Methods Exam #1
The four goals of science are:
1. describe 2. explain 3. predict 4. control
_______ ensures that all participants in the research study have an equal chance of being assigned to a group.
random assignment
For the following hypothetical research study state (a) the construct and (b) the external factor for the construct. A researcher places sexually inexperienced male rat subjects in one end of an experimental chamber with either a nonestrous (not sexually responsive) or an estrous (sexually responsive) female rat placed in the other end of the chamber. To get to the female, male rats must cross an electrical grid that administers moderate shocks. The researcher measures the difference in time (in seconds) it takes each male rat to cross the electrical grid. He hypothesizes that male rats will be more motivated (i.e., show faster times) to reach the estrous versus nonestrous female rat.
(a) construct: motivation (b) external factor of the construct: the time (in seconds) it takes male rats to cross the electrical grid
The correlation coefficient ranges from _______ (the values for two factors change in opposite directions) to ________ (the values for two factors change in the same direction).
-1.0; +1.0
Are the following statements hypotheses or predictions? 1. Younger people are faster than older people 2. Blood sugar levels affect attention 3. The number of spelling errors detected while proofreading will increase with decreased noise 4. Exercise improves circulation 5. As soon as a light is detected, females will press a button in less time than males 6. Group therapy is less effective than single-client-based therapies
1. hypotheses 2. hypotheses 3. prediction 4. hypotheses 5. prediction 6. hypotheses
State three methods of communication. What style of communication is used in psychology and much of the behavioral sciences?
1. oral 2. written 3. as a poster The style of communication used in psychology and much of the behavioral sciences is APA style.
As a general rule, use ____ to _____ points on the rating scale for each item in a survey.
3; 10
Although at least a __________% response rate should be obtained to minimize bias, the typical response rate to surveys in published peer-reviewed research is LESS than ___________%.
75; 50
State the type of question being asked for each example. A. How often do college students change their major on average? B. What if the way that animals learn is similar to the way that humans learn? C. Is personal income related to happiness?
A. Descriptive B. Exploratory C. Relational
State whether each of the following is continuous or discrete and quantitative or qualitative. A. the time (in seconds) it takes a driver to make a left-hand turn after a traffic light turns green B. The number of questions that students ask during a seminar C. Type of drug use (none, infrequent, moderate, or frequent) D. Season of birth (spring, summer, fall, or winter)
A. continuous; quantitative B. discrete; quantitative C. discrete; qualitative D. discrete; qualitative
State whether each of the following describes a natural or contrived setting. A. a study on athletic ability in a room arranged to look like a gym B. a study on the quality of child care conducted at three local preschools C. a study on employee performance conducted at the place of business
A. contrived B. natural C. natural
For the following variables, decide whether they are continuous or discrete and quantitative or qualitative. A. Gender (male, female) B. Seasons (spring, summer, fall, winter) C. Number of dreams recalled D. Number of errors E. Duration of drug abuse (in years) F. Ranking of favorite foods G. Ratings of satisfaction (1 to 7) H. Body type (slim, average, heavy) I. Score (0% to 100%) on an exam
A. discrete; qualitative B. discrete; qualitative C. discrete; quantitative D. discrete; quantitative E. continuous; quantitative F. discrete; quantitative G. discrete; quantitative H. discrete; qualitative I. continuous; quantitative
For the following variables, decide whether they are continuous or discrete and quantitative or qualitative. A. Number of parachute jumps B. Likert (e.g., 1-7) scales C. Age, height, weight D. Reaction time E. Number of students F. Race G. Political affiliation
A. discrete; quantitative B. discrete; quantitative C. continuous; quantitative D. continuous; quantitative E. discrete; quantitative F. discrete; qualitative G. discrete; qualitative
State the method of knowing illustrated in each of these examples: A. Your friend tells you that he likes fried foods because he saw someone enjoying them at a buffet. B. You close up the store at exactly midnight because that is when the store always closes. C. A teacher states that students do not care about being in school because they are not paying attention in class D. Your mother locks up all the alcohol in the house because she has a feeling you may throw a party while she is at work. E. You believe that if you do not read your textbook you will fail your research methods class because your professor said so.
A. empiricism B. tenacity C. Rationalism D. Intuition E. Authority
State the type of reliability measured in each of the following examples. A. a researcher has participants complete a 7-item personality survey and measures the extent to which responses for those 7 items are consistent or the same for each participant B. health psychologist asks a sample of participants who are obese to rank their favorite foods before and after a buffet-style meal and measures the extent to which participant rankings are consistent at both times C. a researcher has two observers rate the same social situation and measures the extent to which the two raters agree in their judgements
A. internal consistency B. test-retest reliability C. interrater reliability
State the scale of measurement for each variable listed below. A. Gender (male, female) B. Speed (in seconds) C. The latitude and longitude coordinates of a person's place of birth D. Movie ratings (1 to 4 stars)
A. nominal B. ratio C. interval D. ordinal
State the type of survey item for each of the following items: A. How do you feel about the effectiveness of your professor's teaching style? B. On a scale from 1 (very ineffective) to 7 (very effective), how would you rate your professor? C. Is your professor's greatest strength his or her (a) timeliness to class, (b) knowledge of the material, (c) concern for students, or (d) other ___________ (please explain)?
A. open-ended item B. restricted item C. partially open-ended
Participants ranked their favorite beverages in order from least to most preferred. Beverage rankings are on what scale of measurement? A. ordinal scale B. nominal scale C. ratio scale D. interval scale
A. ordinal scale ** includes rank/order ONLY
Which definition is an operational definition for hunger? Explain. A. A physical state of energy deprivation signaled by the body B. The duration of time (in hours) since a previous meal
B. The duration of time (in hours) since a previous meal, is correct, because it is defined in terms of how hunger will be measured (A. a physical state of energy deprivation signaled by the body, is a DESCRIPTION of hunger)
The goal of a _________ is to either: see how much an observed population (i.e., counts or proportions) diverges from equal chance...OR ; determine whether the observed totals are significantly different from a certain expected pattern of totals. This represents __________ data.
Chi Square; categorical
A researcher records the attentiveness of students in a classroom setting for 10 minutes, then takes a break for 10 minutes. This pattern is repeated for a 60-minute observation period. Which method of sampling was used to manage the observation period? A. Individual sampling B. Event sampling C. Time sampling D. None of the above
C. Time sampling
Which scale of measurement is the most informative? A. ordinal scale B. nominal scale C. ratio scale D. interval scale
C. ratio scale
The FIX for environmental factors is ________________ (e.g., if you have to make the temperature of a room warmer, then DO IT).
CONTROL
For the following study, name the construct and the external factor: A sample of participants are selected in which half have a fear of snakes, and half do not. Participants are brought into an experimental room one at a time. Soon a confederate enters the room and tells participants that in a few minutes they will need to briefly hold a snake as part of the study. A few minutes later a staff nurse measures the blood pressure of each participant. No snake is actually brought in. We assume that higher blood pressure indicates greater fear.
Construct: fear External factor: how quickly (in seconds) participants walked through a portion of campus
To measure nervousness, a researcher counts the number of times that a presenter says the word "um" during a brief talk. Which method was used to quantify nervousness? A. Interval method B. Duration method C. Latency method D. Frequency method
D. Frequency method
Which of the following describes the reliability of a measure? A. consistency B. stability C. repeatability D. all of the above
D. all of the above
T or F: Homogeneous attrition is a threat to internal validity
FALSE.
True or false. We cannot use what is learned in theory (basic research) and apply it to practical situations (applied research), nor can we test how practical solutions to a problem (applied research) fit with the theories we use to explain that problem (basic research).
False.
Which type of experiment, laboratory or field experiment, is associated with higher internal validity? Which is typically associated with higher external validity?
Higher internal validity = laboratory experiments Higher external validity = field experiments
A social scientist tests whether attitudes toward morality differ based on emotional state (positive or negative). Identify the independent variable and the dependent variable.
Independent variable = emotional state (positive or negative) Dependent variable = attitude towards morality
What are the five nonscientific methods of knowing?
Tenacity, Intuition, Empiricism, Rationalism, and Authority
The most commonly used formula for computing "r" is the ____________, which is used to measure the direction and strength of the linear relationship of two factors in which the data for both factors are on an interval or a ratio scale of measurement. The formula is _____________.
Pearson correlation coefficient; r = variance shared by X and Y / total variance measured
In the _________, the rectangles in Parts A and B are the same, except that the rectangle in Part A is not transparent. The lines going through the rectangle in Part A appear to be continuous, but this is an illusion. This illustrates the method of knowing called ________.
Poggendorff Illusion; empiricism
A researcher measures depression using a multidimensional assessment that encompasses all symptoms of the disorder. For this reason, the researcher likely has high _________ validity.
content
True or false. Most scientific research is conducted with samples, and not populations.
True
True or false. The five goals of science serve to direct scientists toward a comprehensive knowledge of the behaviors and events they observe.
True
True or false. The steps of the scientific method are cyclic, not linear, and may cause step 6 to lead back to step 1, and we begin again.
True.
A researcher studying attention measured the time (in seconds) that students spent working continuously on some task. Longer times indicated greater attention. In this study, what is the variable being measured, and what is the operational definition for the variable?
Variable measured = attention Operational definition = time (in seconds) spent working continuously on some task
A ____________ is used to analyze or interpret the content of specific events or behaviors that have already been recorded or archived.
content analysis
Participants are asked to choose from a mock lineup a person whom they previously encountered. One participant thinks the hypothesis is that most people will make the wrong choice. To appease the researcher, this participant intentionally picks out the wrong person from the mock lineup, which is an example of what type of participant reactivity? a. participant expectancy b. evaluation apprehension c. participant reluctance
a. participant expectancy
In nonprobability sampling, in which researchers sample from the ________ population, population validity can be ______, but is ______ than samples selected directly from the target population. In contrast, the population validity is typically very ________ in probability sampling, in which researchers sample directly from the ________ population.
accessible; high; weaker; high; target
The fourth step in the scientific method is to _____________. After we have done so, we need to concisely ______ the data.
analyze and evaluate the data; report
__________ are adjectives that are given to describe the END points of a rating scale to give the scale greater meaning.
anchors
___________ uses the scientific method to answer questions concerning practical problems with potential practical solutions. For example, topics of interest include obesity and health, behavioral disorders, drug addiction, etc.
applied research
The FIX for regression and testing effects is to have _____________ control groups: if similar changes are observed for a control group then the results are likely due to ____________. Also, use a __________ test or a no __________ control group: eliminating prior ________ with a test will avoid the possibility of a testing effect.
appropriate; regression; different; pre-test; experience
_____________ is a type of existing data design which involves analysis of already collected (historical) records and data in order to test a hypothesis (e.g., census data; power consumptions; construction cost; bills).
archival research
A type of existing data design in which events or behaviors are described based on a review and analysis of relevant historical or archival records is called _____________. Another type of existing data design, called _________, involves how the content of written or spoken records of the occurrence of specific events or behaviors is described and interpreted.
archival research; content analysis
"Problems" with experiments include (1) __________ of experiments, in which increasing _____ tends to decrease real-world generalization; (2) ________, meaning that a researcher cannot always ethically manipulate a variable; (3) _______ variables, which explains that variables associated with people cannot always be ________ (e.g. race); ________ of _________, when cause-effect won't accurately describe behavior (e.g. restroom use to estimate wear-and-tear); (5) _________ future ________, in which some questions don't need experimental answers (e.g. college success).
