MINING 3 (GEOL)
2.Syenite (plutonic
) - is composed chiefly of alkalic feldspar.
1.SIAL
- (continental)material rich in Si and Al.
4. Evaporites
- Non-clastic Sedimentary Rocks:a group of sedimentary deposits formed by precipitation of salts from andlocked bodies of concentrated solutions of brines.
a. Travertine
- Non-clastic Sedimentary Rocks:are formed by precipitation of calcite as the result of evaporation of springs, streams and groundwater.
3. Chalk
- Non-clastic Sedimentary Rocks:is a porous, fine-textured and somewhat friable sediment.- consists of test of microorganisms, chiefly foraminifers, set in a matrix of finely crystalline calcite. - is white to light gray in color, and consists entirely of CaCO3 as calcite.
Rock salt
- Non-clastic Sedimentary Rocks:occurs in many periods strata ranging in thickness from a few inches to several hundred of feet.- is associated with other salts or solines such as gypsum, anhydrite and potash salts in ion series of beds that may be over thousand feet in thickness.
1. Limestones
- Non-clastic Sedimentary Rocks:those sedimentary rocks in which the carbonate fraction is composed primarily of calcite.
Bioherms and Biastromes
- Organic structures: are formed under conditions of prolific life.
Granodiorite
- P.R. is a variety of granite in which sodic plagioclase predominates over alkalic feldspar
3.Troctolites
- Plutonic Rocks:where olivine and calcic plagioclase are the chief constituent minerals.
1.Basalt
- Volcanic Rocks:fine-grained in texture. - signifying a block iron-bearing stone. - mafic lavas in which calcic plagioclase is the chief mineral constituent along with a number of mafic minerals.
Pegmatites Volcanic Rocks:
- a giant granite which vary greatly in grain size, composition andoccurrence.
Fusain
- a mineral charcoal is carbonized wood resembling charcoal. - it is high in ash.
Eclogites
- a rock composed of grass-green pyroxene called emphacite and pink garnets. - polymineralic assemblage with plagioclase, amphibole, kyanite and other minerals.
Obsidian
- a term applied to glasses ranging in composition from granitic to tonalitic but its physical features are characterized by lustrous dark color and smoothly conhoidal fracture.
Cutinite
- a variety of oxinite consisting of plant cuticles.
Silstones
- above an average grain size between 1/16 and 1/256 mm and are intermediate between shale and sandstone.
Loess
- an aeolian sediment a silt and clay deposit carried in suspension by air current.
Graywackes
- are aggregates of sharply angular fragments of every size between sand or fined gravel and clayey materials.
Lamprophyres Volcanic Rocks:
- are characterized by an abundance of euhedral crystals, producing a pronocea pan euhedral and prophyritic texture.
Trachybasalts
- are characterized by more than 10% of potassium feldspar such as sanidine orthoclase and an orthoclase accompanied by olvine, auzite and subcalcic plagioclase.
Tuff (soft, sandy stone)
- are composed chiefly of volcanic ash or sand deposited at a greater distance from the vent than agglomerate.
2. Desert environment
- are composed of cobble and pebbler in franglomerate at the base of steep sloper, aeolian sand in dunes, and fine-grainer deposits together with evaporates in the desert plains.
Arkoses
- are composed primarily of feldspar and quartz.
Mudstone and claystones
- are consolidated equivalents of mud and clay and have an average grain size less than 1/256 mm.
1. Conglomerates
- are consolidated, rounded pebbler and gravels.
Stylolites
- are exceedingly irregular, seismograph- like seams that are best seen in across section of a rock formation.- they are present in or at the surface or some nodules and chert beds but are abundant in limestones and dolomites.
Phyllites
- are fine-grain micaceous rocks occassionaly with segregation layering.
5. Shales
- are fine-grained clastic sedimentary rocks which are laminated and thinly bedden, containing mainly of silt and clay and including many particles less than 1 or 2 microns in diameter.
Slates
- are fine-grained to aphanitic metamorphic rocks with a highly developed planar schistosity but without segregation banding.
Pitchstones
- are glassy rhyolites with a resinous or pitch-like rather than a glassy luster.
Vitrophyres
- are glassy rocks containing phenocripts in considerable amount.
4.Phonolites Volcanic Rocks:
- are lavas characterized by nepheline or leucite, their corresponding in composition to nepheline syenite or leucite syenite. - regarded as undersaturated trachytes with feldspathoids exceeding 10%.
Bended coals
- are made of partly decomposed and macerated vegetable matter, mainly vascular land plants of which cellulose protoplasm, starches, pigments, oils, fats, gums, waxes and cutin are recognized.
