Methods of Social Reasearch Exam 4 Study Guide
What is the difference between the method of agreement and the method of difference? Can a researcher use both together? Explain why or why not.
- Method of Agreement - method of qualitative data analysis that compares characteristics that are similar across cases that share a significant outcome -Method of Difference- method of qualitative data analysis that compares characteristics among cases in which some share a significant outcome but others don't; focuses on the differences among cases The method of difference can be used alone or in conjunction with the method of agreement. The method of difference is usually stronger and is then a "double application" of the method of agreement.
What is event-structure analysis? How can event-structure analysis help a researcher draw out the causal relationships of a historical event or setting?
-Event Structure Analysis-Qualitative data analysis often conducted with computer software that forces a researcher to specify the links among a sequence of many events -It clarifies causal relationships by asking whether one event logically had to follow another or just happened to follow it
Discuss path dependency and historical contingency. Give an example of each. How might they be combined in a narrative analysis?
-Path Contingency- an analytic idea used in narrative analysis to explain a process or chain of events as having a beginning that triggers a structured sequence so that the chain of events follows an identifiable trajectory over time (ex: ) -Historical Contingency- an analytic idea in narrative analysis that explains a process, event, or situation by referring to the specific combination of factors that come together in a particular time and place (ex: )
Discuss the similarities and differences between case-study comparative, cultural-context, cross-national research and transnational research
1) Case study comparative- researcher compares 1 or 2 particular cultures for cultural units such as regions in depth 2) Cultural context- focused on comparing a small number of societies or cultures that represents theoretical types to permit generalizations to other societies of those same types 3) Cross national research- examines data (usually quantitative) for several variables across many nations and analyzes the data 4) Transnational research- examines and compares multinational units
Just as there are problems when using primary sources, secondary sources are not immune from criticism. What are the limitations of using secondary historical sources?
1) Implicit Theories 2) Selective Evidence 3) Narrative Writing 4) Schools of Historiography
What are the major features of a narrative?
1) It tells a story or tale 2) It has a sense of movement or process 3) It contains interrelations or connections within a complex, detailed context 4) It involves individuals or groups that engage in action and make choices 5) It has coherence, that is, the whole holds together 6) It has a temporal sequencing of a chain of events
What are the different types or levels of field notes, and what purpose does each serve?
1) Jotted Notes- written while in the field, shorts memory triggers (words phrases or drawings), later you incorporate them into your direct observation notes 2) Direct Observation Notes- written immediately after the field, notes are ordered chronologically with date, time,and place on each entry, detailed description of what you heard and saw in very concrete and specific terms, exact recording of the particular words, phrases or actions 3) Inference Notes- meaning of actions isnt always self evident, record what you know has happened and what you think has happened, listen to members in order to "climb into their skin", look and listen without inferring or imposing interpretation 4)Analytic Memos- collections of your thoughts, systematic digressions into theory and a record of your decisions, keep record of plans, tactics, ethical and procedural decisions and self critiques of tactics 5) Personal Notes- personal feelings and emotions become part of the data, provide a way to cope with stress, personal reactions (being in a good mood might color what you observed) 6) Interview Notes- record questions and answers and create fact sheet, this is a page at the beginning of the notes with information such as the date, place of interview characteristics of interviewee, content of the interview 7) Maps, diagnosis and artifacts- Helps organize events in the field and helps convey a field site to others, you can use them to trigger a memory, illustrate a theme or symbolize some activity or event 8) Machine recorded data- Photos tape recorders, and videotapes can be helpful supplements in field research, they provide close approximation to what occurred and a permanent record that others can review
Equivalence is a critical issue in all social research. What is equivalence and why is it an important issue in social research? List and describe the four types of equivalence discussed in the text.