artificiality; control; ethics; subject; manipulated; description; behavior; predicting; behavior
A key characteristic that differentiates nonexperimental designs from all other research designs is that the behavior or event being observed is observed "______" or without __________ from the researcher. One strength of this design is that it can be used to make observations in settings that the behaviors and events being observed ________ operate. One limitation of this design is that it lacks the control needed to demonstrate ______ and _______.
as is; intervention; naturally; cause; effect
Imagine you had two groups: Group Color and Group No Color. You measure "attention" in both groups to determine whether having key terms in color will result in greater attention paid to those words. The participants in Group Color read a short paragraph with key terms given in colored font, while the participants in Group No Color read a short paragraph with all words given in plain black font. The variable, ________, is defined in milliseconds (___________) and could be observed again with an eye-tracking device (__________), which makes the variable suitable for scientific study.
attention; observable; replicable
A point of CONTROL called _____________ involves how subjects drop out of studies all the time. A problem is when subjects drop out of one condition more than others. For example, in a study involving "teaching styles: easy vs. hard professor," we want 30 subjects per teacher, but any 30 stick with the easy teacher while many students drop out of the hard teacher class. After needing 3 years to get 30 subjects for the hard professor's class, researchers find that the ________ professor is more effective than the __________. Subjects that survive the hard class tend to be _________ than those from the _________ class.
attrition (mortality) effects; hard; easy; better; easy
One threat to internal validity, called _________ or _________, occurs when a participant does not show up for a study at a scheduled time or fails to complete the study. A type of _______ that specifically threatens internal validity is called ___________, which occurs when ________ rates in one group are more or less than ________ rates in another group.
attrition; experimental mortality; attrition; heterogeneous attrition; attrition; attrition
_________ is a method of knowing accepted as fact because it was stated by an expert or respected source in a particular subject area. Problems with this method are source ________, personal ______, occasional mistakes, punishment of divergent ideas, and the fact that its rarely questioned.
authority; reliability; biases
Which of the following is NOT one of the three tasks a researcher should perform before starting a research hypothesis? a. determine an area of interest b. identify participants or subjects and determine how to sample them c. review the literature d. identify new ideas in your area of interest
b. identify participants or subjects and determine how to sample them
_______ is used to address theoretical questions regarding the mechanisms and processes of behavior. _______ is used to address questions that can lead to immediate solutions to practical problems.
basic research; applied research
________ uses the scientific method to answer questions that address theoretical issues about fundamental processes and underlying mechanisms related to the behaviors and events being studied. It is an approach where researchers aim to ________ the nature of behavior.
basic research; understand
_____________ are the specific types of behaviors that researchers want to measure in the research setting, and are typically organized as a list of examples that "count" in each category or for each type of behavior. For example, in the waiting room study, we could anticipate the following ________ of play behavior: aggressive play, nonaggressive play, cooperative play, solitary play, and no play.
behavior categories; categories
There is sometimes an ethical concern that relates to ________, which is the equal distribution of potential costs and benefits of participation.
beneficence
Recruiting subjects so that certain members of the population have a greater chance to participate than other members is called a _______________. This is a problem only if you need to ___________ beyond your study and when there is a reason to think that subject _________ could make a difference in the outcome (e.g., reaction time between males and females).
biased sampling error; generalize; variables
Human memory is inherently ______. Many people are prone to forgetting and to inaccurate recollections. Memory is not a bank of recordings to be replayed, but rather a collection of ________ for the behaviors and events we observe.
biased; representations
____________ are response scales that have points above (positive values) and below (negative values) a zero point.
bipolar scales
A psychologist wants to study a small population of 40 students in a local private school. If the researcher is interested in selecting the entire population of students for this study, then how many students must the psychologist include? a. none, because it is not possible to study an entire population in this case b. at least half, because 21 or more students would constitute most of the population c. all 40 students, because all students constitute the population
c. all 40 students, because all students constitute the population
A ____________ is an in-depth description of the history and background of the individual, group, or organization observed. It can be the only information provided in a case study for situations in which the researcher does not include a manipulation, a treatment, or an intervention.
case history
A __________ is the qualitative analysis of an individual, a group, an organization, or an event used to illustrate a phenomenon, explore new hypotheses, or compare the observations of many cases. For example, a researcher completes a full qualitative analysis of a patient who shows signs of amnesia following a sudden stroke.
case study
Five common errors in interpreting correlations include (1) assuming ___________ (correlation does NOT imply causation, but spurious (false) relationships), (2) assuming ____________ (cannot establish direction to the relationship--does TV violence cause kids to be aggressive or vice versa?), (3) ignoring ___________ variables ( a variable that is NOT measured but has SOME effect on the observed relationship between correlated variables).
causation; direction; third
___________ determines the extent to which an operational definition is measuring the variable or construct it was intended to measure. For example, to measure the construct "learning," an instructor may distribute a one-dimensional exam, such as multiple-choice only. In this case, the operational definition for learning is an exam score, with higher scores indicating greater learning. One-dimensional exams often have low _________, because these types of exams sometimes measure other factors such as anxiety.
construct validity; construct validity
A _______ or _______ is a conceptual variable that is known to exist but cannot be directly observed. For example, "recall" would be considered as one, because we observe errors on an exam, and we infer that this observation reflects the ability for participants to "recall" items on the exam. Most of the behaviors and events researchers study are ________.
construct; hypothetical constructs
Love, dreaming, worry, and intelligence are all examples of _________.
constructs
Naturalistic observations (field work) can use participation (overt) vs. concealment (covert): observations made as a PARTICIPANT or as a HIDDEN observer. The advantage to participant observations is that they are __________ and _________. The disadvantage to participant observations is a loss of _____________. The advantage of concealed observations is that they are less _____________, but the disadvantage to concealed observations is __________.
close; detailed analysis; objectivity; reactive; ethics
The population that ________ is sampled from is the target population. The sample is NOT random, but can be representative with the careful selection of clusters.
cluster sampling
__________ is a method of sampling in which subgroups or clusters of individuals are identified in a population, and then a portion of clusters that are representative of the population are selected such that all individuals in the selected clusters are included in the sample. All clusters that are not selected are omitted from the sample.
cluster sampling
In science, numbers on a nominal scale are typically categorical variables that have been ________ --converted to numeric values. For example, the nominal variable of gender may be coded by researchers as 1 for men and 2 for women. These numbers are used to ________ gender and nothing more. We often code words with numeric values when entering them into statistical programs such as ________.
coded; identify; SPSS
________ is the procedure of converting a categorical variable to numeric values.
coding
By squaring "r", you can estimate the "size" of the relationship ( r = .7 ; R^2 = .49). This is known as the __________________.
coefficient of determination
The pros of existing data design are that it is already ____________ data, it is usually relevant to the ___________, and it might be impossible to collect such data yourself. The cons of existing data design, however, are that the data may be __________ (could be poorly collected), statistics can be _____________ (sample may not represent population), limited by what data were collected, the existence of _____________ variables (no CONTROL), and a possible publication ___________.
collected; real-world; biased; misleading; unknown; bias
The fifth step in the scientific method is to __________. You must first decide on the _______ (i.e., oral, written) of communication and then the ______ (i.e., APA format) of communication.
communicate results; method; style
When researchers compensate the disadvantaged (control) group, such as giving them access to the superior treatment at some time after the study, this is referred to as ____________.
compensatory equalization of treatments
This subtype of criterion-related validity, _________, is the extent to which a measure can distinguish between groups it should be able to distinguish between. An example is that an assessment for social development in girls (measure) is related to social development in girls (criterion) but not boys.
concurrent validity
The third step in the scientific method is to __________.
conduct the study
In situations when participants know that they are being observed, researchers can reassure __________, use _________ when ethical, measure less ________ variables, and minimize ____________.
confidentiality; deception; obvious; demand characteristics
A ________ is an unanticipated variable not accounted for in a research study that could be causing or associated with observed changes in one or more measured variables.
confound variable
The individual differences would be a _________ or ________, that is an alternative explanation for an observation in an experiment. It is an unanticipated variable not accounted for in a research study that could be causing or associated with observed changes in one or more measured variables.
confound; confound variable
A _______ occurs when two or more independent variables are ____________ manipulated such that the results cannot be _________ attributed to any independent variable.
confound; simultaneously; unambiguously
Factors that threaten the external validity of a study are those that are held ________ across groups in a study.
constant
Suppose you asked the research question, "does the color of the classroom affect algebra performance?" A ________ in this study might include age-group (grade), study topic (algebra), the environment (room temperature), etc.
constraint
__________ are often a central component to an explanation provided by a theory.
constructs
__________ of a measurement is the extent to which the items or contents of a measure adequately represent all the features of the construct being measured. To demonstrate this type of validity, we must show the items we use to measure a construct are representative of the construct as a whole. For example, a final exam should test an adequate sample of all topics taught throughout the semester.
content validity
To ensure that subject pools are filled only with students willing to volunteer as participants in research, academic departments set the following two rules: class grades are never _________ on actual participation in a research study AND students are given _________ to receive a grade.
contingent; alternative options
The different types of variables we can measure fall into two categories: _____________ and ____________.
continuous or discrete; quantitative or qualitative
A __________ is measured along a continuum at any place beyond the decimal point, meaning that it can be measured in whole units or fractional units. An example is your income level.
continuous variable
A location or site arranged to mimic the natural setting within which a behavior of interest normally occurs, in order to facilitate the occurrence of that behavior, is a _________, or _________. This type of site should have _____ mundane and experimental realism, meaning that it should LOOK and FEEL natural in order to increase the __________ of the observations made in that setting.
contrived setting; structured setting; high; external validity
If researchers can make a behavior occur and not occur, then which goal of science have they met?
control
The fourth and central goal of science is to ________ the conditions necessary to make a behavior occur and not occur. This goal is only possible once the other goals have been met.
control
Factors that are held constant; otherwise, they could affect the dependent variable, are called ______________.
control (nuisance/extraneous) variables
The ___________ is the group that the experimental group is compared to in order to assess the influence(s) of the dependent variable(s).
control/comparison group
When we talk about "_______" we mean ANYTHING a researcher needs to do to improve __________. We will talk about ______ threats to validity and strategies to minimize these threats. BUT really we mean ANYTHING you can do to reduce a threat (methods of "______" are likely going to vary from study to study).
control; internal validity; likely; control
Creating a contrived setting has two advantages: (1) we can ______ many factors that are otherwise impossible to control in a _______ setting--this allows us to increase the _________ of the observations we make in a contrived setting; (2) we can structure the setting to facilitate the _______ of a behavior.
control; natural; internal validity; occurrence
___________ is ANYTHING a researcher can do to eliminate threats to ___________ validity. Some areas identified as likely ________ of _________ are history and maturation, regression and testing effects, instrumentation and measurement, attrition (mortality), and environmental factors.
control; points; control
The population that _________ is sampled from is the accessible population. The sample is NOT random and NOT representative.
convenience sampling
To make ________ representative of a larger target population, researchers can use the following two strategies: _________, in which they select subgroups of the population that resemble or represent characteristics in a target population of interest, and a ___________, in which they combine convenience sampling with a probability sampling method.
convenience sampling; quota sampling; combined sampling method
Two non probability sampling methods are _______ and ________. A _________ involves subjects or participants selected for a research study based on how easy or convenient it is to reach or access them and based on their availability to participate. Many college departments create a ________ which is a group of accessible and available participants for a research study. Colleges create these using policies that require students to participate in academic research.
convenience sampling; quota sampling; subject pool
A nonprobability sampling technique when participants who happen to be "handy" are used (not being sure that they represent the larger population), is known as _______, ______, or ________ sampling. No efforts are made to meet any criteria except the _______ of participants (and ease of obtaining volunteers).
