taxes paid by non-Muslims would cause numerous conversions to Islam and deplete his treasury, Umar retorted that he had not become commander of the believers to collect taxes and imposed his reforms anyway --As he also cut military expenditures, his treasury did not suffer, and he did gain Muslim converts. He must have wanted conversions, because he also placed humiliating restrictions on non-Muslims: They could not ride horses or camels, only mules and donkeys; they had to wear special clothing that identified them as Jews or Christians; and they were forbidden to build new synagogues or churches without permission. These rules, collectively called the Covenant of Umar, were enforced by some of his successors and ignored by many others.
Who took responsibility for raising Muhammad after the deaths of his parents, and what was his upbringing like?
Most people think that Muhammad was born in 570, a few months after his father's death. Before Muhammad was six, his mother also died. His grandfather, taking responsibility for the boy, sent him out to live with bedouin Arabs. Meccans often farmed out their children so that they might learn to speak more grammatical Arabic and get a healthier start in life than they could in the city. When his grandfather died, Muhammad's upbringing was taken over by his uncle, a caravan merchant named Abu-Talib, from whom he learned the business of buying, selling, and transporting goods. Muhammad's family was called the clan of Hashim, or Hashimites and they were a reputable, if relatively poor, branch of the ruling Quraysh tribe.
What was the reason behind Mu'awiya's decision to remain in Damascus as his capital, despite his initial claim to the caliphate in Jerusalem, and what was his strategy for expanding the caliphate during his reign? State his results
Mu'awiya first claimed the caliphate in Jerusalem but because he had started his career as a Meccan merchant, he chose to stay in Damascus, his provincial capital, because it was on the main trade route between Syria and Yemen. He seems to have viewed Syria as a stepping stone toward taking over all the Byzantine Empire--Each summer the caliph's armies penetrated Anatolia while his navy drove the Byzantine fleet from the southeastern Mediterranean and twice during his reign besieged the very capital of the empire --Byzantium withstood the onslaught and then the Arabs consoled themselves by pushing westward across Tunisia and eastward through Khurasan.
Who was Husayn and why did he rebel against Yazid's rule? Explain the outcomes of the tragic Battle of Karbala in 680.
Muhammad had no sons. His son-in-law, Ali, had been killed, as had Hasan, leaving the Prophet's other grandson, Husayn, as the only possible claimant. Husayn was a pious man who had lived most of his fifty-four years quietly in Medina, but when Yazid succeeded Mu'awiya in 680, Husayn refused to recognize the new caliph as legitimate. Some Kufan foes of the Umayyads, thus encouraged, talked Husayn into rebelling against them. Intimidated by their governor, though, most Kufans withheld their support in Husayn's hour of need --When the Prophet's grandson reached Karbala, Iraq, he found he had only seventy-two warriors pitted against 10,000 Umayyad soldiers. Husayn's tiny band fought as bravely as they could, but they all fell in battle on October 10th. Husayn's severed head was laid at the feet of Yazid in Damascus, the Umayyads seemingly had triumphed once more.
To what extent did Muhammad's attitude towards the Ka'ba and Mecca's economy reflect his intentions and goals?
Muhammad respected the Ka'ba and never wanted to displace it as a center for pilgrims. Nor was he trying to undermine Mecca's economy. A few accounts depict Muhammad as having been so eager to win the Meccan leaders' acceptance that he even conceded that the three pagan goddesses, al-Lat, al-Uzza, and al-Manat, were "sacred swans" worthy of veneration.
What factors led Muhammad to seek answers from other religions, such as Judaism, Christianity, and Hanifism, while living in Mecca and how did this shape his own beliefs and teachings?
Muhammad was not wholly content with the muruwwa code of ideal Arab behavior, which upheld bravery in battle and generosity to the poor as noble ideals, which was no longer a priority for Mecca's leaders, who now concentrated on enriching themselves as merchants and shrinekeepers. The Arabs' polytheistic animism and ancestor worship were no longer a living faith, even though pilgrimages to the Ka'ba and other shrines continued and were indeed a major source of Meccan income. The nomads believed in their gods only so long as they did what the nomads wanted. They were more apt to fear the jinns (genies), invisible creatures who could do both nice and nasty things to people. --A few Christians lived in Mecca, and whole tribes and cities elsewhere in Arabia had converted to Judaism or to some sect of Christianity. There were other pious folk, neither Christian nor Jewish but leaning toward monotheism, known as Hanifs. But Mecca's merchants, profoundly practical, scoffed at such notions as the bodily resurrection or a Judgment Day and at holy laws that might interfere with their pursuit of money. To Muhammad, though, the Jews, Christians, and Hanifs just might have answers to the problems that were gnawing at the core of pagan Meccan society. On many evenings he went to a nearby cave to meditate.
