MGMT Chapter 11

Four widely accepted situational theories of leadership:

-the least preferred coworker theory (LPC) -the path-goal theory -Vroom's decision tree approach -the leader-member exchange (LMX) approach

Personal characteristics

-the perception of their own abilities and locus of control.

Managerial grid:

Another behavioral approach to leadership is the Managerial grid. -provides a means for evaluating leadership styles and then training managers to move toward an ideal style of behavior.

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Impoverished Management: exertion of minimum effort to get required work done is appropriate to sustain organizational membership

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Middle of the road management: adequate organization performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get out work with maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level.

Ohio State Studies:

The extensive questionnaire surveys conducted during the Ohio State Studies also suggested that there are two basic leader behaviors or styles: initiating structure behavior and consideration behavior.

Employee centered behavior:

interested in developing a cohesive work group and ensuring that employees are satisfied with their jobs. Their primary concern is the welfare of subordinates. **Generally more effective.

LPC Measure:

A controversial questionnaire. To use the measure, a manage or leader is asked to describe the specific person with whom he or she is able to work least well-the LPC- by filling in a set of 16 scales anchored at each end by a positive or negative adjective. -higher numbers are associated with positive qualities, whereas negative qualities have low point values. **the most and least favorable situations call for task oriented leadership, whereas moderately favorable situations suggest the need for relationship oriented leadership.

Expert Power: derived from information or expertise.

A manager who knows how to interact with an eccentric but important customer, a scientist whois capable of achieving an important technical breakthrough that no other company has dreamed of, and a secretary who knows how to unravel bureaucratic red ape all have expert power over anyone who needs hat information. The more important the information and the fewer the people who have access to it, the greater is the degree of expert power possessed by any one individual. People who are both leaders and managers tend to have a lot of expert power.

Evaluation and Implications:

Because Vroom's current approach is relatively new, it has not been fully scientifically tested. The original model and its subsequent refinement, however attracted a great deal of attention and were generally supported by research. -appears to be a tool that managers can apply with some confidence in deciding how much subordinates should participate in the decision making process.

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Country Club Management: Thoughtful attention to the needs of people for satisfying relationships leads to a comfortable, friendly organization atmosphere and work tempo.

Transformational leadership:

Leadership that goes beyond ordinary expectations by transmitting a sense of mission, stimulating learning experiences, and inspiring new ways of thinking.

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Team Management: work accomplishment is from committed people; interdependence through a "common stake: in organizational purpose leads to relationships of trust and respect.

Strategic leadership:

The capability to understand the complexities of both the organization and it environment and to lead change in the organization to achieve and maintain a superior alignment between organization and its environment.

Leader behavior:

The most fully developed version of path-goal theory identifies four kinds of leader behavior. -directive leader behavior: lets subordinates know what is expected of them, gives guidance and direction, and schedules work. -supportive leader behavior: being friendly and approachable, showing concern for subordinate welfare and treating members as equals. -participative leader behavior: includes consulting with subordinates, soliciting suggestions, and allowing participation in decision making. -Achievement-oriented leader behavior: means setting challenging goals, expecting subordinates to perform at high levels, encouraging subordinates, and showing confidence in subordinate's abilities.

Favorableness of the situation:

The underlying assumption of situational models of leadership is that appropriate leader behavior varies from one situation to another. The key factor is the favorableness of the situation from the leader's point of view. This factor is determined by leader-member relations, task structure, and position power.

Concern for people:

The vertical axis of the managerial grid. -similar to employee centered and consideration behaviors.

Leadership and power:

To fully understand leadership, it is necessary to understand power. Management and leadership are related, but not distinct, constructs. Managers and leaders differ in how they create an agenda, develop rationale for achieving the agenda, and execute plans, and in the types of outcomes they achieve.

Impression Management:

a direct and intentional effort by someone to enhance his or her image in the eyes of others. used to: -further your career -receive rewards/promotions -acquire more power and control.

Path goal theory:

associated most closely with Martin Evans and Robert House. A direct extension of the expectancy theory of motivation. Likelihood of of attaining various outcomes and the value associated with those outcomes. Path goal theory suggests that the primary function of a leader is to make valued or desired rewards available in the workplace and to clarify fir the subordinate the kinds of behavior that will lead to goal accomplishment and valued rewards. **assumes leaders can change their style or behavior to meet the demands of a particular situation. ***dynamic and incomplete model.

Charismatic Leadership:

assume charisma is an individual characteristic of the leader. A form of interpersonal attraction that inspires support and acceptance. All else being equal, then, someone with charisma is more likely to be able to influence others.