convenience; accidental; haphazard; number
This subtype of criterion-related validity, ________, is the extent to which two or more different measures for the same construct are related or "converge." An example is that blood pressure (one measure) and cholesterol levels (second measure) similarly predict risk of heart disease (criterion).
convergent validity
Correlations involve a statistical measure called a ___________. This value ranges from -1.0 to +1.0.
correlation coefficient (r)
The _________ is used to identify a pattern in terms of the DIRECTION and STRENGTH of a relationship between two factors. In behavioral research, we mostly describe the _________ (or straight line) relationship between two factors.
correlation coefficient; linear
Effect size can be interpreted in terms of __________, __________, and ___________.
differences; proportions; degree of association
A _________ is the measurement of two or more factors to determine or estimate the extent to which the values for the factors are related or change in an identifiable pattern. Once we measure two variables, we then compute a statistical measure called the ______________ to identify the extent to which the values of the two variables or factors are related or change in an identifiable pattern.
correlational research design; correlation coefficient
__________ is the extent to which the values of two factors (X and Y) vary together. The closer data points fall to the regression line, the more the values of two factors vary together.
covariance
In a study conducted by Chen, Dai, and Dong, participants completed a revision of the Aitken Procrastination Inventory (API) and their level of procrastination was recorded. The researchers found that the following regression equation could be used to predict procrastination (_______) based on known scores on the API (______): _____________
criterion or Y variable; predictor or X variable; Y = 0.146X - 2.922
___________ of a measurement is the extent to which scores obtained on some measure can be used to infer or predict a criterion or expected outcome. Different types of this type of validity include _________, _________, _________, and _________.
criterion-related validity; predictive validity; concurrent validity; convergent validity; discriminant validity
_________ are the x- and y-coordinates for each plot in a scatterplot.
data points
_______ (plural) are measurements or observations that are typically numeric. A _____ (singular) is a single measurement or observation, usually called a _____ or ________.
data; datum; score; raw score
A researcher measures the following weights of four animal subjects (in grams): 90, 95, 80, and 100. An individual weight is referred to as a _______, whereas all weights are referred to as _________.
datum; data
A ___________ is any feature or characteristic of a research setting that may reveal the hypothesis being tested or give the participant a clue regarding how he or she is expected to behave. For example, suppose that a research studies preferences for a food reward. In asking which reward the participant prefers, the researcher may inadvertently give the participant a clue as to which choice is consistent with the research hypothesis, such as by pointing to one reward and not the other.
demand characteristic
The ___________ is the measure of the treatment effect (varies: but not under experimental control; the data). An example is exam scores.
dependent variable
We create at least two groups in an experiment so that a presumed cause (high distraction) can be compared to a group where it is absent or minimal (low distraction). We can then compare grades in each group to determine the difference or effect that distraction had on exam grades. The measured variable in an experiment is called the __________, which is believed to change in the presence of the independent variable.
dependent variable
The first goal of science is to ______ or ______ the variables we observe and measure.
describe; define
Non-experimental research only ___________ behavior. It does NOT allow _________ & _________.
describes; cause; effect
The question of "what is" or "how" goes along with the _______ type of research question. Its goal is to characterize or explain variables that are related to a specific group of individuals. Examples might include "what is the average time spent watching TV per year?" ; "how many pounds does a college student typically gain in their freshman year?"
descriptive
A core assumption in science is that of _____________, which is an assumption that all actions in the universe have a cause. Qualitative research adopts this assumption but does not, for instance, assume that behavior itself is universal. Instead, qualitative research identifies behavior as something experienced __________ by each __________.
determinism; differently; individual
The second step of the scientific method is to ___________. This step involves defining the _______ being tested, identifying _______ or _______ and determine how to ______ them, select a research strategy and design, and evaluate ______ and obtain __________ approval to conduct research.
develop a research plan; variables; participants; subjects; sample; ethics; institutional
The ____________ of a relationship between two factors is described as being positive or negative. The ________ of a relationship between two factors is described by the value of the correlation coefficient, r, with values closer r = +/- 1.0 indicating a ____________ relationship between two factors.
direction; strength; stronger
A __________ is measured in whole units or categories that are not distributed along a continuum. For example, your sex, the number of brothers or sisters you have, and your family's socioeconomic class (working class, middle class, upper class) are examples.
discrete variable
This subtype of criterion-related validity, __________, is the extent to which one measure can be "discriminated" from another measure that is should not be related to. An example is that affection (measure) predicts long-term commitment (criterion). This measure is unrelated to hate (measure that it should not be related to).
discriminant validity
A ___________ is a type of research study in which the researcher collecting the data and the participants in the study are unaware of the conditions that participants are assigned.
double-blind study
One method used in order to quantify (record) observations is the ____________ which involves recording the amount of time or duration that a participant engages in a certain behavior during a fixed period of time (e.g., recording the AMOUNT of time people spend at an art exhibit to determine which exhibit is more preferred). We use this method to record behaviors that participants engage in over a period of time.
duration method
The degree to which the results of a your study can be generalized to other situations/environments is _____________. This is similar to external validity, except this is usually associated with REAL-WORLD generalization.
ecological validity
A subcategory of external validity, called ___________, is the extent to which results observed in a study will generalize across settings or environments. Threats to this subcategory of external validity include _________. This type of validity is typically ______ so long as observations made in a study are not dependent on, or limited to, ______ features of the research setting itself. Research conducted in a laboratory setting typically has _____ levels of this validity while research conducted in a natural setting typically has ______ levels of this validity.
ecological validity; research settings; high; specific; low; high
__________ is a statistical measure of the size or magnitude of an observed effect in a population, which allows researchers to describe how far scores shifted in a population, or the percent of variance in a dependent variable that can be explained by the levels of a factor.
effect size
Direct, real-world observation that is accepted, if the same observations could have been made by others with equivalent accuracy, is called ________. An example of this is "seeing is believing".
empiricism (sense experiences)
________ is a method of knowing based on one's experiences or observations.The problem with this method is that it is _______ because not everyone experiences the world in the same way.
empiricism (sense experiences); biased
An ___________ is a point of CONTROL that includes any aspect of a study that could affect performance, but that is NOT of interest to the researcher (e.g., time of day; temperature; location; etc.). It is only an _________ validity threat when it creates a CONFOUND and it is only an __________ validity threat when conditions used are NOT likely to be found elsewhere.
environmental factor; internal; external
One threat to internal validity, called __________, which include time of day that a study is conducted, how researchers treat participants, and the location of the study. This threat also includes how participants are observed (alone or in a group) and where they participate.
environmental factors
The first defining principle of an interval scale, one scale of measurement, is an __________, a scale distributed in units that are ________ from one another. For example, if you are asked to rate your satisfaction with a spouse or job on a 7-point scale from 1 (completely unsatisfied) to 7 (completely satisfied), then you are using this type of scale. Because the distance between each point (1 to 7) is assumed to be the same or equal, it is appropriate to compute differences between scores on this scale.
equidistant scale; equidistant
The two defining principles of interval scales are that they are ________ and have _________.
equidistant; NO true zero
An ________ is any influence in the response of a participant that can cause variability in his or her response. For example, a measure of life satisfaction can vary depending on a variety of factors including a participant's current mood, relationship status, mental state, health, and even the time of day that the participant responds.
error
Making naturalistic observations can be an ___________ alternative to experiments because it can allow researchers to observe behavior without __________ influencing the occurrence of that behavior.
ethical; directly
A qualitative research design used to describe and characterize the behavior and identity of a GROUP or CULTURE as defined by their members is called ____________. For example, a researcher joins a local neighborhood crime watch group for six months to study how these groups operate.
ethnography
In __________, researchers use participant observation to observe groups and cultures, and they use field notes and interviews to record observations.
ethnography
When a participant plays the role of the "shy participant" and conceals or withholds information he or she considers private or personal, he or she is demonstrating a type of participant reactivity called __________.
evaluation apprehension
Data collected already that may be used to address research questions beyond the reasons for the original collection of that data is _______________.
existing data design
___________ are research designs for handling and analyzing data that already exist, usually as a written document or as an electronic or audio recording.
existing data designs
An _________ is the methods and procedures used in an experimental research design to specifically control the conditions under which observations are made in order to isolate cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
experiment
Any study that demonstrates cause is called an _________.
experiment
The ________ category of research involves a _______ of some variable(s); this includes _______ by keeping everything ________ except for the manipulation of interest. This category of research also involves __________ of subjects to conditions, which helps determine if a variable ________ changes in another. An ________ must have BOTH of these elements or it is NOT an __________.
experimental (causal); manipulation; control; constant; random assignment; causes; experiment; experiment
The three basic categories of research are _________, ___________, and __________
experimental (causality); nonexperimental (description); quasi-experimental (causality & description)
The group that receives the manipulation of interest is the ____________.
experimental group
An advantage to telephone interviews is that they can administered at random by generating telephone numbers at random from within the area or region using ____________.
random digit dialing
The extent to which the psychological aspects of a research setting are meaningful or FEEL real to participants is called ____________. The more the participants feel as if they are in a casino during a study held in a laboratory, the higher the _________ will be.
experimental realism; experimental realism
A _________ design is used to determine the causes of behavior that help to explain why the behavior occurs.
experimental research
The type of research design that has the highest internal validity is ________.
experimental research design
The __________ is the use of methods and procedures to make observations in which the researcher fully controls the conditions and experiences of participants by applying three required elements of control: _________, _________, and _________. One strength of this is that it is the only research design capable of demonstrating _____ and _____. One limitation is that behavior that occurs under ________ conditions may not be the same as behavior that occurs in a ________ environment.
experimental research design; randomization; manipulation; comparison/control; cause; effect; controlled; natural
The extent to which a researcher uses his or her knowledge of the predicted outcome to influence the results of the study is called ___________. This type of bias is most often unintentional, but results from _____________, which are preconceived ideas or expectations that researchers have regarding how participants should behave or what participants are capable of doing.
experimenter bias; expectancy effects
The second goal of science is to ______ the conditions or causes for the events we study.
explain
The question of "what if" goes along with the ________ type of research question. Its goal is to "get an idea of" an area of research that is not well understood. Examples might include "what if a high-fat, high-sugar diet is physically addictive?" ; "what if human memory has an infinite capacity for storage?"
exploratory
To identify or observe a construct, we identify the observable components or _________ of the construct. An _________ of a construct is an observable behavior or even that is presumed to reflect the construct itself.
external factors; external factor
Increasing the mundane and experimental realism of a study will increase the ________ of the study.
external validity
___________ concerns are only there if the desire is/was to generalize (i.e., it depends on the research goal).
external validity
_________ is the extent to which observations made in a study generalize beyond the specific manipulations or constraints in the study. A ________ is any aspect of the research design that can limit observations to the specific conditions or manipulations in a study. The more an observation generalizes beyond the specific conditions or constraints in a study, the _______ the _________. The fewer the constraints or the more natural the settings within which observations are made, the _______ the _______.
external validity; constraint; higher; external validity; higher; external validity
___________ is the extent to which results of a study generalize beyond the specifies of the study from which they were obtained. Usually, the more __________ you exert in your study, the less __________ you will observe.
external validity; control; less
The most basic type of validity is to make a judgement as to whether a measure appears to be measuring what we think it should be measuring, called __________. This type of validity is a quick judgement of what we think the measure is measuring. For example, suppose we have a beautiful female confederate sit in the middle of the room. We then ask male participants to take any seat they want in that room. We measure attraction at the distance between the beautiful confederate and the male participant. The closer the male participant sits to the confederate, the more attracted he is to the confederate. _______, in this example, is the extent to which we think the distance between the confederate and the participant is actually a measure of attraction.