What were the five main points of Muhammad's early message, as summarized by W. Montgomery Watt, and how did these points challenge the existing societal norms and order?
Muhammad's message disrupted families and threatened the established order. W. Montgomery Watt, whose books on the life of the Prophet have won wide acceptance, summarized his early message in five main points: (1) God is good and all-powerful (2) God will call all men and women back to himself on the Last Day and will judge and reward them on the basis of how they acted on earth (3) people should thank God, through worship, for the blessings he has given the earth (4) God expects people to share their worldly goods with others needier than themselves and (5) Muhammad is God's designated messenger to his own people, the Arabs; Later Quranic revelations taught that Muhammad was a prophet for all humanity.
How did Muhammad's relations with the Jewish community in Medina evolve, and what were the factors that led to the deterioration of these relations? Additionally, what actions committed by Muhammad reflect his efforts to establish a distinct Islamic identity and accommodate the beliefs and practices of his followers?
Muhammad's relations with the Jews of Medina deteriorated as his own power grew. Muhammad viewed many biblical figures as prophets, or as men to whom God had spoken. He respected Jews and Christians as "People of the Book," since they worshiped God as revealed by sacred scriptures. In part, he expected the Jews to recognize him as God's messenger, just as he had accepted their prophet, but they could not reconcile his Quran with their sacred scriptures. There were too many discrepancies. They opposed the Constitution of Medina, and they were turning some of the less sincere ansar against him, publicly mocking him and his followers. The split widened. --Following a Quranic revelation, Muhammad changed the direction of prayer—south toward Mecca instead of north toward Jerusalem. The one-day fast of Yom Kippur ceased to be obligatory, and Muslims started fasting instead during the daylight hours of Ramadan, the month in which Muhammad's first revelation had come. Sabbath observance was replaced by Friday congregational worship with a sermon. Dietary laws were also eased
What prompted Arab tribes to break with Mecca and form treaties with Muhammad?
Muslim raids from Medina were endangering the Meccan caravan trade. The Arab tribes began to break with Mecca and make treaties with Muhammad to join in these lucrative attacks.
What were the limitations of the early conquests of Arab tribesmen and their ability to transition from border warriors to military police?
Once the early conquests had reached their limits (Cyrenaica in the west, Anatolia's Taurus Mountains in the north, Khurasan in the east, and the Indian Ocean and upper Nile in the south), the Arab tribesmen could not change from border warriors into military police. They sat idly in their garrison towns, bewailed the lost opportunities for booty, and plotted against the caliphate in far-off Medina.
What was the significance of Muhammad's encounter with the angel Gabriel during Ramadan, and how did this event shape his understanding of his role as a messenger of God?
One night in 610, during the Arabic month of Ramadan, Muhammad was visited by an angel, who exhorted him to read aloud. In awe and terror, he cried out, "I cannot read" (for Muhammad, Muslims believe, was illiterate). Hugging him until he almost choked, the angel again ordered: "Read: in the name of thy Lord who created, created mankind from a blood-clot. Read: for thy Lord the most generous. He has taught by the pen taught man what he knew now". Wherever he looked, he saw the same angel looking back at him and saying: "O Muhammad, thou art the messenger of God, and I am Gabriel." Fearing that he had gone mad, Muhammad hurried home and asked Khadija to cover him with a warm coat. His quaking subsided, but then he saw Gabriel again, and the angel said: O thou who art shrouded in thy mantle, rise and warn! Thy Lord magnify, Thy robes purify, And from iniquity flee!
What were the factors that contributed to the collapse of the Sasanid Persian Empire, allowing the Arabs to fill the resulting power vacuum and expand their influence in the region?
Persia was falling back because of political chaos in Ctesiphon, its capital. Power struggles then sapped the central administration, which was needed to supervise the irrigation system on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. As soon as Iraq fell, following the Battle of Qadisiya (637), the Sasanid state began to fall apart. The Arabs picked up one Persian province after another, until the last Sasanid shah died, a fugitive, in 651.
What was the primary goal of the Shu'ubiya literary movement among Persians?
Persians, especially in the bureaucratic class, used their knowledge of literature to prove their equality with (or superiority over) the Arabs. After all, they reasoned, Persians had built and managed mighty empires, prospered, and created a high culture for centuries while the Arabs were riding camels in the desert; The Arabs were quick to accuse the Shu'ubiya of attacking Islam and the Prophet, but its scholars and bureaucrats really sought equality within the system.