Argillites
- are massive, fine-grained rocks usually thinly and evenly laminated, containing feldspar quartz, chlorite and some clay minerals.
Anghibolites
- are metamorphic rocks composed essentially of homblende and plagioclase.
Holoblast
- are minerals that have developed as new crystalloblasts independent of a primary seed crystal.
Diatoms
- are prolilic minute, unicellular quatic plants, which have bevalved, siliceous shills in the shape of boats, crescents disce, needler and many other forms.
Charnockites
- are rocks by granoblastic fabric and the constant presence of hyperthene.
Granulite
- are rocks of the granulite fares developed at high temperature and pressure from various primary materials.
Load casts
- are rolled and bellowed surfaces on the under side of such elastic sedimentary rocks as sandstone or siltstone.- they develop at the contrast between overlying rocks and underlying clay and show some complicated unfolding of the overlying rock in the clay or mud.
Varues (seasonal deposit)
- are thin laminae of alternating fine and coarse material, each pair representing the deposit of a single year.
7. Neritic environment
- can be visualized as a broad parallel to the coast extending from low-tide limit to depths of 100 fathoms - Sediments deposited includes sandstone, shale, and limestone.
4. Sandstones
- cemented sand deposit.- they are medium-grained clastic sedimentary rocks.
Fissility
- characterizes shales that split evenly into thin layers of uniform thicknessin contrast to irregular, thick beds or hackly chips.
Migmatites
- complex, small-scale mixtures of granitic and other rocks.
Jasper
- consists of cryptocrystalline quartz formed by recrystallization from chalcedong, strained from and red by iron oxides.
Vitrain
- consists of thin bands of bright, vitreous jet-like coal with conchoidal fracture.
5. Saccharoidal
- fine, equigranular.
Clarain
- forms thin bands in coal characterized by bright color and silky luster. - is composed of translucent attritus consisting of finely, divided, resistant plant products.
Graded bedding
- grading of particles from coarse to fine from bottom to top in bands, several feet thick which are repeated with great regularity through a formation.
Hydatogenetic (water formed)
- hydrosyl bearing minerals.
8. Bathyal environment
- includes all the ocean bottom 600 to 6,000 feet below that is the abyssal environment - Fine clastic sand silt and mud, calcareous and siliceous sediments are typical of bathyal environment.
1. Pyrometamorphism
- includes the intense local changes at very high temperature, affecting xenoliths immersed in basaltic lava or the immediate contacts of igneous plutonic with country rocks.
Flint
- is a black, variety of chert having conchoidal fracture. - is composed mainly of chalcedong and cryptocrystalline quartz and usually occurs as nodules in limestone and chalk.
Delta
- is a composite of alluvial, lacustrine, coastal swamp, and beach environments. Energy is mainly mechanical such as streams, waves, currents and wind.
Crystallablast
- is a crystal that has grown during the metamorphism of a rock.
8. Plutonic metamorphism
- is a deep-seated regional metamorphism at elevated temperatures and hydrostatic pressures.
Bituminous
- is a dense black, brittle banded coal.- it ignites readily and burns with a smoky, yellow flame
Subbituminous
- is a dull black waxy coal, often difficult to distinguish from bituminous coal. It shows very little woody material, it splits parallel to the bedding and it lacks the columnar cleavage of bituminous coal.
Anthracite
- is a lustrous black, hard brittle coal that breaks with a cohoidal fracture. It ignites slowly is smokeless and burns with a short bluish flame.
Connel coal
- is a special kind of lusterless bituminous coal that breaks with a splintery fracture and is made up of windblown pollen and spores. It does not soil the fingers.
Porcellanite
- is a term widely applied to impure, opaline chert having the texture and luster of unglazed porcelain.
Novaculite
- is a white chert. - is a very tough even-grained chert consisting of cryptocrystalline and microgranular quartz.
Grit
- is an aggregates of sharply angular grains.
Cross-bedding
- is an arrangement of laminar transverse to the bedding plane in straight sloping lines or concave forms.
Sulfur
- is an injurious impurity commonly present in most coal in the form of pyrite nd Marcasite (FeS2).
Schistosity or foliation
- is applied to a cleavage or fissility due to parallelism of platy or linear minerals in metamorphic rocks.
Tactite
- is applied to a rock composed of one mineral and silicates and formed by thermal metamorphism of carbonate rocks.
Lignite
- is called brown coal because of brownish-black color. It consists of woody matter embedded in decomposed vegetable matter often banded and pointed. Because of high moisture content it disintegrates often drying in the air.
1. Glacial environment
- is characterized by low-temperature and near absence of organic activity.