face validity; face validity
An interview survey can be administered ____________, by _________, or in __________ groups.
face-to-face; telephone; focus
Suppose we manipulate "distraction" (the ________), which has two levels (low, high). We then randomly assign participants to one or the other level. Each level of the independent variable is a _______ in our design. (FYI, refer to pg. 164 for detailed example).
factor; group
A scientific theory must include a description of the data outcome that could falsify itself. This is known as the _____________. For example, Benjamin Rush (1793) believed that the treatment for yellow fever was ___________. Each cure attributed to the success of the method, while each death attributed to the severity of the illness. Always be prepared to ask (or answer) the question: "what will falsify your theory"?)
falsifiability criterion; vigorous bloodletting
To increase the external validity of an experiment, we can conduct a _________, which takes place in an environment within which the behavior or event being observed would naturally operate. These experiments do lose some control, so they lose some level of __________, even though they have high _________. (FYI, refer to pg. 166 for example).
field experiment; internal validity; external validity
It is important to use the scale that allows you the MOST ________ with regard to statistics. The better the scale, the more powerful the statistic AND the more ________ the measure. NEVER use any scale less than _________ (i.e., you must use only a _______ scale or a ________ scale.). Also, do NOT __________ the scale of your variable(s) by clumping data together (e.g., "smart" = a score of 85-100; "average" = score of 70-84; "stupid" = a score less than 70).
flexibility; sensitive; interval; interval; ratio; decrease
One method used in order to quantify (record) observations is the _____________ which involves counting the NUMBER of times a behavior occurs during a fixed period of time (e.g. counting the number of times a teenager uses cusswords around other friends). We use this method when the behavior we observe occurs __________.
frequency method; often
In all, case studies have the following two common applications in behavioral science: _________ (researchers ask a lot of questions instead of stating hypotheses) and ____________ (researchers state hypotheses to develop new theories or to test existing theories).
general inquiry; theory development
The sixth step in the scientific method is to ____________.
generate more new ideas
Think of research design along a _______ of control, in which _________ research designs have the greatest control in that the conditions and experiences of participants are under the full control of the researcher. This control is less in a _______ research design and can be absent in a ___________ research design.
gradient; experimental; quasi-experimental; nonexperimental
____________ means changing the wording (framing) of an ad to imply that it is environmentally friendly (when it may not be very much or at all). For example, using the word "green" somewhere in an advertisement (other terms: "organic , "natural", "wholesome."
greenwashing
Suppose you randomly assign children with a behavioral disorder to receive or not receive an intervention. In this case, the intervention group is likely to be a more tedious or demanding group for the children. If more children in the intervention than the no-intervention group drop out of the study, then attrition rates now systematically vary with the levels of the independent variable. This demonstrates ___________.
heterogeneous attrition
Four strategies used to make unobtrusive observations are to (1) remain ____________, (2) ___________ participants to the researcher (letting participants get used to the researcher's presence), (3) using a ___________ (e.g. someone who pretends to be a participant), and (4) using __________ measures (e.g. we could measure recycling behavior by rummaging through trash or recycling bins).
hidden; habituate; confederate (co-researcher); indirect
When control is _______, both criteria are met. For example, to study play behavior, a researcher can have children play one at a time on a playground. In one group, the children are told to play quietly, and in another group the children are told to play loudly. By manipulating the play behavior of the children, the researcher establishes __________ control. Also, because all the children play alone on the same playground, factors such as the types of toys available to play with or the behavior of other children are now held constant--all children, whether they play quietly or loudly, play alone with the same playground of toys.
high; higher
The naturalistic research design is generally associated with ______ external validity, because we do not attempt to overtly manipulate the conditions of the environment. However, this design is generally associated with _____ internal validity, we typically have limited control over other possible factors that could be causing the observations we make.
high; low
Compared to field experiments, laboratory experiments tend to be associated with _______ internal validity, but _______ external validity.
higher; lower
Experimental research designs have the greatest control and therefore the ________ internal validity; nonexperimental research designs typically have the least control and therefore the ________ internal validity.
highest; lowest
One threat to internal validity, called a __________, refers to an unanticipated event that co-occurs with a treatment or manipulation in a study. These effects threaten internal validity when the event itself can also explain a research finding (e.g., measuring candy vs. vegetable intake during Halloween; measuring mood changes in areas with different climates).
history effect
When your two (or more) groups do not share the same history BEYOND the manipulation, you may deal with the point of control called a ____________. For example, in the study of "the effects of room color," group 1 may be in a blue colored room while group 2 may be in a green colored room. During the exam, the green classroom is exposed to a very loud noise (alarm). Therefore, the green classroom has experienced a ____________. The question here is, "are group differences due to color, noise, or both?" The history should be the same EXCEPT for the ______________ variable.
history effect; confound; independent
The perspective of qualitative research is based on a __________ or "complete picture" view that emphasizes that reality _____________ (there is no single reality in nature) and behavior is _____________ (it does not occur independent of context).
holistic; changes; dynamic
The process of probability sampling involves stating a research _______ or question about a population, identifying the __________, all individuals of interest who are identified by the research hypotheses, selecting a ______, a portion of those from the target population, and use observations made in the sample to ________ to the target population.
hypotheses; target population; sample; generalize
A ________ describes some relationship(s) among variables. It is often phrased as a prediction (which also describes some relationship among variables).
hypothesis
The process of non probability sampling includes stating a research ______ or question about a _______. Identify the ________ (all individuals of interest who are identified by the research hypothesis or question), identify the _________ (the portion of those in the target population that can be sampled), select a _____ (portion of those from the accessible population that will be the official ________), and use observations made in the sample to generalize them to the __________.
hypothesis; population; target population; accessible population; sample; participants; target population
The first step of the scientific method is to ___________. This step involves determining an area of interest, reviewing the _________, identifying new ________ in your area of interest, and developing a research _________.
identify a problem; literature; ideas; hypothesis
Three types of case studies are the ______________ (used to investigate rare or unknown phenomena), the __________________ (used to explore or generate hypotheses for later investigation), and the _______________ (used to compare observations of many cases).
illustrative case study; exploratory case study; collective case study
Written surveys can be administered ____________, by ________, or using the ___________. For example, with __________ surveys, participants are more willing to complete a survey administered in person, because the researcher can be present to explain the survey, observe participants take the survey, and answer any questions they may have while they complete the survey.
in-person; mail; internet
Factors that threaten internal validity will vary systematically with the levels of an ___________.
independent variable
In order for a factor to threaten the internal validity of a research study, it must vary systematically with the levels of the ____________.
independent variable
The treatment (manipulated by the experimenter) is the ___________. An example is the color of a room.
independent variable
What is the independent variable, dependent variable, and nuisance (control) variable(s) in the example of the effects of room color on exam performance?
independent variable: room color dependent variable: exam scores nuisance (control) variable(s): time of day; location; noise level; room size; age of participants; temperature; comfort; brightness; personal space; teacher
To use random assignment, we identify the __________ or _______ that will be manipulated in an experiment. We then assign participants to each _______ of that factor using a random procedure, such as using a random number table to assign participants to groups.
independent variable; factor; level
An _________ or _____ is the variable that is manipulated in an experiment. The levels of the variable remain unchanged between groups in an experiment. It is the "presumed cause." The ___________ are the specific conditions or groups created by manipulating the factor.
independent variable; factor; levels of a factor
Random assignment was first introduced in research with plant seeds. What was learned in studies with plants is that random assignment controls for the _________ in the characteristics of plants, and the same principle can be applied to human participants. An ________ is a unique characteristic of a participant in a sample that can differ from one participant to another (i.e., eye color, gender, style of clothing, eating habits, sleeping patterns, etc.).
individual differences; individual difference
One threat to internal validity, called __________, refers to instances in which the measurement of the dependent variable changes due to an error during the course of a research study. For example, suppose three raters rate the time a participant held eye contact with a male or female interviewer during a mock interview. Because the raters will get better at rating the dependent variable (duration of eye contact) over time, the researchers should intermix the order of the observations such that all of one condition is not run before another. The EXPERIENCE of the raters varies systematically with the levels of the factor.
instrumentation
_____________ and ___________ effects are points of CONTROL in which the process of collecting data could be affected by broken or defective tools or the changes in ability of the person/researcher collecting the data (e.g. practice, fatigue, boredom, distraction). This is NOT the same as maturation, because this is an ___________ effect not a __________ effect.
instrumentation; measurement; experimenter; participant
Andrew consistently responds on the high end of each item on a 0-3 scale (i.e., five 3s and one 2); Joseph consistently responds on the low end ( i.e., all 0s). When scores for each participant are consistent across items for the same measure, then the items give a consistent picture of the behavior being measured--avoidance of traffic or busy roads--and the measure is associated with high ____________.
internal consistency
A type of reliability used to determine the extent to which multiple items for the same variable are related, and therefore give a consistent picture of a behavior or event, is called ___________. This type of reliability is shown when participants respond similarly to each item used to measure the same variable. To demonstrate this type of reliability, we must show that scores or items for a single test or measure are related using a statistic called ________, which "splits" all items for the same measure every possible way and computes a correlation value for them all. The larger the value of ________, the higher the ________ will be.
internal consistency; Cronbach's alpha; Cronbach's alpha; internal consistency
While _______ means that your study is doing what it says it's doing, _________ means how your study generalizes (high = universally true; low = only true in the study).
internal validity; external validity
The level of control in a research design directly relates to _________ or the extent to which the research design includes enough control of the conditions and experiences of participants that it can demonstrate a single unambiguous explanation of a manipulation---that is, cause and effect. The more control in a research design, the ______ the ______.
internal validity; higher; internal validity
____________ validity is the degree to which our research really does what we say it's doing, while __________ validity is the degree to which our results might be obtained using a different population or setting or other constraint. Even though exerting CONTROL improves _________ validity, exerting CONTROL tends to decrease _________ validity, or real-world generalization.
internal; external; internal; external
If you do not have __________ validity, you don't have a good study. THEREFORE, __________ validity is ALWAYS important.
internal; internal
________ or __________ is a measure for the extent to which two or more raters of the same behavior or event are in agreement with what they observed. It is used to compare the consistency of ratings or judgements of a behavior or event. To demonstrate this type of reliability, we must show that scores or ratings are similar across raters using a statistic called __________, which gives an estimate of the consistency in ratings of two or more raters. The more consistent the ratings, the higher the ________ will be.To make sure that observations made are reliable, researchers use multiple raters who _________ observe the same behavior or event to get a consensus about what was observed.
interrater reliability; interobserver reliability; Cohen's alpha; interrater reliability; independently
One method used in order to quantify (record) observations is the ________ which involves dividing an observational period into intervals of time, then recording whether or not certain behaviors occur in each interval (e.g. splitting observations into 10-second time intervals). We use this method to break down long observation intervals of time into smaller units of time.
interval method
_________ are measurements that have two defining principles: _________ and ________. A common example for this in behavioral science is the rating scale. This type of scale is a numeric response scale used to indicate a participant's level of agreement or opinion with some statement. The answers to the questions based on the three properties (order, differences, ratios) are ______ for order, _____ for differences, and _____ for ratios.
interval scales; equidistant scales; NO true zero; YES; YES; NO
A(n) ________ scale has identity, magnitude, and equal intervals. It is similar to the _______ scale but now the scale is divided into equivalent intervals although zero is arbitrary. The differences between successive measurements ARE meaningful. For example, with temperature, 0 degrees F = "no temperature" but 50 degrees - 40 degrees is a 10 degree difference, the same as between 30 degrees - 20 degrees (BUT 80 degrees is NOT twice as warm as 40 degrees). (e.g., thermometer readings; IQ; some Likert scales).