When did Muhammad pass away, and who was appointed to lead public worship in his place?
Soon after his return to Medina, Muhammad retired to Aisha's room. He appointed her father, Abu-Bakr, to lead public worship in his place. Then, on 8 June 632 , he died.
Who were the Abbasids and what was the significance of their overthrow of the Umayyad dynasty?
The Abbasid revolution is generally viewed as a turning point in Islamic history. The Abbasids were Arabs, proud of their descent from the Prophet's uncle. Their partisans included Arabs and Persians, and Sunni and Shiite Muslims, all united by a desire to replace an Arab tribal aristocracy with a more egalitarian form of government based on the principles of Islam. Like other historic revolutions, the overthrow of the Umayyads reinforced trends that had already begun: 1. the shift of the power center from Syria to Iraq 2. the rise of Persian influence in place of the Byzantine-Arab synthesis of Mu'awiya and Abd al-Malik 3. the waning drive to take over all the Christian lands of Europe 4. the growing interest in cultivating the arts of civilization.
What were the key motivations of the Abbasids and their supporters in their quest to overthrow the Umayyad dynasty?
The Abbasid revolution is generally viewed as a turning point in Islamic history. The Abbasids were Arabs, proud of their descent from the Prophet's uncle. Their partisans included Arabs and Persians, and Sunni and Shiite Muslims, all united by a desire to replace an Arab tribal aristocracy with a more egalitarian form of government based on the principles of Islam. Like other historic revolutions, the overthrow of the Umayyads reinforced trends that had already begun: the shift of the power center from Syria to Iraq, the rise of Persian influence in place of the Byzantine-Arab synthesis of Mu'awiya and Abd al-Malik, the waning drive to take over all the Christian lands of Europe, and the growing interest in cultivating the arts of civilization.
What were the major directions and achievements of the Arab conquests following the end of the second fitna?
The Arab conquests resumed after the second fitna ended. One army headed west across North Africa, while a Muslim navy drove the Byzantines from the western Mediterranean. The North African Berbers, after surrendering to the Arabs, converted to Islam and joined their armies. Under Abd al-Malik's successor, a Muslim force crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and took most of what is now Spain and Portugal. It was not until 732—exactly a century after the Prophet's death—that a European Christian army stemmed the Muslim tide in central France. ---The greatest Arab thrust, though, was eastward from Persia. Muslim armies attacked the Turks, first in what is now Afghanistan, then in Transoxiana (the land beyond the Oxus River, or the Amu Darya), including Bukhara and Samarqand. They eventually reached China's northwest border, which became the eastern limit of the Arab conquests. Another force pushed north to the Aral Sea, adding Khwarizm to the lands of Islam. Yet another moved south, taking Baluchistan, Sind, and Punjab, roughly what is now Pakistan.
What were the factors that led to the weakness of the Umayyads and provided an opportunity for the Abbasids to rise to power in the early eighth century?
The Arab tribes were bitterly divided, the army was demoralized, river irrigation had raised Iraq's importance relative to Syria, popular opinion called for Muslim equality in place of Arab supremacy, and Khurasan was a province in which thousands of Arab colonists mixed with the native Persian landowners. There, in 747, a Persian named Abu-Muslim declared a revolution to support the Abbasids; Despite the heroic resistance of the last Umayyad caliph and his governor in Khurasan, the revolt spread. The Abbasids reached Kufa in 749 and laid claim to the caliphate for an Abbasid named Abu al-Abbas. Abu-Muslim's troops crushed the Umayyads' army in January 750, pursued their last caliph to Egypt, and killed him. Then they went on to wipe out all the living Umayyads and to scourge the corpses of the dead ones. The only member of the family who escaped was Abd al-Rahman I. After a harrowing journey across North Africa, he safely reached Spain, where he established in Cordoba a separate state that would later become a rival caliphate that lasted until 1031.
How did the Byzantine Empire successfully defend itself against the Arab conquests, particularly during the Umayyad era?
The Byzantines, though weakened by the loss of their Syrian and North African lands and shorn of their naval supremacy in the western Mediterranean, reorganized their army and the administration of Anatolia, making that highland area impregnable to Arab forces. Constantinople, guarded by thick walls, withstood three Umayyad sieges, the last of which involved an Arab fleet of a thousand ships and lasted from 716 to 718. Using Greek fire, the Byzantines wiped out most of the Arab fleet. After that, the caliphs concluded that Byzantium was too hard to take. Gradually they stopped claiming to be the new "Roman" empire and adopted a neo-Persian aura instead.