7. Geothermal metamorphism
- is controlled by elevated temperature with the intensity of metamorphism depending upon depth of burial.
2. Breccia
- is distinguish from conglomerate by the presence of a large proportion of angular rock particles.
Durain
- is dull coal, having a matte or earthy appearance. - is hard black to lead gray in color, and consists of cuticles, spores, and other substances formed in water less toxic than for vitrain.
5. Lacustrine environment
- is ephemeral and is characterize by shallow depths, weak currents, and seasonal changes of water level.
Volatile matter
- is that which burns in the form of a gas.
3. Tillite
- is the great proportion of the structureless fine-grained matrix in which are sparsely distributed, sizable striated rock particles.
Chert
- is the most common chemical siliceous sedimentary rock.- it is very dense, hard and cryptocrystalline rock, composed of opal, chalcedong, and cryptocrystalline quartz or 9 mixture of these constituents.
Lithification
- is the process that converts a newly deposited sediment into an inclinated rock.
Ash
- is the residual or noncombustible matter in coal that comes from the included silica, clay, silt and other substances.
6. Littoral environment
- is the shore extending from the region of high tide to that of low tide. - Beach is the typical word for this environment. - Sediments are mainly clastic, ranging from pebbles, gravels, and sands to muds.
Carbon or fixed carbon
- is the steady source of heat.
Metamorphism
- is the sum of the processes that cause the mineralogical and structural adjustment of rocks to physical and chemical environments occurring below the zone of weathering and cementation. Heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids or gases - are the three motivating forces in metamorphism.
Diagenesis
- is the term applied to changes in sediment at low temperatures during and after lithification. - is achieved by the ordinary processes of chemical reorganization such as differential solution, precipitation, crystallization, recrystallization, replacement, or metasomatism, authigenesis.
Coal
- is vegetable origin and is a uniformly bedded dark-colored rock. - is defined as a readily combustible rock containing more than 50% by weight and more than 70% by volume of carbonaceous materials formed from compaction or induration of variously altered plant remains similar to those of peat deposits.
Gneiss
- it is loosely used to include all moderately coarse-grained quartzafeldspathic rocks of diverse origin characterized by gneissic and other structure.
3. Skarns
- metamorphic , refers to coarse-grained iron silicate masses occurring as well-defined zones at the junction between marbles and plutonic rocks. - are lime silicate rocks very rich in iron silicates and formed under pyrometasomatic condition.
2. Marbles
- metamorphic ,are visibly recrystallized carbonate rocks. - it refers to any rock of similar hardness that can be polished for decorative purpose - it consists predominantly of calate and dolomite.
1. Quartzite
- metamorphic signifies a monominerales rock consisting essentially of interlocking grains of quartz which have lost almost every trace of their clastic origin. - Its durability and strength come from the natural interlocking of the quartz crystals.
3. Alluvial environment
- occurs in stream channels and associated flood plains of individual streams. - the materials deposited range from boulders to clay.
4. Swamp environments
- refer to bodies of shallow standing water occupied by relatively abundant plant life. - sediments laid directly in swamps include silt and mud which may be washed into the swampy basins and dissolved salts and gases that develop in amecrobic conditions in the water.
Metasomatic replacement or granitization
- refers to a group of processes whereby solid rocks are changed into rocks of granitic composition and texture without passing through a magmatic stage.
Texture
- refers to the physical make-up grain to grain relationship of a rock as distinct from its mineral or chemical composition.
Fractionation of magma
- resulting from crystallization/fractional crystallization is the process whereby magma yield contacted fractions by separation of crystals from the liquid in a cooling magma.
Mingling of magma (mixing of magma)
- rocks of unusual composition in which large members of crystalline phases are magmatically incongruous and represent a state of non equilibrium may well be products of mixing of two partially crystalline magmas.
Phosphorites
- sedimentary is composed of a dilute solution of tricalciumphosphate. - consists of sand, silt or clay cemented with collaphanite.
Schist
- signifies schistosity or foliation.
3. Pisolithic
- similar to eoditic, but bodies have diameter in excess of 2.0 mm.
4. Spherulitic
- spheres with radiating internal structure.
2. Contact metamorphism
- takes place in aureoles surrounding intrusive rocks at lower temperature.
Tonalite
- the P.R. plagioclase is greatly in excess of the orthoclase.With practical disappearance of quartz and P.R. orthoclase, tonalite may pass over to diorite.
Volcanic ashes/sands
- the finest measuring less than 4 mm in diameter.
Diatomacious Earth
- unconsolidated deposits of diatoms.
6. Cataclastic or kinetic metamorphism
- when the metamorphism is due to the dominant action of powerful shearing stress.