1) Lexicon equivalence: do the same words or phrases exist across the cultures of interest? 2) Contextual equivalence: does context in each cultural setting affect the substantive meaning of what we study? Is there a similarity of social roles, norms or situations across different cultures or time periods? 3) Conceptual equivalence: Do the same concepts or ways of understanding social relations, situations, or events exist across the cultures being studied? 4) Measurement equivalence: Can we measure the same phenomena in the same way across different cultures? Or are different measures necessary in different contexts for the same concept?
Loosely speaking, what are the six steps in conducting field research?
1) Prepare to enter the field 2)Choose site/gain access 3)Apply strategies 4)Maintaining relations in the field 5) Gather and record data 6) Exit field site
What is the attitude of strangeness? Why do we adopt it in field research?
Attitude of Strangeness- field technique in which researchers mentally adjust to see events in the field as if for the first time or as an outsider - It helps you to overcome the boredom of observing ordinary details, and it helps reveal aspects of the setting of which members aren't consciously aware
In historical-comparative research, evidence is collected from a variety of sources that lead to different types of evidence. Distinguish a critical indicator from supporting evidence and non-source based knowledge.
A critical indicator is unambiguous evidence, which is usually sufficient for inferring a specific theoretical relationship. We seek these indicators for key parts of an explanatory model. They critically confirm a theoretical inference and occur when many details suggest a clear interpretation. Example---> a critical indicator of the rising political power of a social group is the formation of formal organizations that have a large membership identified with it and advocate its position. Supporting evidence, in contrast, suggests indicators that are less central parts of a model. It builds the overall background or context. Such evidence is usually less abundant or weaker and lacks a clear and unambiguous theoretical interpretation. In addition to primary and secondary sources, we could also use nonsource-based knowledge. This is knowledge available to us about the past that does not originate in a specific primary document or secondary source. This can come from logical reasoning. Example ----> persons A and B are married couples in a monogamous society that values sexual fidelity. When person B has an extramarital affair, A is likely to become jealous. In addition, it also includes knowledge of what is studied. For example, we study France in the late 1920s. Current knowledge could also help us understand past events. (pp, 478- 486 of chapter emailed by Prof. Hinkson) In general, a critical indicator is the operationalization of what we try to discuss. Supporting evidence would be documented of what is called the cause of something. Non-source looks at how people/ groups react/ reacted to a document. limitation ----> Internal and external criticism. Also primary and secondary sources (coming from historians---> look at the limitations)
Discuss three ethical concerns a field researcher must consider.
Covert research: Covert field research involves the broader issue of deception both in fully secret or covert research and when the researcher assumes a false role, name or identity or lies to members in some way. Some in the research community support covert research/deception, and see it as necessary to enter into and gain full knowledge of some areas of social life. Others oppose it because it undermines trust. Confidentiality: A researcher may learn intimate knowledge revealed in confidence and have a strong moral obligation to uphold the confidentiality of data. One cannot directly quote a person in their research report, but can find documentary evidence that says the same thing. A problem arises when a researcher and a member of the group they are studying form a close relationship, like what can happen in ethnography, where the researcher receives voluntary private information, one cannot directly use in their report without violating confidentiality. Involvement with illegal behavior: Researchers who conduct field research on people who engage in illegal, immoral behavior know of and are sometimes involved in illegal activity. The researcher faces a dilemma of building trust with the members, yet not becoming so involved as to violate his or her basic personal moral standards.
How does a researcher code qualitative data? What are the three kinds of coding used by a qualitative researcher?
In qualitative research you organize the raw data into conceptual categories and create themes or concepts 1) Open Coding 2)Axial Coding 3)Selective Coding
When using primary sources in historical-comparative research, the quality of the source is always in question. What is the difference between internal and external criticism? What is the purpose of each?
Internal Criticism-Evaluation of the authenticity and credibility of primary historical sources to determine their accuracy as accounts of what occurred in the past External Criticism- Evaluation of the authenticity of a primary historical source by accurately locating the place and time of its creation (determination of whether it is a forgery)
Identify four differences between quantitative and qualitative data analysis. How is the process of conceptualization different between them?