Why did the Meccans initially resist Muhammad's teachings?
The Meccans who rejected his message feared that Muhammad might try to take away their wealth and power. Even if the early Muslims had kept a low profile, they would have attracted the notice—and hostility— of Mecca's leaders
What were some of the challenges and difficulties that Muhammad faced in his final years and what message did Muhammad convey in his final sermon to his followers?
The Prophet's final years were clouded by worries about would-be rivals in Arabia, heavy political responsibilities, marital problems, the death of his infant son and several daughters, and failing health. He managed to lead a final pilgrimage to Mecca in March 632 thus, he finished incorporating into Islam the rituals of the hajj, which he had cleansed of its pagan features; In his final sermon he exhorted his followers: "O ye men, listen to my words and take them to heart: Every Muslim is a brother to every other Muslim and you are now one brotherhood."
A dangerous challenge came from Mu'awiya, Uthman's cousin and governor of Syria, whom Ali tried to dismiss. What was the significant challenge and why was there resentment from the Umayyad clan? Describe the events surrounding the Battle of Siffin in 657
The Umayyad clan was understandably outraged when Uthman was murdered and replaced by Ali, a Hashimite, who seemed reluctant to find and punish the assassins. Mu'awiya had a loyal garrison of Arab troops, and they challenged Ali. --The two sides met in a series of skirmishes at Siffin (in northern Syria) in 657. Finally, when Ali's side seemed to be winning, wily old General Amr ibn al-As advised Mu'awiya's men to stick pages of the Quran on the tips of their spears, appealing for a peaceful arbitration of the quarrel. Ali suspected a trick, but his troops persuaded him to accept the appeal.
What were the factors that led to the weakness of the Umayyads and provided an opportunity for the Abbasids to rise to power in the early eighth century? How did the Abbasids' revolution, led by Abu-Muslim in Khurasan, contribute to the downfall of the Umayyads and the establishment of their own caliphate?
The Umayyads' weakness was the Abbasids' opportunity. The Arab tribes were bitterly divided, the army was demoralized, river irrigation had raised Iraq's importance relative to Syria, popular opinion called for Muslim equality in place of Arab supremacy, and Khurasan was a province in which thousands of Arab colonists mixed with the native Persian landowners. There, in 747, a Persian named Abu-Muslim declared a revolution to support the Abbasids; Despite the heroic resistance of the last Umayyad caliph and his governor in Khurasan, the revolt spread. The Abbasids reached Kufa in 749 and laid claim to the caliphate for an Abbasid named Abu al-Abbas. Abu-Muslim's troops crushed the Umayyads' army in January 750, pursued their last caliph to Egypt, and killed him. Then they went on to wipe out all the living Umayyads and to scourge the corpses of the dead ones. The only member of the family who escaped was Abd al-Rahman I. After a harrowing journey across North Africa, he safely reached Spain, where he established in Cordoba a separate state that would later become a rival caliphate that lasted until 1031.
What conflicts did the caliphate face during the later period of the High Caliphate? Additionally, how did the demographic composition of the Muslim world change during this era?
The caliphate faced ongoing opposition from the Kharijites, who rejected any type of hereditary rule, and from Shiite movements backing various descendants of Ali. Late in this era, most of the Muslim world came under the rule of Shiite dynasties; Until about 1000, non-Muslims predominated in the lands of the umma, but their relative power and influence were waning.
What beyond a superficial adherence to Islam or a fear of the caliph's army, could hold the Arab tribes together according to Abu-Bakr?
The caliphs' brilliant answer was to turn the bedouin's combative energies away from one another and toward conquering the settled lands to the north, the territories of the Byzantine (Roman) and Sasanid (Persian) empires
What were the key events surrounding the Hudaybiya truce, and how did it change the relationship between the Muslims and the Meccans?
The emigrants in Medina missed their homes, their families (many were the sons and daughters of leading Meccan merchants), and the Ka'ba, so in 628 Muhammad led a band of would-be pilgrims toward Mecca. They encountered Meccan troops at Hudaybiya, slightly north of the city, and the two sides worked out a truce that ended their state of war. The Muslims had to return to Medina then but would be admitted into Mecca the next year as pilgrims. In effect, the Meccans accepted the Muslims as equals. Three months after the Hudaybiya truce, two of the best Arab fighters, Khalid Ibn al-Walid and Amr Ibn al-As, embraced Islam. They eventually went on to greater glory as warriors for the umma.