interval; ordinal
The drawback of face-to-face interviews is that they require the interviewer to be present for each survey and can be prone to _____________, which is the tendency for the demeanor, words, or expressions of a researcher to influence the responses of a participant when the researcher and the participant are in direct contact.
interviewer bias
Spontaneous knowledge without a known source (instinct v. logic) is called _________. It involves _______, or an emphasis of agreement between experience and how we think the world is. It also involves _________, in which initial information may be purely a feeling, and _________, or insight via altered consciousness.
intuition; common sense; emotion; mysticism
A method of knowing based largely on an individual's hunch or feeling that something is correct is called _______. The problem with this method is limited experiences. ________ differ from time-to-time/place-to-place/ with cultural norms. Experience is due to _________ and so cannot be fully trusted.
intuition; standards; perception
A ________ is an experiment that takes place in a laboratory setting in which the researcher has greatest control over variables, regardless of whether it is made to look natural or not. This type of experiment is typically associated with ______ internal validity and ______ external validity.
laboratory experiment; high; low
In the McDonald's experiment, a _______ portion of children chose foods wrapped in McDonald's brand packaging over the same foods wrapped in plain packaging.
larger
One method used in order to quantify (record) observations is the __________ which involves the time or duration BETWEEN behaviors during a fixed period of time (e.g., recording the time in seconds between each each time a student looks at his or her phone during a class). We use this method to record behaviors that are _____________.
latency method; repeated
Having high internal and external validity is not a prerequisite for good research designs. Instead, all research designs have ________, and it is important that researchers recognize them.
limitations
___________ is a statistical procedure used to determine the equation of a regression line to a set of data points used to determine the extent to which the regression equation can be used to predict values of one factor, given known values of a second factor in a population.
linear regression
The advantage of ______________ is that we can use the equation of a regression line to predict how people will behave or perform, A caution of using this procedure is that _________ correlations, or those closer to r = 0, will produce inaccurate predictions using the equation of the regression line because the data points will fall far from it. However, the stronger the correlation, or the closer to r = +- 1.0, the MORE accurate the predictions made using the equation of the regression line because the data points will fall CLOSER to it.
linear regression; smaller
To maximize the sensitivity of a measure and minimize range effects, a researcher can perform a thorough _________, conduct a __________ study, include _________ checks, and use ________ measures.
literature review; pilot; manipulation; multiple
When control is ________, neither criterion is met. For example, suppose we observe behavior among children at a park. The variable is play behavior; some children play quietly, and others play loudly. The children determine how loudly they play--the play behavior, then, is not manipulated or controlled by the researcher. Also, many other factors (e.g., the types of toys available to play with or the behavior of other children) can influence a child's play behavior at a park. Because the researcher does not manipulate the variable or hold these other variables constant, the study has ________ control.
low; low
A ___________ is a procedure used to check or confirm that a manipulation in a study had the effect that was intended. If for example, you measure the speed of decision making when participants are hungry or full, you can check that participants are hungry or full (the manipulation) by asking participants to rate their hunger.
manipulation check
One threat to internal validity, called __________, refers to when a participants physiological or psychological state changes over time during a study. This threat refers to internal changes that exist within an individual and are NOT related to external events. Examples include age, learning, hunger, physical development, and boredom.
maturation
A point of CONTROL called a _____________ is changes that are expected within individuals over time (e.g. fatigue, brain development, physiology, attention, etc.) regardless of external manipulation. For example, in the study of "effects of practice on sustaining attention," inattentive 12-year-olds are given monthly practice at sustaining attention for 5-8 years. BUT, the frontal lobes are still developing until 18-20 years. Therefore, the question here is "are group differences due to practice, development, or both?"
maturation effect
To use the scientific method, we make observations that can be _______. An observation can be _______ or ________. Engaging in the scientific method is like a ________, because the ______ of each method or design must be followed, and in essence, define the _______.
measured; direct; indirect; game; rules; game
When ads use greenwashing and fail to use operational definitions to advertise the product, watch out for manipulation of ________________, manipulation of ____________ (e.g., many terms used now have legal definitions to minimize their abuse in advertising--the term "natural" has NO legal definition), and incomplete _____________ (i.e., advertisers often fail to list the way they are being compared--price, size, quality, etc.).
measurement; terms; comparisons
The _________ in a theory is the behavior or event that is believed to lead to, or make possible, the ________ or occurrence of another behavior or event. For example, consider the following theory: Feelings of attraction promote commitment to a long-term relationship. This theory uses a construct (_______) as a ___________ to explain another construct (_______). Hence, the attraction theory states that feeling attracted to another person (the __________) will result in greater commitment to a long-term relationship (the __________).
mechanism; outcome; attraction; mechanism; commitment; mechanism; outcome
A _____________ is a type of existing data design in which findings for a group of related research studies are combined, analyzed, and summarized, often in terms of effect size.
meta-analysis
____________ is a type of existing data design which involves examination of published data in order to determine if a small or intermittent effect is significant across studies (overall). Small effect sizes might not be significant based on a single study, but across studies, the small effect might emerge as significant. For example, if a researcher were to ask whether schizophrenia is related to blood type, the researcher would find ALL research that contains information about BOTH of these and analyze all that data together.
meta-analysis
The FIX for attrition (mortality) effects is to ________ attrition levels and ________ the design as needed to maintain _________ levels. Also, it is not always possible, but do the best you can and acknowledge a possible _________ if it cannot be fixed. If ANY study shows signs of ___________ mortality (whether across the board or just in one condition), this is a ______________. Across-the-board attrition could be a problem for _________________.
monitor; adjust; equal; threat; high; red flag; external validity
The FIX for instrumentation and measurement effects is to ________ devices (calibrate, adjust, etc.), conduct ________ before data collection, change the _______ in which conditions are run so that the first ones seen everyday are different (advantages and disadvantages even out).
monitor; practice/training; order
The extent to which an experimental research situation physically resembles or LOOKS like the natural or real-world environment being stimulated is called _________. Suppose for example that you want to study gambling behavior. To establish this effect, you could create a casino-like setting in a laboratory with flashing lights, coin slots, and other games of risk. If the appearance of the setting looks real to participants, then the study has high _________.
mundane realism; mundane realism
A ________ is a location or site where a behavior of interest normally occurs.
natural setting
Researchers can make naturalistic observations in a _______ or _________ setting.
natural; contrived
The observation of behavior in the natural setting where it is expected to occur, with limited or no attempt to overtly manipulate the conditions of the environment where the observations are made is a ______________.
naturalistic observation
Observing behavior in settings where it occurs naturally is ________________. It is QUALitative more than QUANTitative.
naturalistic observation (field work)
A _____________ means that as values of one factor increase, values of the second factor decrease. If two factors have values that change in the opposite direction, we can graph the correlation using a _________ line.
negative; straight
The least informative scale (________) is a measurement in which a number is assigned to represent something or someone. Numbers on a ________ scale are often coded values. Common examples include ZIP codes, license plate numbers, credit card numbers, country codes, telephone numbers, and Social Security numbers. The answers to the questions based on the three properties (order, differences, ratios) are all ________.
nominal; NO
A(n) _______ (categorical) scale has identity and description. Its differences are qualitative rather quantitative (e.g., males = 1, females = 2, other = 3 ; L = 1, R =2, U =3, etc.). This is the ________ scale of measurement.
nominal; weakest
Correlations are _____________, in which they determine/describe which behaviors or events occur together. There are ONLY __________ variables, therefore ___________ conclusions are NOT possible.
non-manipulative; dependent; causal
A _____________ design is used to describe individual variables and predict the relationship between variables.
nonexperimental research
The ____________ is the use of methods and procedures to make observations in which the conditions or experiences of participants are not manipulated. A _______ occurs when the researcher creates the conditions in which participants are observed; however, this is not always possible to study behavior. For example, we cannot manipulate the content of existing documents at different times in history.
nonexperimental research design
Surveys, case studies, field observations, archival studies & correlations describe _________ research. The _______ method is a VERY common approach to this type of research. It is used to determine if variables are ________ to each other.With this type of research, it is NOT possible to draw ________ conclusions (so NEVER use terms like affect, impact, or cause when you describe the ________ between variables).
nonexperimental; correlational; related; causal; relationship
Each type of research design--_________, ________, and __________--is distinguished by the level of ________ that is established by the design. The term _________ is used in research design to describe (a) the manipulation of a variable and (b) holding all other variables constant.
nonexperimental; experimental; quasi-experimental; control; control
_________ research designs can be both quantitative and qualitative. If _________, it can be, correlational, naturalistic, or survey-based. It can also use existing data such as content analysis, archival analysis, or meta-analysis. If _________, it can use phenomenology, ethnography, or case studies.
nonexperimental; quantitative; qualitative
A _________ is a bias in sampling in which a number of participants in one or more groups choose not to respond to a survey or request to participate in a research study, thus resulting in a sample that is not representative.
nonresponse bias
The two criteria that make a variable suitable for scientific investigation are that it must be ________ and _______.
observable; replicable
A variable that is _________ is one that can be directly or indirectly measured. A variable that is _______ is one that can be observed more than once. To meet both criteria, you must explain how the variable was measured (________) and under what conditions the variable was observed so that other researchers can re-create the same conditions to measure the same variable you did (___________).
observable; replicable; observable; replicable
How we define a construct depends on how we will _________ it, and there are often many different ways to ______ a construct.
observe; observe
Two sources of bias during an observation period are _____________ and the tendency of observers to _________ meaning from what was observed. In a research situation, an observer is rarely needed to ___________ behavior. Instead the job of an observer is typically to _________ the occurrence or absence of a behavior and that is all.
observer bias; infer; interpret; record
Ethical issues in non-experimental research include ____________ vs. manipulating (this approach may be better than creating situations to observe), ___________ behaviors (being in a position to observe illegal or harmful behaviors), and moral ___________ (even if you use a legal method to observe people in their natural environment, is it appropriate to do so?)
observing; harmful; ambiguity
The magnitude of a correlation coefficient is how close it is to __________. Whether it is positive or negative, it tells how well one variable can be predicted form knowing the other.
one
A test statistic called the __________, is a statistical procedure used to test hypotheses concerning the mean of interval or ratio data in a single population with an unknown variance. This _______ differences between a sample mean and a population mean. (refer to pp 145-146 for SPSS directions)
one-sample t test; compares
Coding the responses to _____________ items requires researchers to tediously ________ and ________ all possible examples of potential responses in terms of how participants might write or express their responses AND use multiple _________ and additional statistical analyses to ensure the coding is accurate.
open-ended ; anticipate; list; raters
When researchers want participants to respond in their own words to a survey item, they include a(n) ___________ in the survey. This type of survey item is a question or statement that allows participants to give any response they feel is appropriate with no limitations. For example, "what are your views on the role of patients teaching medical students?" These are most commonly used in ___________ research.
open-ended item; qualitative
A definition for a variable in terms of the operations or techniques used to measure or manipulate a variable is a(n) __________________. This can involve simply having the experimenter/ a confederate "tell" participants something (e.g., the degree to which the nurse tells participants how tired the surgeon was from (no mention, very tired, not tired).
operational definition
A(n) _________ describes a variable in terms of how it is measured. We use these in order to minimize ambiguity caused by observing otherwise arbitrary phenomena. For example, we could describe "attraction" as the appeal of a person's physical appearance. However, this description is ambiguous because one person may think of the appeal of a person's physical appearance very differently from another person. Therefore variables may have many ____________.
operational definition; operational definitions
The ____________ of a construct is the external factor of that construct that we will observe. For example, the external factor of "recall" may be the number of errors made on an exam. Each construct must be ____________ to identify the external factor that will be observed for each construct.