Quantitative - Standardized -Analysis follows data collection - Generally deductive -Use of statistical analysis Qualitative - Less standardized -Analysis as data is collected - Generally inductive - Use of nonstatistical analysis Conceptualize - Grounded data - Categories based on themes - Ideas and evidence interdependent
How do interviews in field research differ from quantitative interviews?
Quantitative/Survey interviews have the following: 1) it has a clear beginning and end 2) the same standard questions are asked of all respondents in the same sequence 3) the interviewer appears neutral at all times 4) the interviewer asks questions, and the respondent answers 5) it is almost always with one respondent alone 6) it has a professional tone and businesslike focus; diversions are ignored 7) closed-ended questions are common, with rare probes 8) the interviewer alone controls the pace and direction of the interview 9)the social context in which the interview occurs is ignored and assumed to make little difference 10) the interviewer attempts to mold the communication pattern into a standard framework Field research interviews, on the other hand: 1) the beginning and end are not clear. The interview can be picked up later 2) the questions and the order in which they are asked are tailored to specific people and situations 3) the interviewer shows interest in responses, encouraging collaboration 4) it is like a friendly conversational exchange, but with more interviewer questions 5) it can occur in group setting or with others in area, but varies 6) it is interspersed with jokes, asides, stories, diversions, and anecdotes, which are recorded 7) open-ended questions are common and probes are frequent 8) the interviewer and member jointly control the pace and direction of the interview 9) the social context of the interview is noted and seen as important for interpreting the meaning of responses 10) the interviewer adjusts to the member's norms and language usage
Why is it important for a field researcher to read the literature before beginning field work? Does this contradict the idea of defocusing?
Reading the literature helps field researchers learn concepts, potential pitfalls, data collection methods, and techniques for resolving conflicts. Defocusing is defined as a technique early in field research when the researcher remove his or her past assumptions and preconceptions to become more open to events in field sites. Even though this can create a bias from the literature, it can also reveal stereotyping of previous knowledge.
Replication is nearly impossible when conducting field research. How does a field researcher make sure that his or her findings are reliable and valid?
Reliability: Internal consistency- A measurement is said to be reliable or consistent if the measurement can produce similar results if used again in similar circumstances. There are two types of reliability - internal and external reliability. Internal reliability refers to the extent to which a measure is consistent within itself. They assume the role of someone in the field to prevent lies and fronting, if they act natural they gain the trust of others and can receive reliable data. Validity: •Ecological validity - degree to which the social world you describe matches the members' world. Would events you describe have occurred without your presence? •Natural history - a detailed description of how you conducted the project. A study is valid in terms of natural history if outsiders see and accept the field site and your actions. •Member validation - occurs when you take field results back to members and they judge the adequacy of the results. A study is "member valid" if many members recognize and understand your description as reflecting their intimate social world. •Competent insider performance - the ability of a nonmember to interact effectively as a member or pass as one. A valid study gives enough of a flavor of the social life in a field and sufficient detail such that an outsider can act as a member.
How is historical-comparative research similar and/or different than field research? Identify the unique features of historical-comparative research.
Similar - Point of view of researcher is important - Examine diversity of data - Use of grounded theory -Translate a meaning system -Focus on action, process, sequence of time -Generalization and theory is limited Unique Features of Historical Research - Reconstructs from fragments and incomplete evidence - Compares whole cases and links the micro to macro levels or layers of social reality - Includes the consciousness of people in a context and uses their motives as causal factors
When choosing a topic for field research, personal characteristics can limit our access to social groups. What are some of the relevant factors a researcher considers when choosing a field research topic? How does the level of involvement play a role in this decision?
Three factors are relevant when you choose a field research site: richness of data, unfamiliarity, and suitability. Some sites are more than likely than others to provide rich data. Sites that present a web of social relations, a variety of activities, and diverse events over time provide richer, more interesting data.