Who were Muhammad's first followers?
The first believers, although they came from every class and many of Mecca's clans, were mainly young men from the upper-middle stratum— that of the "nearly haves" from which so many revolutions elsewhere have sprung—rather like Muhammad himself
How did the appointment of the third caliph through the shura (electoral committee) contribute to the political divisions and tensions within early Islam, particularly considering the influence of the Umayyad clan in the selection process?
The garrison towns became hotbeds of dissension and intrigue, especially after Umar's guiding hand was removed by assassination. Before he died of his wounds, Umar appointed a shura, or electoral committee, to choose the third caliph. Some modern writers cite the shura to prove that early Islam was democratic. In fact, it consisted of six Meccan associates of Muhammad, all caravan traders who belonged to the Quraysh tribe. Owing perhaps to personal rivalries, they ended up choosing the only man in the shura who belonged to the prestigious Umayyads, the clan that had long opposed Muhammad. Uthman (r. 644-655) was he.
What was the age difference between Aisha and Muhammad at the time of their marriage, and how do cultural norms and practices during that time influence our understanding of their union?
The marriage between Aisha and Muhammad, a political one, was contracted to seal the bond between the Prophet and the family of Abu-Bakr. Little attention was paid, therefore, to the age difference between bride and groom. When the contract was made, Aisha was six years old. She was nine when she moved to Muhammad's home (623 CE). The Prophet was fifty. Such marriages were common in the seventh century and, for that matter, in biblical times.
What was the religious conflict within the Byzantine Empire concerning the nature of Jesus Christ, and how did the Monophysite doctrine lead to religious persecution of the Egyptian Copts and Syrian Jacobites?
The orthodox view of the Byzantine Empire, was that Jesus Christ combined in his person both a divine and a human nature. However, the Egyptian Copts and the Syrian Jacobites followed the Monophysite doctrine that described Christ's nature as wholly divine, causing them to suffer religious persecution at the hands of the Byzantines. Emperor Heraclius, hoping to win the support of both sides, proposed a compromise: Christ contained two natures within one will. Almost no one except the Maronites of Lebanon liked that solution. Disgruntled Syrian and Egyptian Christians thus viewed the Muslim Arabs as liberators from the Byzantine yoke and often welcomed them. The Copts, for example, turned Egypt over in 640 to Amr's Arab force, which, even with reinforcements, numbered fewer than 10,000. Likewise, the Jews, numerous in Palestine and Syria, chose Muslim indifference over Byzantine persecution.
Following Abu-Muslim's execution, the Abbasids faced ongoing challenges and revolts in Khurasan. What were the sources of inspiration for these uprisings?
The uprisings were inspired by Persia's pre-Islamic religions, such as Zoroastrianism (the faith of the Sasanid rulers) and a peasant movement called Mazdakism; The Manichaeans' philosophical dualism survived or revived in Persia among the Zindiqs, but this group is hard to define, as pious Muslims used that name for most dissidents.
Following Abu-Muslim's execution, the Abbasids faced ongoing challenges and revolts in Khurasan. What were the sources of inspiration for these uprisings? How did the philosophical dualism of the Manichaeans continue to exist or reemerge among certain groups in Persia, particularly among the Zindiqs?
The uprisings were inspired by Persia's pre-Islamic religions, such as Zoroastrianism (the faith of the Sasanid rulers) and a peasant movement called Mazdakism; The Manichaeans' philosophical dualism survived or revived in Persia among the Zindiqs, but this group is hard to define, as pious Muslims used that name for most dissidents.
How did the Battle of Badr affect the perception of Islam and Medina among the tribal Arabs, and what were the key events and outcomes of the battles at Uhud and the defense of Medina?
The victory at Badr enhanced the prestige of Islam—and of Medina—among the tribal Arabs. Even though the Meccans avenged themselves on the Muslims in 625 at Uhud, just north of Medina, they could not take the city itself. The umma survived. Islam was taking root and could not be wiped out. In 627 Mecca sent a larger force to capture Medina, but the Muslims foiled the army by digging a trench around the city's vulnerable parts. The ditch was too broad for the Meccans' horses and camels to cross, so they turned back in disgust.
How did Aisha's temporary separation from Muhammad during a trip through the Arabian Desert lead to gossip and ultimately affect her relationship with Muhammad, Ali, and her involvement in the Battle of the Camel?