4. Hydrothermal metamorphism
- when there is an introduction or removal of material through aqueous or hydrothermal solution.
5. Injection metamorphism
- when there is an introduction or removal of material through liquid quartz feldspathic material.
3. Pneumatolytic metamorphism
- when there is an introduction or removal of material through the media of vapor and gas.
b. Tufa
-Non-clastic Sedimentary Rocks: is porous to cellular containing plant remains and impressions.
1.Normal gabbros
-Plutonic Rocks: are composed chiefly of calcic plagioclase and arizite or diallage.
Siliceous Sedimentary Rocks:
1. Chert 2. Flint 3. Novaculite
Characteristics of the varieties of coal:
1. Differences in the kinds of plant material. 2. In degree of metamorphism. 3. Range of impurity.
Factors in Magmatic Evolution
1. Magmatic differentiation 2. Assimilation 3. Mingling of magma
Stages of Magmatic Consolidation:
1. Orthomagmatic stage 2. Pegmatitic stage 3. Pneumatolytic stage 4. Hydrothermal stage
The various bands are called:
1. Vitrain 2. Clarain 3. Durain 4. Fusain
Mafic minerals are:
1. adezite 2. olivine 3. iron oxides 4. hornblende 5. biotite 6. hypersthene
3.Katazone(GRANITE EMPLACEMENT)
Katazone(GRANITE EMPLACEMENT) - reaching up to 9 to 13 miles the temperature may reach 600°C to 700°C.
Peridotites -
UM (plutonic) are coarse-grained olivine rich rocks.
2.Trachgandesites or latites
Volcanic Rocks: - are volcanic equivalents of monzonites.
Metamorphic rocks are classified into:
a. foliated b. non-foliated
Homblendite and Pyroxenite -
are essentially monamineralic rocks and they have melting temperatures much higher than any usually regardless as likely for igneous rocks by pressure the water may reduce the viscosity of the fluid but heat is the main factor in its fluidity.
Chemical composition of coal:
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen.
Magmatic differentiation
includes all processes whereby a broadly homogeneous magma breaks up into unlike fractions which ultimately form rocks of different compositions.
Dunite -
is a monamineralic ultramafic rock containing nearly all magnesium olivine.
Peat
is not a coal but represents the first state in the formation of all coals. It consists of partly decomposed vegetable matter and it can look like a compressed tobacco.
Quartz latite -
is synonyms with rhyodarite.
Kaolin -
is the main constituent of China glass.
Rhyolite -
is the volcanic equivalent of granite.
Dacite -
is the volcanic equivalent of granodeorite and tonalite.
The less the amount of ash present
the better the quality of the coal.
Why Aeolian cross-bedding should be steeper than aqueous cross-bedding
because the angle of repose of sand is greater in air than in water.
Volcanic bombs
- ejected fragments where the size is more than 32 mm in diameter and were partly or entirely molten when discharged.
Pyrognetic
- fire-formed consolidation takes place with rapid loss of volatile.- first mineral to form from magma.
3. Lutite
- for clayly rocks.
1. Rudite
- for gravelly aggregates.
2. Arenite
- for sandy rocks/aggregate of well rounded-grain.
Illite or hydromica
- is a common and important constituent in many clays and shales.
Progressive sorting
- is a feature formed when the smaller and less spherical particles tend outrun the others, and the proportion of larger particles in the sediment load progressively decrease in the direction of transport.
Maturity
- is a measure of the extent to which the processes of chemical decomposition and mechanical disintegration have gone toward completion.
Granite
- is a plutonic rock, contains abundant quartz, some 20 to 40%; either alkalic feldspar or sodic plagioclase can be predominating.
Greisening
- is a process of alteration due to the action of volatiles.
Stratum
- is an individual layer of rock 1 cm or greater in thickness, separated from strata above and below by a distinct change in lithalogy or physical break.
3.Monzonite(plutonic)
- is characterized by nearly equal amounts of alkalic feldspar and plagioclase.
Current bedding
- is found in widespread and thinner sandstones and is indicaline of shallow-water conditions of deposition.
Piecemeal stoping
- is one variety of the process of magmatic stoping where there is a dislodgment of comparatively small pieces of roof rock either simply or in a more showers.
Laminae
- is similar to stratum, but is less than 1 cm in thickness.
3.Rhyodacite(Volcanic Rocks)
- is the intermediate rock between rhyolite and dacite.
Assimilation
- is the reaction between the magma and the wall rock wherein the magma becomes contaminated by incorporation of material originally present in the wall rock.
Rhyolite
- is the rock where the phenocripts are of quartz and orthoclase.