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authority-compliance: efficiency in operations results from arranging conditions of work in such a way that human elements interfere to a minimum degree.

Leadership:

both a process and a property. As a process -- focusing on what leaders actually do-- leadership is the use of noncoervice influence to shape the group's or organization's goals, motivate behavior toward the achievement of those goals, and help define group or organizational culture. As property, leadership is the set of characteristics attributed to individuals who are perceived to be leaders. Thus, leaders are (1) people who can influence the behaviors of others without having to rely on force, or (2) people whom others accept as leaders.

Referent Power:

compared to legitimate, reward and coercive power, which are relatively concrete and grounded in objective facets or organizational life, referent power is abstract. It is baed on identification, imitation, loyalty, or charisma. Followers may react favorably because they identify in some way with a leader, who may be like them in personality, background, or attitudes. Ex. wearing the same kinds of clothes, working the same hours, espousing the same management philosophy. A manager might have referent power, but it is more likely to be associated with leadership.

The Lmx Approach:

conceived by George Graen and Fred Dansereau, stresses the importance of variable relationships between supervisors and each of their subordinates. Each superior-subordinate pair is referred to as a vertical dyad. The model differs from earlier approaches in that it focuses on differential relationship that leaders often establish with different subordinates. In group vs. out group. -suggests that supervisors establish a special relationship with a small number of trusted subordinates, referred to as the in group. The in group usually receives special duties requiring responsibility and autonomy. They may also receive special privileges. -subordinates who are not part of the in group are part of the out group. and they receive less of the supervisor's time and attention.

Leadership Qualities:

creating an agenda: Establishing direction. Developing a human network for achieving the agenda: Aligning people Executing plans: motivating and inspiring outcomes: produces change, often to a dramatic degree, and has the potential to produce extremely useful change (new products that customers want)

Management qualities:

creating an agenda: planning and budgeting.. Developing a human network for achieving the agenda: organizing and staffing Executing plans: controlling and problem solving Outcomes: Produces a degree of predictability and order and has the potential to produce consistently major results expected by various stakeholders.

Decision making styles:

decide: the manager makes the decision alone and then announces or sells it to the group. Consult (individually): the manager presents the program to group members individually, obtains their suggestions, and then makes the decision. Consult (group): The manager presents the problem to group members at a meeting, gets their suggestions, and then makes the decision. Facilitate: the manager presents the problem to the group at a meeting, defines the problem and its boundaries, and then facilitates group member discussion as they make the decision. Delegate: The manager allows the group to define for itself the exact nature and parameters of the problem and then to develop a solution.

political behavior:

describes activities carried out for the specific purpose of acquiring, developign, and using power and other resources to obtain one's preferred outcomes. May be undertaken by managers dealing with their subordinates, subordinates dealing with their managers, and managers and subordinates dealing with others at the same level. -inducement: when a manager offers to give something to someone in return for their support. -persuasion: relies on both emotion and logic. -creation of an obligation: by going along, you are incurring a debt and will be able to call in that debt when you need it. -Coercion: the use of force to get one's way.

Substitutes for leadership:

developed because existing models for leadership do not account for situations in which leadership is not needed. Ex. when a patient is delivered to a hospital emergency room, the professionals on duty do not wait to be told what to do by a leader. -characteristics of the subordinate that may serve to neutralize leader behavior include ability, experience, need for independence, professional orientation, and indifference toward organizational rewards. Ex. employees with high abilities do not need to be told what to do. An employee's strong independence may render leadership ineffective. Task characteristics that may substitute for leadership include: routineness, the availability of feedback, and intrinsic satisfaction. Organizational Characteristics that substitute for leadership include: formalization, group cohesion, inflexibility, and a rigid reward structure. Leadership may not be necessary when policies and practices are formal and inflexible, for example,

LPC Theory:

developed by Fred Fiedler, the first truly situational theory of leadership. Beginning with a combined trait and behavioral approach, Fiedler identified two styles of leadership: task oriented (analogous to job-centered and initiating structure behaviors) and relationship oriented (similar to employee-centered and consideration behaviors). He went beyond the earlier behavioral approaches by arguing that the style of behavior is a reflection of the leader's personality and that most personalities fall into one of his two categories-task oriented or relationship oriented by nature.

Leadership and Flexibility:

leader style is essentially fixed and cannot be changed. When a leader's style and the situation do not match, Fiedler argued that the situation should be changed to fit the leader's style.

Leadership behaviors:

new hypothesis was that effective leaders somehow behaved differently from less effective leaders. Thus, the goal was to develop a fuller understanding of leadership behaviors.

job centered behavior:

pay close attention to subordinate's work, explain work procedures, and are keenly interested in performance.

