MGT 600 Chp. 6

5 Managerial Guidelines for Work Design

1. Combine tasks 2. Form identifiable work units 3. Establish client relationships 4. Increase authority 5. Open feedback channels

"Four factors" model of motivation: Motivation → Performance

1. Establish moderately difficult goals that are understood and accepted. Ask: "Do subordinates understand and accept my performance expectations?" 2. Remove personal and organizational obstacles to performance. Ask: "Do subordinates feel it is possible to achieve this goal or expectation?"

Danger signals of Ability Deterioration

1. Taking refuge in a specialty. 2. Focusing on past performance. 3. Exaggerating aspects of the leadership role.

Goal Setting

1. The foundation of an effective motivation program is proper goal setting. Goal-setting theory suggests goals are associated with enhanced performance because they mobilize effort, direct attention, and encourage persistence and strategy development

Path-goal Model

2. The key question it addresses is, "How much help should a manager pro- vide?" In response, the model proposes that the level of involvement should vary according to how much sub- ordinates need to perform a specific task; how much they expect, in general; and how much support is avail- able to them from other organizational sources. The second factor that influences the appropriate degree of management involvement is the expectations of the subordinates. Three distinct characteristics influence expectations: desire for autonomy, experience, and ability.

"Four factors" model of motivation: Performance → Outcomes

3. Use rewards and discipline appropriately to extinguish unacceptable behavior and encourage exceptional performance. Ask: "Do subordinates feel that being a high performer is more rewarding than being a low or average performer?"

"Four factors" model of motivation: Outcomes → Satisfaction

4. Provide salient internal and external incentives. Ask: "Do subordinates feel the rewards used to encourage high performance are worth the effort?" 5. Distribute rewards equitably. Ask: "Do subordinates feel that work-related benefits are being distributed fairly?" 6. Provide timely rewards and specific, accurate, and honest feedback on performance. Ask: "Are we getting the most out of our rewards by administering them on a timely basis as part of the feedback process?" Ask: "Do subordinates know where they stand in terms of current performance and long-term opportunities?"

5 Managerial Guidelines for Work Design: Establish client Relationships

A client relationship involves an ongoing personal relationship between an employee (the producer) and the client (the con- sumer). The establishment of this relationship can increase autonomy, task identity, and feedback.

5 Managerial Guidelines for Work Design: Combine Tasks

A combination of tasks is by definition a more challenging and complex work assignment. It requires workers to use a wider variety of skills, which makes the work seem more challenging and meaningful.

Enhancing Individuals' Abilities

A person's lack of ability might inhibit good performance for several reasons. Ability may have been assessed improperly during the screening process prior to employment, the technical requirements of a job may have been radically upgraded, or a person who performed very well in one position may have been pro- moted into a higher-level position that is too demanding. (The Peter Principle states that people are typically promoted one position above their level of competence.)

4 types of relationships between satisfaction and performance: imposing

A strong emphasis on performance to the exclusion of satisfaction is equally ineffective. This time, instead of indulging, the manager is imposing. In this situation, managers have little concern for how employees feel about their jobs. The boss issues orders, and the employ- ees must follow them. Exploited employees are unhappy employees, and unhappy employees may seek employ- ment with the competition. Thus, while exploitation may increase productivity in the short run, its long-term effects generally decrease productivity through increased absenteeism, employee turnover, and in some cases, even sabotage and violence.

Ability

Ability = Aptitude × Training × Resources the ability to perform

Strategies for Shaping Behavior: Reprimand

An important principle to keep in mind when issuing a reprimand is discipline should immediately follow the offensive behavior and focus exclusively on the specific problem. This is not an appropriate time to dredge up old concerns or make general, unsubstanti- ated accusations.

Danger signals of Ability Deterioration: Focusing on past performance.

Another danger sign is measuring one's value to the organization in terms of past performance or on the basis of former standards.

Aptitude

Aptitude refers to the native skills and abilities a person brings to a job. These involve physical and mental capabilities; but for many people-oriented jobs, they also include personality characteristics. native ability in adults can be traced to previous skill-enhancement experiences, such as modeling the social skills of parents or older siblings.

