MKTG3121 Lecture 4

Argumentation: What is an argument?

-A series of categorical statements (premises) -Premises and conclusion must be capable of being true or false -The conclusion follows from the premises -Two types of arguments •Deductive •Inductive

Figures of speech: Metaphor

-Association between previously dissociated concepts -New thoughts that are only figuratively applicable may influence attitudes

Argumentation: Inductive arguments

-Cannot be valid, as they argue from specifics or premises where exceptions are likely •E.g., from a specific situation to general statement -Our next door neighbour who smoked died of lung cancer -All members of my family who smoked died of lung cancer too -Smoking kills •E.g., as a statistical syllogism: -Most people (xx %) who smoke die of lung cancer -Tim smokes -Tim will die of lung cancer.

Argumentation: Follow the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

-Elaboration requires motivation -Elaboration likelihood dependent on ability -When elaboration likelihood is high •Strong arguments are more persuasive than weak arguments •Peripheral cues are less influential -When elaboration likelihood is low •Difference between strong and weak arguments is less pronounced •Peripheral cues are more influential

Argumentation: Short recap

-For deductive arguments, validity and soundness determines persuasiveness. -For inductive arguments, strength (strong vs. weak) determines persuasiveness. -When elaboration likelihood is high •Strong arguments are more persuasive than weak arguments •Peripheral cues are less influential -When elaboration likelihood is low •Difference between strong and weak arguments is less pronounced •Peripheral cues are more influential

Ability to process all arguments

-Increasing cognitive effort / more syntactic complexity •Decreased ability to distinguish strong from weak arguments (Chebat et al., 2003)

Argumentation: Deductive arguments

-It is valid, but not very convincing because it is 'unsound' (Chandon & Janiszewski, 2009) •The major premise is not true / exceptions can be found -A sound argument Is valid AND the premises are true

Argumentation: Repeating arguments

-Iterating arguments quickly undermines persuasiveness -Except when it emanates from different sources (Harkins & Petty, 1987)

Argumentation: Inductive arguments Definition

-Persuasiveness depends on probability that the conclusion follows the premise •Stronger arguments (more probable) are more persuasive than weaker arguments (less probable)

Argumentation: Positioning of arguments

-Primacy effect: The first argument posited has the greatest effect -Recency effect: the last (most recent) argument has the greatest effect -Depends on interval between arguments •Short interval: primacy •Long interval: recency

Figures of speech: Paradox

-Primary function to attract attention -Apparent contradiction -> elaboration

Figures of speech: Rhetorical question

-Tendency to formulate an answer -> elaboration -Creates positive feelings (solving the cryptogram) -Signals agreement between source and recipient -Especially useful to increase elaboration

Argumentation: Persuasive argumentation

-Using arguments to persuade or convince others -Dependent on •Quality of the argument •Motivation & ability of the receiver •Structure of the argument

Argumentation: Length of arguments

-When arguments get longer / more text is used •Difficulty in distinguishing strong from weak arguments (Heit & Rollo, 2012)

Ability to understand probabilities

Ability to understand probabilities -In general statistical information is persuasive (Hornikx, 2007) •but probabilities often have less weight than -the extremity of its benefits or drawbacks -the desirability of an outcome (Johnson et al., 2004) •In the face of probabilities people often switch to decision-rules for decisions -See technique 4) cognitive heuristics

Argumentation: syllogism

Combination of two statements, propositions or premises results in one unavoidable conclusion. For example, 'all cows eat grass' and 'the Holstein is a cow', so 'the Holstein eats grass'.

Argumentation

Persuasive argumentation Two Types of Arguments 1. Deductive 2. Inductive Follow the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

Figures of speech

Persuasive tools in argumentation -Some figures of speech make us think / elaborate •Rhetorical question •Paradox -Some figures of speech work more associatively / intuitively •Euphemism •Metaphors

Motivation (Petty, Cacioppo, and Schuman, 1983)

Petty, Cacioppo, and Schumann (1983) tested certain important assumptions from the ELM. Low involvement were more convinced by 'influencers' or emotional appeals High involvement were more convinced by technical details

Argumentation: Trust

Source effects -Become more important under low elaboration à heuristics -Key concept: credibility Credibility (social heuristics) -Expertise -Sympathy -Reliability Credibility closely related to other source effects -Independence of the source -Trustworthiness -Integrity -Ability