There is a story that early in Aisha's marriage, while on a trip through the Arabian Desert, she became separated from Muhammad and the rest of their caravan. Muhammad ordered a search for her. She was eventually located and brought back to the main group by a young male Muslim. Aisha and her young escort probably spent several hours alone together. Soon gossip started, and Aisha's reputation and Muhammad's and Abu-Bakr's honor were in danger. It was at this point that Ali, Muhammad's son-in-law and cousin, recommended that Muhammad divorce her. Aisha never forgave Ali. As it happened, Muhammad received a revelation from God condemning all such gossip and setting strict requirements for proving adultery. Many years later, Aisha would seek her revenge by participating in a rebellion against Ali, who had become the fourth caliph. She helped lead a famous military engagement, the Battle of the Camel, so named because she exhorted the rebel troops from the back of a camel.
What territories were conquered during the caliphates of Umar and Uthman?
Under Abu-Bakr, the government at Medina overcame the challenge of a tribal revolt. The conquest of the adjacent lands in Syria and Iraq began under Abu-Bakr while he was suppressing the ridda. Upon Abu-Bakr's death in 634, Umar became the new caliph. Granting a blanket pardon to the rebellious tribes, Umar turned what had been a few forays into a systematic policy of territorial acquisition. During his caliphate and that of his successor, Uthman, all of Syria, Iraq, Persia, Egypt, and Cyrenaica (now eastern Libya) were added to the lands of the umma.
What did Uthman's utilize for his control over the government, and why was there plotting against him by Muslims in Iraq's garrison towns?
Uthman used his family ties to assert greater control over the government. His cousin Mu'awiya (already appointed by Umar) administered Syria well. Uthman and his foster brother in Egypt built Islam's first navy to conquer Cyprus in 655. Uthman's mistake was to continue Umar's policies in a more complex time, without having Umar's forceful character. Perceiving this, the Muslims in Iraq's garrison towns began plotting against him.
How did Baghdad become the capital of the Abbasid caliphate?
When Abu al-Abbas was acclaimed as the first Abbasid caliph in 749, Baghdad was just a tiny Persian village a few miles up the Tigris River from the ruined Sasanid capital, Ctesiphon. The early Abbasids wanted to move the government to Iraq, but they tried a few other cities before Abu al-Abbas's brother and successor, Abu Ja'far al-Mansur, chose that site in 762 for his capital; It was located at exactly the point where the Tigris and Euphrates come closest together. A series of canals linking the rivers there made it easier to defend the site and also put Baghdad on the main trade route between the Mediterranean (hence Europe) and the Persian Gulf (hence Asia).
How did Baghdad become the capital of the Abbasid caliphate? What were the reasons for the Abbasids' desire to move the government to Iraq, and what factors led to the selection of Baghdad as the capital city?
When Abu al-Abbas was acclaimed as the first Abbasid caliph in 749, Baghdad was just a tiny Persian village a few miles up the Tigris River from the ruined Sasanid capital, Ctesiphon. The early Abbasids wanted to move the government to Iraq, but they tried a few other cities before Abu al-Abbas's brother and successor, Abu Ja'far al-Mansur, chose that site in 762 for his capital; It was located at exactly the point where the Tigris and Euphrates come closest together. A series of canals linking the rivers there made it easier to defend the site and also put Baghdad on the main trade route between the Mediterranean (hence Europe) and the Persian Gulf (hence Asia).
How did the Meccan leaders react to Muhammad's disowning of the goddesses and his claim of a miraculous journey, known as the Night Journey, to Jerusalem and the heavens?
When Muhammad disowned the goddesses, the Meccan leaders became angry, for the keepers of the nearby shrines were Mecca's allies. Unable to attack Muhammad while he had Abu-Talib's protection, the Meccans tried a boycott of the whole Hashimite clan. It failed. Still, they could torment the most vulnerable Muslims, some of whom took refuge in Christian Ethiopia. Then Muhammad made what, to the pagan Meccans, was a still more incredible claim. Following a Quranic revelation, he said that he had journeyed in one night upon a winged horse, first to Jerusalem, then up through the seven levels of heaven, where he saw the celestial Ka'ba and received from God the fundamentals of the Islamic creed, and that he had talked to Moses during his return to earth. Although the Quran confirmed Muhammad's claims, the pagans mocked them. They averred that he had slept that whole night in his own bed.
Who did Muhammad marry, and what is her significance?