operational definition; operationally defined
"A rating on a picture scale. Using this scale, we would infer that higher (or happier) ratings for a food indicate greater liking for that food". "A preference choice between two foods. Using a preference choice to measure liking, we would infer that a choice for one food over another indicates greater liking for the chosen food". These are examples of ____________. Both make ________ a suitable variable for scientific study because we have identified how it will be objectively measured. We typically need to choose one ___________, and our choice can influence the type of study we conduct in step _____ of the scientific method.
operational definitions; liking; operational definition; three
Researchers define behavior categories using examples that ____________, or make __________, each category.
operationalize; measurable
The initial task in developing a research plan is to define or ____________ each variable stated in a research hypothesis in terms of the operations or techniques the researcher uses to measure or manipulate each variable. The resulting definition is called an _____________.
operationalize; operational definition
In order to minimize experimenter bias, researchers can get a second _________, ________ the research procedures, or conduct a _________ study.
opinion; standardize; double-blind
Using appropriate sampling methods can increase _________.
population validity
________ are measurements that convey order or rank only. Examples of variables on this scale of measurement include finishing order in a competition, education level, and ranking. These scales indicate that only _____ value(s) is greater than or less than another, so differences between ranks do not having meaning. The answers to the questions based on the three properties (order, differences, ratios) are ______ for order, _____ for differences, and ______ for ratios.
ordinal scales; one; YES; NO; NO
A(n) ________ scale has identity and magnitude. It reflects an underlying order that is not assumed to be evenly calibrated. Arithmetic operations ARE allowed, because relative _______ is maintained but differences between points are meaningless (e.g., attractiveness scale (1-10); racing results (1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.).
ordinal; order
A subcategory of external validity, _________, is the extent to which results or outcomes observed in a study will generalize across different but related dependent variables. Threats to this subcategory of external validity include _____________. For example, if a study showed that a new behavioral intervention helped children stay on task, then it would have high _________ if it also showed that it reduced the number of times children disrupted the class. Disrupting class (outcome) is a different but related dependent variable to staying on task (outcome).
outcome validity; operationalization of constructs; outcome validity
The extent to which an outcome generalizes to OTHER RELATED but DIFFERENT measures is ______________. For example, if room color affects algebra performance, then room color should have similar effects on other math-related tasks. This is important to establish if you are using a new _______.
outcome validity; test
An ____________ is a score that falls substantially above or below most other scores in a data set and can alter the direction and strength of an observed correlation.
outlier
When participants are provided a few restricted answer options and then a last one that allows participants to respond in their own words (in case the few restricted options do not fit with the answer they want to give), this is called a _______________. These are typically stated as "other" with a blank space provided. For example: In what capacity do you (students or faculty or other) view the role of patients as teachers? A. Teaching B. Assessment C. Curriculum development D. Other _________
partially open-ended items
When a participant plays the role of the "good participant" and behaves in ways he or she feels are consistent with the intent of the research study, he or she is demonstrating a type of participant reactivity called ____________.
participant expectancy
____________ is a method of observation in which researchers participate in or join the group or culture that they are observing.
participant observation
When the behavior of a participant changes in response to knowing that he or she is being observed, this is referred to as __________. Three types of this are ________ (a participant is overly cooperative), _________ (a participant is overly apprehensive), and _______ (a participant is overall antagonistic).
participant reactivity; participant expectancy; evaluation apprehension; participant reluctance
When a participant plays the role of the "bad participant" and behaves in ways he or she feels will disconfirm or contradict the intent of the research study, he or she is demonstrating a type of participant reactivity called ________.
participant reluctance
The term _______ is used to describe a human who volunteers to be subjected to the procedures in a research study. The term ______ is used to describe a nonhuman that is subjected to procedures in a research study and to identify the names of the research designs.
participant; subject
A __________ positive correlation occurs when each data point falls exactly on a straight line, but this is rare.
perfect
The qualitative analysis of the conscious experiences of phenomena from the first-person point of view of the participant is called ________________. To use this research design, the researcher interviews a participant who gives a first-person account of his or her conscious experiences. The researcher then constructs a narrative to describe or summarize the experiences described in the interview. For example, a researcher conducts an in-depth interview of a fraternity president and asks him to reflect on his experiences in college. She reports his first-person accounts in a narrative.
phenomenology
A _________ is a small preliminary study used to determine the extent to which a manipulation or measure will show an effect of interest. This allows you to evaluate whether the measure is sensitive to detecting changes in the presence of a manipulation before spending the time and money on a full-time study.
pilot study
Researchers use randomization to ensure that individuals are selected to participate at random (_______ or _________) and are assigned to groups at random (________).
random sampling; random selection; random assignment
If your goal is to generalize your results to the LARGER POPULATION, then you would consider ______________. If your results DO generalize, then you have a high degree of _____________. Ensure that you have ___________ samples and avoid high levels of ____________.
population validity; population validity; representative; attrition (mortality)
A subcategory of external validity, called __________, is the extent to which results observed in a study will generalize to the population from which a sample was selected. Threats to this subcategory of external validity include ______ and ________. One threat in particular to population validity is ___________, which occurs when the same number of participants do not show up for a study at a scheduled time or fail to complete a study.
population validity; sampling methods; participant characteristics; homogeneous attrition
We sample a _________ as opposed to testing everyone, because it is too time-consuming, expensive, and difficult. However, if a _________ is small, we can test everyone.
population; population
A _________ is a set of all individuals, items, or data of interest about which scientists will generalize. A _______ is a subset/portion of individuals selected from a larger _________ of interest. For example, children would be the _________, while children aged 3 to 6 would be the ________.
population; sample; population; population; sample
In a scatterplot, a ____________ means that as values of one factor increase, values of a second factor also increase; as values of one factor decrease, values of a second factor also decrease. A ______ value of r indicates that the values of two factors change in the same direction.
positive correlation; positive;
A _________ correlation is greater than 0 but less than 1.0. In contrast, a _________ correlation is greater than -1.0 but less than 0.
positive; negative
The 3 basic outcomes of correlations are _________, _________, and _________.
positive; negative; none (null)
In a _________ correlation, values for both variables increase or decrease SIMILARLY. In a __________ correlation, as values for one variable increase, they decrease for the other variable. In a _________ correlation, as values change for one variable, they neither increase or decrease for the other variable.
positive; negative; zero (null)
When determining how many subjects to test, you can use __________, which are statistical techniques used to estimate how many participants a researcher should obtain. They are also used _________ to determine if a researcher used enough volunteers to have fairly tested their hypothesis (usually ONLY important when an effect is NOT found to be __________).
power analyses; after-the-fact; significant
The third goal of science is to ________ when a behavior or event will occur.
predict
A _________ is a specific statement about an expected outcome.
prediction
This subtype of criterion-related validity, ________, is the extent to which scores obtained by a measure predict outcomes it should predict. An example is that SAT scores (measure) predict later academic performance (criterion).
predictive validity
The four subtypes of criterion-related validity are ________, _________, _________, and _________.
predictive validity; concurrent validity; convergent validity; discriminate validity
To use linear regression, we identify two types of variables: the _________ and the __________. The _________ (X) is the variable with values that are known and can be used to predict values of another variable. The ___________ (Y) is the to-be-predicted variable with unknown values that can be predicted or estimated, given known values of the predictor variable.
predictor variable; criterion variable
When everyone in a target population has a specifiable (not necessarily equal) probability of selection, this is referred to as __________. It tends to be more representative of the population. However, when researchers do not (usually cannot) know the probability of any one member's chance of being picked (i.e., only getting subjects from the portion of a population that is accessible), this is known as _____________.
probability sampling; nonprobability sampling
Methods that researchers use to select samples from one or more populations can be categorized by ______ and _______ sampling. _________ is a category of sampling in which a sample is selected directly from the target population. Probability sampling methods are used when the probability of selecting each individual in a population is known and every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. In contrast, ___________ is a category of sampling in which a sample is selected from the accessible population. This type of sampling is used when it is NOT possible to select individuals directly from the target population.
probability; nonprobability; probability; nonprobability
Suppose a given population comprises of 25% obese and 75% nonobese. Obese and nonobese are selected from the accessible population such that the proportions of these selected resemble the proportions of the target population. Would this be simple quota sampling or proportionate quota sampling?
proportionate quota sampling, because the demographics in the population are KNOWN
A nonprobability sampling technique in which we first identify the subgroups we are interested in, then fill in each group to have equal representation, is called _____ or _________ sampling. An example is children who like/dislike chocolate; the sex of the child; if the child has pimples).
quota; stratified purposive
____________ are nonnumeric observations of behavior (such as having people describe their impressions of some topic or event). These research designs provide a unique perspective for each participant. The data are not numbers but the brief narrative descriptions (words) from a subject's perspective.
qualitative designs
_________ uses the scientific method to make nonnumeric observations, from which conclusions are drawn without the use of statistical analysis. The goal is to describe, interpret, and explain behaviors.
qualitative research
A ___________ varies by class. It is often a category or label for the observers and events researchers observe, and so describes nonnumeric aspects of phenomena. This includes ONLY ________ variables. For example, socioeconomic class is _______ and _______; so are many categories of mental disorders, such as depression and drug use.
qualitative variable; discrete; qualitative; discrete
_________ uses the scientific method to record observations as numeric data. This is most research conducted in the behavioral sciences is.
quantitative research
A _________ varies by amount. It is measured as a numeric value and is often collected by measuring or counting. This includes BOTH continuous and discrete variables. For example, we can measure food intake in calories (a _________), or we can count the number of pieces of food consumed (a _________). In both cases, the variables are measured by amount (in numeric units).
quantitative variable; continuous variable; discrete variable
A __________ is used when manipulation is NOT possible (usually due to ethical or practical reasons). The goal of this type of research is to provide as strong a case for a _________ conclusion as possible. It usually looks like a(n) _________ but is NOT. The main difference between this and a true _______ is that subjects are NOT _________ to groups.
quasi-experiment; causal; experiment; experiment; randomly assigned
A _________ research design can have (1) One-Group Designs that involve posttest-only design and pretest-only design; (2) Time-series Designs that involve basic design, interrupted design, and control series design; (3) Developmental Designs that involve longitudinal, cross-sectional, and cohort-sequential designs; and (4) Nonequivalent Control Group Designs that involve posttest-only design and pretest-only design.
quasi-experimental
The _________ design is used to identify the relationship between preexisting variables.
quasi-experimental research
A _________________ is the use of methods and procedures to make observations in a study that is structured similar to an experiment, but the conditions and experience of participants lack some control because the study lacks random assignment, includes a preexisting factor (i.e., a variable that is not manipulated), or does not include a comparison/control group). A ______________ is any factor in which the levels of that factor are preexisting. These variables typically of interest to researchers are gender, health status, or political affiliation. When a factor is preexisting, participants CANNOT be ___________ to each level of that factor. One strength is that it allows researchers to study factors related to the unique characteristics of participants. One limitation is that researchers do not manipulate the characteristics of the participants and so cannot demonstrate cause and effect.
quasi-experimental research method; quasi-independent variable; randomly assigned
A ________ is selected based on known or unknown criteria or characteristic in the target population. For institutions in which little is known about the characteristics of a target population, researchers use ____________. Using this type of quota sampling, an equal number of subjects or participants are selected for a given characteristic or demographic. For situations in which certain characteristics are known in the population, researchers use ____________. Using this type of quota sampling, subjects or participants are selected such that the known characteristic or demographics are proportionately represented in the sample.
quota sample; simple quota sampling; proportionate quota sampling
The population that _______ is sampled from is the accessible population. The sample is NOT random BUT can be representative.