Goal Characteristics

Effective goals are specific, consistent, and appropriately challenging. Goals that are specific are measurable, unambigu- ous, and behavioral. Specific goals reduce misunderstanding about what behaviors will be rewarded. Admonitions such as "be dependable," "work hard," "take initiative," or "do your best" are too general and too difficult to measure. Goals should also be consistent. Goals that are inconsistent—in the sense that they are logically impossible to accomplish simultaneously—or incompatible—in the sense that they both require so much effort they can't be accomplished at the same time—create frustration and alienation. One of the most important characteristics of goals is that they are appropriately challenging. hard goals are more motivating than easy goals. workers size up new tasks in terms of their chances for success and the significance of the anticipated accomplishment.

5 Principles for Overcoming Poor Performance Problems: Resupply

Focuses on the support needs of the job, including personnel, budget, and political clout. Asking "Do you have what you need to perform this job satisfactorily?" allows the subordinate to express his or her frustration related to inadequate support.

Resources

Frequently, highly capable and well-trained individuals are placed in situations that inhibit job performance. Specifically, they aren't given the resources (technical, personnel, political) to perform assigned tasks effectively.

5 Principles for Overcoming Poor Performance Problems: Reassign

If a revised job description is unworkable or inad- equate, the fourth alternative is to reassign the poor performer, either to a position of less responsibility or to one requiring less technical knowledge or interper- sonal skills.

Feedback

In addition to selecting the right type of goal, an effective goal program must also include feedback. Feedback provides opportunities for clarifying expectations, adjusting goal difficulty, and gaining recognition.

5 Principles for Overcoming Poor Performance Problems: Refit

In many cases, resupplying and retraining are insufficient remedies for poor performance. When this happens, the next step should be to explore refitting poor performers to their task assignments. While the subordinates remain on the job, the components of their work are analyzed, and different combinations of tasks and abilities that accomplish organizational objectives and provide meaningful and rewarding work are explored.

4 types of relationships between satisfaction and performance

Indulging, ignoring, integrating, imposing effective motivational programs not only can, but must focus on increasing both satisfaction and productivity.

Danger signals of Ability Deterioration: Taking refuge in specialty

Managers show signs of insufficient ability when they respond to situations not by managing, but by retreating to their technical specialty. This often occurs when general managers who feel insecure address problems outside their area of expertise and experience. Anthony Jay dubs this type of manager "George I," after the King of England who, after assuming the throne, continued to be preoccupied with the affairs of Hanover, Germany, whence he had come.

4 types of relationships between satisfaction and performance: indulging

Managers who emphasize satisfaction to the exclusion of performance will be seen as nice people, but their indulging management style undermines the perfor- mance of their subordinates.

Danger signals of Ability Deterioration: Exaggerating aspects of the leadership role.

Managers who have lost confidence in their ability tend to be very defensive. This often leads them to exaggerate one aspect of their managerial role. Such managers might delegate most of their responsibilities because they no longer feel competent to perform them well. Or they might become nuts-and-bolts administrators who scrutinize every detail to an extent far beyond its practical value. Still others become "devil's advocates," but rather than stimulating creativity, their negativism thwarts efforts to change the familiar.

Motivation

Motivation = Desire × Commitment Motivation represents an employee's desire and commitment to perform and is manifested in job- related effort.

Framework/Components of Performance

Performance = Ability × Motivation (Effort) Ability = Aptitude × Training × Resources Motivation = Desire × Commitment

5 Principles for Overcoming Poor Performance Problems

Resupply, Retrain, Refit, Reassign and Release Once a manager has ascertained that lack of ability is the primary cause of someone's poor performance, a performance review interview should be scheduled to explore these options, beginning with resupplying and retraining.

Types of Management Responses to Employee Behavior: Disciplining

The disciplining approach involves responding negatively to an employee's behavior with the intention of discouraging future occurrences of that behavior. Discipline should be used to extinguish unacceptable behaviors. However, once an individual's behavior has reached an acceptable level, negative responses will not push the behavior up to the exceptional level. Failure to reprimand and redirect inappropriate behaviors leads to two undesir- able outcomes: the work unit's morale is seriously threatened, and the poor performers' behaviors are not improved.