When Muhammad was a young man, a merchant widow named Khadija entrusted him with the care of her caravan. When he acquitted himself well, she broke with Arab custom and proposed marriage to him. Although she was said to be forty, fifteen years older than Muhammad, the marriage proved to be happy. She bore six children, and Muhammad took no other wives during her lifetime. The business (hence his reputation) did well.
What were the circumstances surrounding Abdallah's claim to the caliphate after Yazid's death in 683, and how did the Umayyads regain control of Syria under the leadership of Marwan in July 684?
When Yazid died in 683, leaving the caliphate to his sickly young son, Abdallah, who lived in Mecca, claimed the office for himself. Muslims in all the provinces, even some in Syria, promised to back him. The Arab tribes favoring Qays, the northern confederation, rose up against the Umayyads, who were linked to Kalb and hence to the southern Arabs. With Yazid being dead, leaving the Umayyads with no plausible candidate, Abdallah had only to come to Damascus to seize the caliphate there. He was allied with the pious descendants of Muhammad's associates living in Medina and Mecca and they hated Damascus and everything that smacked of Umayyad rule, so Abdallah stayed in Mecca --The oldest and most respected member of the Umayyad clan, Marwan, reluctantly agreed to oppose Abdallah's partisans, and in July 684 the Umayyad supporters defeated the opposing Arab tribes and drove them out of Syria.
What decision did Mu'awiya make regarding the succession of the caliphate before his death and how did this decision impact the future of the caliphate?
When at last Mu'awiya knew that he would die soon, he obtained in advance his followers' consent to the succession of his son Yazid to the caliphate. It was this act that later earned Mu'awiya the condemnation of Muslim historians, because from that time until the caliphate was abolished in 1924, the highest political office in Islam was hereditary in fact, even if it remained elective in principle.
What was Umar's policy regarding the settlement of troops and the distribution of war booty?
When the troops were not fighting, they had to be kept under strict discipline and Umar's policy was to settle them on the fringe between the desert and the cultivated lands in special garrison towns, notably Basra and Kufa, both in Iraq, and Fustat, just south of what is now Cairo, Egypt. His purpose was to keep the Arabs and the settled peoples apart. The Arab soldiers were forbidden to acquire lands outside Arabia. Their right to seize buildings and other immovable war booty was restricted. One-fifth of the movable prizes of war had to be sent back to Medina, where Umar set up a register that carefully divided the spoils into shares for members of the umma, ranging from Muhammad's widows and associates to the humblest Arab soldier.
How did the Abbasid caliphate face religious uprisings and rebellions despite their public piety and what were the reasons behind the increase in frequency and diversity of these revolts during the Abbasid era?
With so much public piety, you might think the Abbasids could have avoided religious uprisings like the ones that had troubled the Umayyads. Not so. The revolts became more frequent and varied than ever before, reflecting economic hardships and social discontent within the lands of Islam. Kharijite groups rebelled in Oman and North Africa, forming states of their own. The Shiites posed a greater threat, for they soon saw that the Abbasids had tricked them by using their help to oust the Umayyads. Two descendants of Hasan revolted in 762, one in Mecca and the other in Basra. To crush their revolts, Mansur's troops killed thousands of Shiite dissidents. In 788, another Shiite led a Berber rebellion that permanently severed Morocco from Abbasid rule.
Who did some Muslims believe should have been chosen as Muhammad's successor, and what was their reasoning behind this belief?
a member of Muhammad's family should have been chosen. As Muhammad had no surviving sons, they argued that his successor should have been his cousin and son-in-law, Ali, the son of Abu-Talib.
What led to the formation of Kharijite states in Oman and North Africa, and why did the Shiite rebellions pose a significant threat to the Abbasid rule during the Umayyad-Abbasid transition period?
because of economic hardships and social discontent within the lands of Islam, Kharijite groups rebelled in Oman and North Africa, forming states of their own. The Shiites posed a greater threat, for they soon saw that the Abbasids had tricked them by using their help to oust the Umayyads. Two descendants of Hasan revolted in 762, one in Mecca and the other in Basra. To crush their revolts, Mansur's troops killed thousands of Shiite dissidents. In 788, another Shiite led a Berber rebellion that permanently severed Morocco from Abbasid rule.