quota sampling
_________ requires selecting subgroups of participants whose demographics resemble those in the population
quota sampling
__________ is the use of methods for selecting individuals to participate in a study and assigning them to groups such that each individual has an equal chance of being selected to participate and assigned to a group.
randomization
An experiment includes three key elements of control that allow researchers to draw cause-and-effect conclusions: __________ (random sampling and random assignment); __________ (of variables that operate in an experiment); and ___________ (a control group).
randomization; manipulation; comparison/control
Three elements of control that allow researchers to draw cause-and-effect conclusions are ________, ________, and _________.
randomization; manipulation; comparison/control
The measure you choose for a construct or variable can sometimes limit your ability to observe that variable or construct. One limitation is ____________, which typically occurs when scores for a measure are clustered at one extreme. Scores can be clustered very high, called a __________, which can occur when a measure is too easy or obvious. This may occur if you give students five minutes to memorize only five items. Scores can also be clustered very low, called a __________, which typically occurs when a measure is too difficult or confusing.
range effect; ceiling effect; floor effect
A(n) _________ scale has identity, magnitude, equal intervals, AND an absolute zero. Zero is meaningful. Some examples include reaction time, calories, length, etc. (e.g., one car can be "twice as fast" as another).
ratio
The most informative scale of measurement is a _________, which is a measurement that has a true zero and is equidistant. It includes a value equal to 0 that indicates the absence of the phenomenon to be observed. Common examples of this type of scale include length, height, weight, and time. There are NO _________ for variables measured on this type of scale. The answers to the questions based on the three properties (order, differences, ratios) are all _______.
ratio scale; restrictions; YES
Deriving knowledge purely through thought (if this, then that) is __________.
rationalism (logic)
________ is a method of knowing that requires the use of reasoning and logic and is often used to understand human behavior. For example, if a spouse is unfaithful to a partner, the partner may reason that the spouse does not love him or her. The problem with this method is that the accuracy of assumptions being made can directly affect the value of our reasoning.
rationalism (logic)
_____________ (______________) is a point of CONTROL in which extreme scores are likely to be LESS extreme upon RE-TESTING. There are two ways in which this can affect research: (1) believing that an ____________ is needed when scores are very low ( or over-confidence in a manipulation when scores are very high) and (2) selecting subjects for ___________ testing based on their very high/low preliminary scores.
regression (towards the mean); intervention; further
The ____________ is the best-fitting straight line to a set of data points. A best-fitting line is the line that ____________ the distance that all data points fall from it.
regression line; minimizes
One threat to internal validity, called ____________, occurs when unusually high or low performance at one time shifts toward a level or score that is more typical or closer to the mean of an individual's true ability at a second time. You see this firsthand whenever you obtain a better score on a makeup exam after "bombing" the first exam.
regression toward the mean
A professor records scores for 10 students who took a midterm and a makeup midterm exam. She finds that scores improved on the makeup exam. Which two factors can likely threaten the internal validity of this result?
regression toward the mean AND testing effects
The question of "does" or "is" goes along with the _________ type of research question. Its goal is to determine the extent to which specified relationships exist between variables. These questions provide (1) causal explanations or (2) descriptions of the relationship between two or more variables. Examples might include "do low levels of serotonin in the brain cause depression?" ; "is personal income related to life satisfaction?"
relational
One important characteristic of a scale is __________. It means the consistency, dependability, and stability of a measure. When a test produces the same result every time it is used, it is very _________. _________ is sometimes only a matter of the number of _________ used in a measure.
reliability; reliable; reliability; decimal places
________ is the consistency, stability, or repeatability of one or more measures or observations. Three types of this are ________, ________, and _______.
reliability; test-retest reliability; internal consistency; interrater reliability
The FIX for history & maturation effects is to ___________ the study in order to receive the SAME outcome over multiple different attempts which makes it unlikely to be due to chance occurrences. ALSO, you should have __________ control groups--to determine if maturation effects are present, ___________ changes in performance over time WITHOUT intervention.
replicate; appropriate; observe
A ________ is one in which the characteristics of individuals or items in the sample resemble those in a target population of interest. This is used to _______ the results observed in a sample to those in the target population.
representative sample; generalize
You want your sample to be as _________ of the population as possible. ______ subjects = _______ representative. Also, avoid obtaining a _______ sample and beware of ___________ (people who do take part in a study may be different from people who choose not to take part) which can create a ______ sample automatically.
representative; more; more; biased; nonresponse bias; biased
A research study applies specific methods and procedures, called the __________, to answer a research question. The types of research questions you can ask are generally categorized as _________, ___________, or _________ questions.
research design; exploratory; descriptive; relational
The term subject, used to refer to nonhuman groups, is also used to identify the names of __________. When different participants or subjects are observed in each group, the research design is called a ____________; when the same participants or subjects are observed in each group, the research design is called a __________.
research designs; between-subjects design; within-subjects design
A _________, or ________ is a specific, testable claim or prediction about what you expect to observe given a set of circumstances.
research hypothesis; hypothesis
When administering a survey, it is important to obtain a high survey __________, which is the portion of participants who agree to complete a survey among all individuals who were asked to complete the survey. When this is LOW, the concern is that any results from the survey will be ___________ to those people who were actually willing to complete the survey.
response rate; limited
The most commonly used survey item in quantitative research, called a __________ or ___________, includes a restricted number of answer options. These are often given with a ___________(a numeric response scale used to indicate a participant's rating or level of agreement with a question or statement) for participants to respond. For example: I have nightmares: (Circle one) 1 = Never 2 = Sometimes 3 = Often
restricted item; closed-ended item; Likert scale
_____________ is a problem that arises when the range of data for one or both correlated factors in a sample is limited or restricted, compared to the range of data in the population from which the sample was selected.
restriction of range
Because different ranges of data within the same population can show very different patterns, NEVER describe/interpret a correlation beyond the range of data observed in a sample to avoid the problem of _______________.
restriction of range.
___________ is a problem that arises when the direction of causality between two factors can be in either direction. This occurs when the direction of causality for two factors, A and B, cannot be determined. Hence, changes in Factor A could cause changes in Factor B, or changes in Factor B could cause changes in Factor A. For example, decreases in how people feel (mood) can cause an increase in the amount they eat (eating)--this possibility cannot be ruled out.
reverse causality
When determining how many subjects to test, you can use the ___________, in which you plan on having ~30 subjects per group. For population surveys, the _____ of the group is related to the ______ (precision) of the results. The _____ the sample, the more precise the results (~30%). You know for sure if you have enough subjects when ________ more doesn't change results.
rule of 30; size; accuracy; larger; adding
When we pull samples that are not representative of the population, our results will not generalize, and this is known as a ___________. If we want to generalize the results from a sample to a population, this is a major concern (e.g., does sexism exist in the U.S.A?)
sampling bias
A ________, or ______, is a bias in sampling in which the sampling procedures employed in a study favor certain individuals or groups over others, thus results in a sample that is not representative.
sampling bias; selection bias
In order to know if there is a ________, you should grab multiple samples and see if the _________ of each sample are the same or not.
sampling error; means
The _______ is the extent to which sample means selected from the same population differ from one another. This difference, which occurs by chance, is measured by the standard error of the mean. The __________ is the standard deviation of a sampling distribution of simple means. It is the standard error or distance that sample mean values can deviate from the value of the population mean. (refer to pp. 140-142 for SPSS directions)
sampling error; standard error of the mean
_________ is a strategy used with simple random sampling in which each individual selected is replaced before the next selection to ensure that the probability of selecting each individual is always the same. ___________ is a nonrandom sampling strategy most often used by behavioral researchers in which each individual selected is not replaced before the next selection.
sampling with replacement; sampling without replacement
A _______ determines which statistical test to use (higher _______ = more powerful test).
scale; scale
The data that researchers measure can be measured on one of four ____________, which are rules for how the properties of numbers can change with different uses. In the early 1940s, Harvard psychologist S.S. Stevens coined the terms ______, ______, ______, and _________ to classify these rules.
scales of measurement; nominal; ordinal; interval; ratio
A ____________ is a geographical display of discrete data points (x,y) used to summarize the relationship between two factors.
scatterplot
________ is the acquisition of knowledge through observation, evaluation, interpretation, and theoretical explanation.
science
_________ is one way of knowing about the world. From a broad view, it is any systematic method of acquiring knowledge apart from ________. From a stricter view, it is specifically the acquisition of knowledge using the _________, also called the _________.
science; ignorance; scientific method; research method
The _______, or_________, is a set of systematic techniques used to acquire, modify, and integrate knowledge concerning observable and measurable phenomena.
scientific method; research method
When you select data from existing records, be cautious of _________, which is the process by which existing records are selectively recorded or deposited into document files that can be accessed for analysis. Also, be cautious of _______ which is the process by which existing records survive or are excluded/decay over time. These cautions can limit the generalizability of your results.
selective deposit; selective survival
The measure you choose for a construct or variable can sometimes limit your ability to observe that variable or construct. One limitation is the ____________, which is the extent to which a measure can change in the presence of manipulation. For example, suppose we measure fullness (the construct) in participants who are lean and obese as the amount consumed (in grams) in a meal and the calories consumed in a meal. Calories consumed in a meal can change or be different between the lean and obese groups, and is therefore a _____________.
sensitivity of a measure; sensitivity of a measure
Suppose a given population is unknown, and an equal number of men and women are selected from the accessible population for a brain imaging study. Would this be simple quota sampling or proportionate quota sampling?
simple quota sampling, because the demographics in the population are UNKNOWN
When demographics in a population are unknown or the same, _______ is used; ______ is used when specific demographic information is known in a target population.
simple quota sampling; proportionate quota sampling
The population that _________ is sampled from is the target population. The sample IS random but NOT always representative.
simple random sampling
__________ is a method of sampling subjects and participants such that all individuals in a population have an equal chance of being selected and are selected using sampling with replacement.
simple random sampling
A probability sampling technique in which each subject has equal chance of being selected, is called __________ sampling. For example, there are 100 people in the room and we want a sample of 10. We could then assign everyone a number, and draw numbers from a hat. Chances of being selected should be 10/100 (1 in 10). BUT, the odds depend on how the sample is drawn: _____________, in which everyone has 1/10 chance (but may be selected twice), or __________, in which person 1 has 1/100 (1.0%) but person 2 has 1/99 chance...person 10 has a 1/91 (1.1%) chance of being picked.
simple random; with replacement; without replacement
When subgroups contain similar numbers of persons in the population, such as equal numbers of the subgroups freshman and sophomores in the population of college students, then _________ is used. ___________ is used when subgroups are not equal, such as 30% freshman and 20% sophomores.
simple stratified random sampling; proportionate stratified random sampling
When writing survey items: (1) use ________ words or language; (2) avoid ___________, which are survey items that ask participants for one response to two different questions or statements (e.g., "I enjoy the time we spend together and dislike the time we are apart); (3) use appropriate and ________ language; (4) minimize the use of _______ wording because it can confuse respondents; (5) avoid the _________ (tendency for participants to respond the same way to all items in a survey when the direction of ratings is the same for all items in the survey) pitfall; (6) do not include _________ response patterns; (7) avoid using a ________ item, which is phrased in the semantically opposite direction of most other items in a survey and requires responses to be coded in the reverse order; (8) use rating scales _____________; (9) Limit the __________ on a rating scale (e.g. keep the scale between 3 and 10 points); (10) _______ or ________ the rating scale end points; and (11) minimize survey ____________.
simple; double-barreled items; unbiased; negative; response set; predictable; reverse coded; consistently; points; label; anchor; length
While some will try to say the term "subject" only refers to animals and "participants" only refer to humans, the terms can be used _________ in order to avoid _________ .