Leadership traits:

personal, psychological and physical. assumes that some basic trait or set of traits existed that differentiated leaders from non-leaders. If those traits could be defined, potential leaders could be identified. might include: -intelligence -assertiveness -above-average height -good vocabulary -attractiveness -self-confidence -similar attributes.

Leader-member relations

refer to the nature of the relationship between the leader and the work group. If the leader and the group have a high degree of mutual trust, respect, and confidence, and if they like one another, relations are assumed to be good. If there is little of ^^^, then relations are poor.

Leadership and Management:

related but not the same. John Kotter summarizes: when executing plans, managers focus on monitoring results, comparing them with goals and correcting deviations. In contrast, the leader focuses on energizing people to overcome bureaucratic hurdles to reach goals. -organizations need both management and leadership if they are to be effective. Leadership is necessary to create change and management is necessary to achieve orderly results. Management in conjunction with leadership can produce orderly change, and leadership in conjunction with management can keep the organization properly aligned with its environment.

Michigan Studies:

researches at the University of Michigan, lead by Rensis Likert, began studying leadership in the 1940's. Identified two forms of leader behavior: job centered and employee centered.

consideration behavior:

showing concern for subordinates and attempting to establish a warm, friendly, and supportive climate.

Situational Factors

suggests that the appropriate leader style depends on situational factors. Path-goal theory focuses on the situational factors of the personal characteristics of subordinates and environmental characteristics of the workplace.

Environmental characteristics:

task structure, formal authority

Power:

the ability to affect the behavior of others. One can have power without actually using it. Managers should use power ethically and appropriately. Five kinds of power: legitimate reward coercive referent expert

Task structure:

the degree to which the group's task is well defined. The task is structured when it is routine, easily understood, and unambiguous and when the group has standard procedures and precedents to rely on.

Concern for production:

the horizontal axis of the managerial grid. -similar to job centered and initiating structure behaviors.

Initiating structure behavior:

the leader clearly defines the leader-subordinate role so that everyone knows what is expected, establishes formal lines of communication, and determines how tasks will be performed.

Legitimate power:

the power granted through the organizational hierarchy; it is the power defined by the organization to be accorded to people occupying a particular position. The possession of legit power does not make someone a leader. All managers have legitimate power over subordinates. Some subordinates follow only orders that are strictly within he letter of organizational rules and policies. If asked to do something not in their job descriptions, they refuse or do a poor job. The manager of such employees is exercising authority but not leadership.

Coercive Power:

the power to force compliance by means of psychological, emotional, or physical threat. In the past, this was common. In most organizations today, however, coercion is limited to verbal reprimands, written reprimands, disciplinary layoffs, fines, demotion and termination. the more punitive the elements under a manager's control and the more important they are to subordinates, the more coercive power the manager possesses. The more a manager uses coercive power, the more his subordinates will resent him. Ex. Charlie Ergen, CEO of Dish. "Ergen gets his way by pounding people into submission."

Reward Power:

the power to give or withhold rewards. Rewards that a manager may control include salary increases, bonuses, promotion recommendations, praise, recognition, and interesting job assignments. The greater the number of rewards a manager controls, and the more important the rewards are to subordinates, the greater the manager's reward power. If the subordinate sees as valuable only the formal organizational rewards provided by the manager, then the manager is not a leader. If the subordinate also wants and appreciates the manager's informal rewards such as praise and recognition, then the manager is also exerting leadership. 1

position power:

the power vested in the leader's position. If the leader has the power to assign work and to reward and punish employees, position power is assumed to be strong. If the leader must get job assignments approved by someone else and does not administer rewards/punishment, position power is weak. **not as important as task structure and leader member relations.

Vroom's decision tree approach:

the third major contemporary approach to leadership. like the path-goal theory, this attempts to prescribe a leadership style appropriate to a given situation. It also assumes that the same leader may display different leadership styles. But Vroom's approach concerns itself with only a single aspect of leader behavior: subordinate participation in decision making. assumes the degree to which subordinates should be encouraged to participate in deicion making. Depends on the characteristics of the situation. no one decision making process is best for all decision making processes. Assumes managers use one of two different decision trees. To do so, the manager first assesses the situation in terms of several factors. This assessment involves determining whether the given factor is high or low for the decision that is to be made. For instance, the first factor is decision significance. If the decision is extremely important and may have a major impact on the organization(location of a new plant) its significance is high. **Vroom's decision tree approach represents a very focused, but quite complex perspective on leadership.