Explain Umar's assassination
he assassinated by a Persian slave named Abu Lulu'ah in 644. The exact motivations behind the assassination are not entirely clear, as historical accounts vary. Some sources suggest that Abu Lulu'ah held personal grievances against Umar, while others speculate political or sectarian motivations. It is important to note that the assassination of Umar was an individual act and not representative of any larger movement or opposition against his caliphate
Depending on the Arab tribes for most of his military manpower, what measures did Mu'awiya take to keep the Arab tribes loyal to him?
he kept them loyal by flattering their sense of racial superiority and requiring tribal representatives (really hostages) to reside at his court in Damascus
What were the factors that led to the assassination of Uthman and why were some Muslims dissatisfied with his policies as caliph?
he was a weak caliph and was eager to please the rich Meccan merchants to put his Umayyad kinsmen into positions of power. But such an interpretation is unfair to Uthman, who had defied his clan to become one of Muhammad's earliest converts. He also defied many of Muhammad's companions when as caliph, he established a single authoritative version of the Quran and ordered the burning of all copies that contained variant readings.
How did the influx of money and treasure affect Medina and Mecca following Muhammad's time, and what were the consequences of this prosperity?
it enriched Medina and Mecca far beyond anything Muhammad could have anticipated and eventually beyond what his associates could assimilate thus, greed and vice proliferated
How did the interplay between Persian and Arab influences impact the succession struggle between Amin and Mamun?
the Abbasids themselves were being Persianized by their harems. The caliphs had so many Persian wives or concubines that the genetic mix of the ninth-century Abbasids was more Persian than Arab. Harun's Persian mother pushed him into becoming caliph. The succession struggle between his two sons was intensified by the fact that the mother of Amin (r. 809-813) was Harun's Arab wife, whereas Mamun (the challenger and ultimate victor) was born of a Persian concubine.
What impact did the High Caliphate, characterized by the rule of the Umayyads and the Abbasids from 685 to 945, have on the Arabic-speaking peoples of the Middle East, particularly in relation to their historical perspective, cultural achievements, and global influence?
the Arabic-speaking peoples of the Middle East have comforted themselves with the memory of a time when their ancestors ruled most of the eastern hemisphere, when the Europeans and the Chinese feared and courted them, and when theirs was the language in which humanity's highest literary and scientific achievements were expressed. This was the time of the two great caliphal dynasties, the Umayyads and the Abbasids. This chapter uses a term coined by Marshall Hodgson to denote the years from 685 to 945: the High Caliphate. During this period, the Islamic umma was initially headed by the Marwanid branch of the Umayyad family, ruling in Damascus, and then by the Abbasids of Baghdad. Both dynasties belonged to the Quraysh tribe and were backed by those Muslims who came to be called Sunnis.
How did the Battle of Badr in March 624 arise and what were the outcomes?
the Muslims were zeroing in on a rich Umayyad caravan returning from Syria, just as Mecca was dispatching a retaliatory army of almost 1,000 men. They met Muhammad's forces (86 emigrants, 238 ansar) at an oasis called Badr, southwest of Medina. Clever tactics helped the Muslims win and to Muhammad's people, victory was a tangible sign of God's favor, a chance to gain captives and booty; The latter was divided among the warriors, except for a fifth that the Prophet took to support poor members of the umma.
What was the hijra and how did it enable Muhammad to unite his followers and establish a community with religious, political, and social dimensions?
the journey the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his followers took from Mecca to Medina. The hijra was a carefully planned maneuver by Muhammad in response to his invitation by the citizens of Yathrib. It enabled him to unite his followers as a community, as a nation (known as umma). From then on, Muhammad was both a prophet and a lawgiver, both a religious and a political leader. Islam was both a faith in one God as revealed to Muhammad (and the earlier prophets) and a sociopolitical system. Muhammad and his followers drew up the Constitution of Medina as a concrete expression of their umma. The Muslims later set up their own calendar, made the first year the one in which the hijra had occurred.
Mamun
the seventh caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, was raised with a diverse education, embracing various philosophical and scientific approaches. He faced a power struggle for the throne against his half-brother Amin, representing the clash between traditional Arab culture and the demands of non-Arab Muslim converts. Mamun's victory in 813 led to the restoration of Baghdad after widespread destruction. Despite being an energetic patron of arts and sciences, Mamun was intellectually eccentric, challenging orthodox Islamic beliefs. He questioned the eternal nature of the Quran and divine foreordination of human actions, leading to controversy. Mamun sponsored the translation of Greek philosophical and scientific works, preserving ancient Greek thought and influencing the West through Muslim Spain. His military conquests against the Byzantine Empire showcased his dual role as an intellectual and conqueror. Mamun's reign, lasting over twenty-two years, left a lasting legacy in the pursuit of knowledge and cultural exchange. He died in 833 at the age of forty-eight.
The greatest threat to the Abbasids came from?
those Persians who broke away to form separate dynastic states in Persia.