2.Dacite(Volcanic Rocks)
- is the rock where the phenocripts of plagioclase are in excess of quartz.
6. Pophyrablastic
- larger crystal embedded in a fine-grained groundmass a matrix.
Aplites Volcanic Rocks:
- light colored dike rocks with fine, even-grain and anhedral texture.
1.Epizone (GRANITE EMPLACEMENT)
- may be taken as extending from the surface to a depth of 4 miles the temperature about 250°C.
Authigenic or chemical
- originated by chemical precipitation either within the basin of deposition or later within the sedimentary deposit itself.
1. Amorphous
- particles are commonly of clay size or colloid size, noncrystalline.
Allogenic or detrital
- the minerals sediments originated outside and are transported to the basin of deposition.
Forceful injection
- when the hydrostatic pressure is exerted by the magma exceeds the lithosphere pressure on the rocks.
Pneumatolytic stage
- when the temperatures are about 400oC to 600oC and there is an equilibrium between crystals and gases.
Volcanic block
- when they are entirely solid on discharge.
Adeomellite/P.R. quartz monzonite
- where feldspar and plagioclase occur in approximately equal amounts.
Chemical
- are precipitated from solution and are generally hydrated compounds, as is to be expected in substances formed in a water rich environment.
Detrital
- are resistant minerals released from weathering of the parent rocks which are mechanically transported and deposited.
4.Alkalic syenites (plutonic)
- are rich in soda for their most characteristic feldspathoid minerals are nephyline, analcite and sodalite.
Pyroclastic rocks
- are the products of explosive volcanic eruptions and embrace fragments of different origins, many shapes and all sizes.
1.Andesites
- are those lavas in which sodii to subcalcic plagioclase is the predominating constituent.
Breccia
- coarse-grained clastic rock composed of angular grains.
2. Aolitic
- composed of small spheres or ellipsoidal, accretionary fish-roe like aggregate.
Agglomerate
- consists essentially of rounded or sub rounded ejecta, the rounding being produced during the eruption by friction within the volcanic vent.
1.Diorite (plutonic)
- consists essentially of sodii plagioclase.
Non-clastic
- deposition of sediments by chemical means.
Hydrothermal stage
- during the stage equal is maintained between crystalline material aqueous solutions and aqueous gas at a temperature of about 100oC to 400oC.
Pegmatitic stage
- during this stage crystalline liquid (silicate melt) and gas (aqueous) phases consist at temperature from 600oC to 800oC.
Orthomagmatic stage
- during this stage pyrogenetic and some hydroxyl-bearing minerals of water content are formed.
Lapilli (small stone)
- ejected fragments measuring from 4 to 32 mm across.
2.SIMA
- (oceanic)material rich in Si and Mg.
2.Mesozone(GRANITE EMPLACEMENT)
- 5 miles from the surface to as deep as 10 miles.- the temperature range from 250°C to 350°C at the top to 500°C at the base.
Organic or biogenic sediments
- are deposits formed by abundant skeletal secretion or fossils. Ex. Coral and alegal reefs Dratonite and layers of articulated fossils.
3.Trachytes Volcanic Rocks:
- are fined-grained volcanic and hypabyssal equivalents of syenite.
Agglomerates
- are formed by accumulation of bombs town from the throat of or about the vent of a volcano by the disruption of a thick solidified crust.
Sediments
- are materials formed as a consequence of chemical or mechanical activity by the agents of denudation on pre-existing rocks and are deposited in stratified fashion layer after layer at the surface of the lithosphere.
Clastic
- are mechanical accumulations of rock particles.
Hypabyssal diabases (dolerite)
- are mostly fine and medium grained.- predominates among shallow intrusive dike and sill swarns. Characteristically injected parallel to the bedding of gently dipping or horizontal strata.
4.Anarthosites
-Plutonic Rocks: are formed when there is a reduction of all mafic minerals.
2.Norites
-Plutonic Rocks: are gabbros in which hypersthene predominates over clinapyroxene.
Seryentinites
-UM (plutonic) consist almost entirely of minerals of the serpentine group all of which are to be described to late or port magmatic hydrothermal alteration of pyroxene and olivine ion pyroxenite
Spilites
-are soda rich basalts in which albite or oligoclase is the predominating feldspar.
Three Mechanisms of Granite Emplacement:
1. stoping 2. forceful injection 3. metasomatic replacement or granitization.
Magmatic stoping -
means that a body of magma is working its way up into the earth's crust where the roof of the magma chamber is shattered.
Zones -
used in zones of granite emplacement refers actually in substantial part to intensity of the crust rather than strictly to depth zones.