Diagnosing Poor Performance

The first diagnostic question that must be asked by the supervisor of a poor performer is whether the person's performance deficiencies stem from lack of ability or lack of motivation. 1. How difficult are the tasks being assigned to the individual? 2. How capable is the individual? 3. How hard is the individual trying to succeed at the job? 4. How much improvement is the individual making? Unfortunately, if the manager's assessment is incorrect and poor performance is related to ability rather than motivation, the response to increased pressure will worsen the problem.

4 types of relationships between satisfaction and performance: integrating

The integrating motivation strategy emphasizes performance and satisfaction equally. Instead of accepting the conventional wisdom that says competing forces cancel each other out, they capitalize on the tension between the combined elements to forge new approaches creatively. However, this does not mean that both objectives can be fully satisfied in every spe- cific case. Some trade-offs occur naturally in ongoing work situations.

5 Principles for Overcoming Poor Performance Problems: Release

The last option is to release. If retraining and cre- ative redefinition of task assignments have not worked and if there are no opportunities for reassignment in the organization, the manager should consider releasing the employee from the organization. Frequently, however, chronic poor perform- ers who could be released are not because manage- ment chooses to sidestep a potentially unpleasant task. Instead, the decision is made to set these individuals "on the shelf," out of the mainstream of activities, where they can't cause any problems. (Stay & quite)

Strategies for Shaping Behavior: Reinforce

The lingering negative effects of a reprimand will quickly wear off if the manager begins using rewards to reinforce desirable behaviors shortly thereafter. This goal can be achieved only if workers know how they can receive positive outcomes and perceive that the available rewards are personally salient.

5 Principles for Overcoming Poor Performance Problems: Retrain

The next least threatening option is to retrain. Reasons for training: 1. technology is changing so quickly that employees' skills can soon become obsolete. It has been estimated that 50 percent of employees' skills become outdated within three to five years. 2. employees will typically fill a number of different positions throughout their careers, each demanding different proficiencies. 3. demographic changes in our society will lead to an increasingly older workforce. In order for companies to remain competitive, more and more of them must retrain their older employees.

Types of Management Responses to Employee Behavior: Rewarding

The rewarding approach consists of linking desired behaviors with employee-valued outcomes.

Diagnosing Work Performance Problems

There is a tendency for supervisors to attribute the cause of poor performance to low motivation. Because supervisors generally believe that if they work harder they will perform better, they assume their own experience applies to other organizational positions and work environments. The problem with this approach to problem diagnosis is that it lends itself to simplistic solutions. To avoid falling prey to simplistic, ill-informed diagnoses of work performance problems, managers need a model, or framework, to guide their inquiry process.

4 types of relationships between satisfaction and performance: ignoring

When managers emphasize neither satisfaction nor performance, they are ignoring their responsibilities and the facts at hand. The resulting neglect reflects a lack of management. There is no real leadership, in the sense that employees receive neither priorities nor direction.

Work Design

Work design is the process of matching job characteristics and workers' skills and interests. One popular work- design model proposes that particular job dimensions cause workers to experience specific psychological reactions called "states." In turn, these psychological reactions produce specific personal and work outcomes. The more variety in the skills a person can use in performing work, the more the person perceives the task as meaningful or worthwhile. Similarly, the more an individual can perform a complete job from beginning to end (task identity) and the more the work has a direct effect on the work or lives of other people (task significance), the more the employee will view the job as meaningful. The more autonomy in the work (freedom to choose how and when to do particular jobs), the more responsibility workers feel for their successes and failures. Finally, the more feedback individuals receive about how well their jobs are being performed, the more knowledge of results they have. Knowledge of results permits workers to understand the benefits of the jobs they perform.

5 Managerial Guidelines for Work Design: Open Feedback Channels

Workers need to know how well or how poorly they are performing their jobs if any kind of improvement is expected. Thus, it is imperative they receive timely and consistent feedback, which allows them to make appropriate adjustments in their behavior so they can receive desired rewards.

manifest needs model: need for achievement

defined as "behavior toward competition with a standard of excellence" This suggests individuals with a high need for achievement would be characterized by: (1) a tendency to set moderately difficult goals, (2) a strong desire to assume personal responsibility for work activities, (3) a single-minded focus on accomplishing a task, and (4) a strong desire for detailed feedback on task performance.