simultaneously; redundancy
Experimental research designs can involve single-case designs, within-subjects designs, between-subjects designs, and factorial designs. ________ designs include ABA reversal designs, multiple baseline designs, and changing-criterion designs. _______ designs include between-subjects designs, within-subjects designs, and mixed designs.
single-case; factorial
___________ variables describe characteristics of a situation or environment. __________ variables are types of responses that individuals might make. ________ variables are qualities that make subjects different.
situational (environmental); response (task); subject (individual) difference
A nonprobability sampling technique used for populations that are difficult to find or access is called ________, or ______, or _______ sampling. Researchers would find one member then ask them to ask others, etc. (e.g., desire to study health of prostitutes or hitmen). You find one, then they send the next one (or some) your way and this one will find another for you, etc. This can happen by accident when payments are used.
snowball; chain; network
_________ is the likelihood of detecting an effect in a population, assuming that the effect does exist in the population of interest.
statistical power
A meta-analysis increases ____________ but is prone to ___________.
statistical power; publication bias
Archival research measures potential relationships (often _________ in nature) based on __________ data.
statistical; existing
Face validity does not involve the use of __________. To obtain face validity, we get a general _______ among our peers that the measure we are using for a variable _______ to be valid.
statistics; consensus; appears
A probability sampling technique that is similar to quota sampling, but the population is split into sub-populations which are sampled separately, is called ___________ sampling.
stratified random
The population that _________ is sampled from is the target population. The sample IS random AND representative, particularly for proportionate stratified sampling.
stratified random sampling
___________ is a method of sampling in which a population is divided into subgroups or strata; participants are then selected from each subgroup using simple random sampling, and combined into one overall sample. This method can include selecting an equal number of participants in each subgroup, called __________, or selecting a different proportion of participants in each subgroup, called ___________. Overall, ________ ensures that certain characteristics, subgroups, or strata in a population are represented in a sample.
stratified random sampling; simple stratified random sampling; proportionate stratified random sampling
The _______ of a correlation reflects how consistently values for each factor change.
strength
The closer a set of data points falls to a regression line, the __________ the correlation or relationship between two factors.
stronger
Science is NOT defined by ________ (formulas, chemicals, certain mathematical methods, etc.) or the use of __________. Science IS ____________: data better than appeals to logic/authority. Science IS also publicly _________ knowledge (i.e., replication and peer review; but beware of the "secret scientists"). Also, science IS empirically ______/_______ problems (i.e., only addresses questions that can be answered using the ___________).
subject matter; physical apparatus; systematic empiricism; verifiable; solvable; testable; scientific method
Your data will likely be a ________ of a population; so it might look different from the population data. The theoretical difference between your data and the population data = "_________."
subset; sampling error
____________ is the nonexperimental research design used to describe, quantify, or characterize an individual or a group by having participants complete a written/oral survey or questionnaire.
survey research design
A _________, is a series of questions or statements used in a questionnaire or an interview to measure the self-reports or responses of respondents. This is sometimes called a ________ and the questions or statements are often called _________.
survey; scale; items
The population that _________ is sampled from is the target population. The sample IS systematic (NOT random) and NOT always representative.
systematic sampling
____________is a method of sampling in which the first participant is selected using simple random sampling, and then every nth person is systematically selected until all participants have been selected.
systematic sampling
The __________ is all members of a group of interest to a researcher (e.g., prospective U.S. students), whereas the _________, also called the ___________, is the portion of the _________ that can be clearly identified and directly sampled from (e.g., we could identify prospective U.S. students at one or more local high schools and select a sample from that portion).
target population; accessible population; sampling frame
A researcher conditions animal subjects to swim to a platform located at a fixed point. Subjects show strong conditioning for weeks after the conditioning. The study has high ________, which is a subcategory of external validity.
temporal validity
The extent to which observations are stable over time is ____________. For example, people can change their minds when they have time to think about their answers. Always consider the possibility that this could be a factor and acknowledge if it seems likely. "As true then as it is today."
temporal validity
A subcategory of external validity, called _________, is the extent to which results observed in a study will generalize across time and at different points in time. Threats to this subcategory of external validity include ___________. For example, college students may change their mind about their choice of an academic major, or they may forget key information tested on an exam only to recall information moments later.This type of validity is the extent to which results observed in a study are ________ over time and at ______ points in time.
temporal validity; timing of measurements; stable; different
_______ is the process of acquiring & maintaining a belief despite contrary or no supporting evidence (superstitions such as "don't go swimming for 30 minutes after eating").
tenacity
___________ is a method of knowing based largely on habit or superstition. It is always "known" to be true, because of stubbornness. The problem with this method is that it is not ________, so is difficult to change and is often _______.
tenacity; objective; inaccurate
On the Driving and Riding Avoidance Scale (DRAS), participants rate their avoidance of each item in the past week on a 4-point scale from 0 (avoid rarely or none of the time) to 3 (avoid most or all of the time). Total scores range from 0 to 60, with higher scores indicating greater avoidance. In the Taylor and Sullman (2009) study, 219 participants completed the DRAS during class and again two months later through the mail. The results showed that many items in the DRAS were stable or consistent at both times. This study demonstrates __________ reliability.
test-retest
One type of reliability is the extent to which measurements or observations are consistent across time, called ___________. This type of reliability is shown when a measure or observation demonstrated at "Time 1" is again demonstrated using the same measure or observation procedure at "Time 2." When a measure is consistent over time it is called a ________ measure. To demonstrate this type of reliability, we can give participants the same measure at two times. The more ________ each participant's score from Time 1 to Time 2, the higher the _________. The key advantage of this type of reliability is that you can determine the extent to which items or measures are _________ or ________ over time.
test-retest reliability; stable; consistent; test-retest reliability; replicable; consistent
One threat to internal validity, called __________, is the improved performance on a test or measure the second time it is taken due to the experience of taking the test. This type of threat only involves IMPROVEMENT, not a decrease in performance.
testing effect
A point of CONTROL called _____________ are improvements on a measure that could be due to practice familiarity WITH that measure (test). This can ONLY occur when the SAME test/measure is used more than once.
testing effects
What is the characteristic of a factor that threatens the external validity of a research study?
the factor must be held constant across conditions in a study
A researcher operationally defines nervousness as the time (in seconds) that a participant paces around a hospital waiting room. To demonstrate construct validity, the researcher must show that:
the time spent pacing (the operational definition) is actually measuring nervousness (the construct)
Although low response rates can limit the population validity of results from a survey, researchers are not always interested in generalizing results to a population. To establish some external validity, researchers often use survey results to instead generalize to a theory, called _____________ (the extent to which results in a survey or another research study are consistent with predictions made by an EXISTING THEORY) or generalize to other observations, called ________________ (the extent to which results in a survey or another research study are consistent with data obtained in PREVIOUS research studies).
theoretical generalization; empirical generalization
If recording devices are not ethical, researchers can manage the observation period by using (1) _____________ (splitting a fixed period of time into smaller intervals of time, then making observations during alternating intervals until the full observation period has ended), (2) ______________ (splitting a fixed period of time into smaller intervals of time, then recording a different behavior in each time interval), or (3) ______________ (splitting a fixed period of time into smaller intervals of time, then recording the behavior of a different participant in each time interval)
time sampling; event sampling; individual sampling
Additional methods for quantifying behaviors include the _________ method (the SHAPE or STYLE of behavior is recorded), the ________ method (the INTENSITY of a behavior is recorded), and the ___________ method (the LOCATION of a behavior is recorded).
topography; force; locus
Any measure consists of a ________ and a possible _____ that causes variability in that measure: ____________ = _______ + _________.
true score; error; behavioral measure; true score; error
Responses (data) are made up of two components: _________, which is a measure of actual performance for that test, and ______, which are variables that affect performance but are unrelated to the test (individual differences, mood, etc.). BOTH ______ and ______ are combined in test-scores and there is no way to actually ________ them.
true score; errors; true scores; errors; separate
Responses are made of 2 components: _________ (what we are CERTAIN of) and _________ (what we are UNCERTAIN of). BOTH are combined in test-scores and there is NO way to separate them. In other words, a reaction time of 456ms means some of that time is ________ while the rest is the effect of the ____________.
true score; measurement error; you; independent variable
The second defining principle of an interval scale, one scale of measurement, is NOT having a _______, which is when the value 0 truly indicates nothing on a scale of measurement. Values on a rating scale have no _________. For example, 1 may be used to indicate no satisfaction, not ______. Each value, including _____, is arbitrary. That is, we could use any number to represent _____ of something.
true zero; true zero; 0; 0; none
As an alternative to using validity and reliability, qualitative researchers instead use four criteria of ______________, which are the __________ (parallels internal validity and observes truthfulness), __________, (parallels external validity and observes applicability) __________ (parallels reliability and observes consistency, and _________ (parallels objectivity and observes neutrality) of a qualitative analysis.
trustworthiness; credibility; transferability; dependability; confirmability
Statistical tests provide us with an estimate of ________ and ________ (we usually want more _____ than _____). In order to REDUCE measurement error/uncertainty, we must have _________ (this is the most prominent principle in research).
truth; error; truth; error; control
The goal of our research should be to determine "_________" (if we maximize _______, then we minimize ________). This is what we mean by "validity" (e.g. _________ validity is the degree to which our research really does what we say it's doing). This is improved by exerting __________, BUT, increases in ________ tend to decrease real-world generalization (ecological validity) e.g. shopping behavior in a lab vs. in real-life. In other words, it could affect __________ validity, or the degree to which our results might be obtained using a different population or setting or other constraint (e.g. does color of the classroom affect algebra performance?).
truth; truth; error; internal; control; control; external
There is no _______ "best" or "worst" research design. The design you should use is determined by the research _________ you ask.
universally; question
An ____________ is a technique used by an observer to record or observe behavior in a way that does not interfere with or change a participant's behavior in a research setting.
unobtrusive observation
One important characteristic of a scale is _________, which is the degree to which you are REALLY doing what you intended to do. _________ is a certain form of ________ that is purely a judgement call: does it ________ to be doing/measuring what it should? __________ is another form of ________ that
validity; face validity; validity; seem; internal validity; validity
The ________ of a measurement is the extent to which a measurement for a variable or construct measures what it is intended to measure. A _______ variable is one that is correctly or accurately observed. The four types are _______, _______, _______, and ________.
validity; valid; face validity; construct validity; criterion-related validity; content validity
A ________ is a general class or category of objects, situations, or events in which specific members vary along some measurable or observable dimension.
variable
Data (or the world) seems to ______ unpredictably or we perceive no underlying pattern. Identifying a "relationship" means that we have reduced some ________ about the world. We now know that some of the ________ we see is not really ____, but follows a pattern. It may not be possible to eliminate ALL ________ (in mathematics, this idea forms "________"). Consider a simple reaction time experiment: does color affect how fast we can press a button? The reaction times can be _________.
vary; uncertainty; variability; random; uncertainty; chaos theory; different
A ________ correlation (r = 0) means that there is no linear pattern or relationship between two factors. This is RARE because usually by mere chance at least some values of one factor, X, will show some pattern or relationship with values of a second factor, Y. The closer a correlation coefficient is to r = 0, the _________ the correlation and the LESS likely the two factors are related. The closer the correlation coefficient is to r = +/- 1.0, the ___________ the correlation and the MORE likely the two factors are related.
zero; weaker; stronger
The six general steps of the scientific method, in order from first to last, are:
•identify the problem •develop a research plan •conduct the study •analyze and evaluate the data •communicate the results •generate more new ideas