5 Managerial Guidelines for Work Design: form Identifiable Work Units

form identifiable work units so task identity and task significance can be increased.

Rewards

in general, managers should link rewards to performance, rather than seniority or mem- bership; and managers should use discipline to extinguish counterproductive behaviors and use rewards to reinforce productive behaviors. It is also important to point out that nonfinancial rewards (often treated as awards) need to be included in an effective performance-reinforcing program. Lawler argues firms will get the greatest motivational impact from awards programs if they follow these guidelines: (1) give the awards publicly, (2) use awards infrequently, (3) embed them in a credible reward process, (4) use the awards presentation to acknowledge past recipients, and (5) make sure the award is meaningful within the organization's culture

manifest needs model

individuals can be classified according to the strengths of their various needs. people have divergent and often conflicting needs. these needs are primarily learned, rather than inherited, and they are activated by cues from the environment.

manifest needs model: need for affiliation

involves attractions to other individuals in order to feel reassured and acceptable. It has been suggested that people with a high need for affiliation are characterized by: (1) a sincere interest in the feelings of others; (2) a tendency to conform to the expectations of others, especially those whose affiliation they value; and (3) a strong desire for reassurance and approval from others. One would expect individuals with a high need for affiliation to gravitate toward jobs that provide a high degree of interpersonal contact.

Strategies for Shaping Behavior: Redirect

it is important to redirect inappropriate behaviors into appropriate channels. It is important that people being reprimanded understand how they can receive rewards in the future. The process of redirection reduces the despair that occurs when people feel they are likely to be punished no matter what they do.

Elements of an Effective Motivation Program

motivational program grounded in the belief that employees can simultaneously be high performers and personally satisfied. Motivation → Performance → Outcomes → Satisfaction

Types of Management Responses to Employee Behavior

no response (ignoring), negative response (disciplining), and positive response (rewarding). no response (ignoring) is a less useful technique in organizational settings because the interpretation of a supposedly neutral response is impossible to control

hierarchical needs model

people are motivated to satisfy their most basic unfulfilled need. That is, until a lower-level need has been satisfied, a higher-level need won't become activated.

Theory X

refer to a management style characterized by close supervision. The basic assumption of this theory is that people really do not want to work hard or assume responsibility. Therefore, in order to get the job done, managers must coerce, intimidate, manipulate, and closely supervise their employees.

5 Managerial Guidelines for Work Design: Increase Authority

refers to granting more authority for making job-related decisions to workers. When we speak here of "vertical," we refer to the distribution of power between a subordinate and a boss. As supervisors delegate more authority and respon- sibility, their subordinates' perceived autonomy, task sig- nificance, and task identity increase.

Strategies for Shaping Behavior

reprimand, redirect, and reinforce.

Fostering Motivation

the influence of a manager's actions on the day-to-day motivation of subordinates is equally vital.

Goal Setting Process

the manner by which goals are established must be considered carefully. The basic maxim is goals must be both understood and accepted if they are to be effective.

Training

training as a separate component of ability, since it represents an important mechanism for improv- ing employee performance. An intensive training program can be used to increase the applicant's qualifications to perform the job.

manifest needs model: need for power

which represents a desire to influence others and to control one's environment. Individuals with a high need for power seek leadership positions and tend to influence others in a fairly open, direct manner. Individuals with a high need for personal power tend to seek power and influence for its own sake. To them, control and dominance and conquest are important indicators of personal efficacy. In contrast, individuals with high instit- utional power needs are more oriented toward using their influence to advance the goals of the group or organization. These individuals are described by McClelland as follows: (1) they are organization minded, feeling per- sonally responsible for advancing the purposes of the organization; (2) they enjoy work and accomplishing tasks in an orderly fashion; (3) they are often willing to sacrifice their own self-interests for the good of the orga- nization; (4) they have a strong sense of justice and equity; and (5) they seek expert advice and are not defensive when their ideas are criticized.

Theory Y

workers basically want to do a good job and assume more respon- sibility; therefore, management's role is to assist workers to reach their potential by productively channeling their motivation to succeed.