Models and paradigms (part 1)

Psychodynamic first formulated by who?

Sigmund Freud

Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

Trust vs Mistrust (birth-1yr), Autonomy vs Shame and doubt (1-3yrs), Initiative vs Guilt(3-6yrs), Industry vs Inferiority(6-12yrs), and Identity vs Role Confusion(12-18yrs)

treatment that follows the medical model?

treatment frequently involves affecting neurotransmission

operant and classical conditioning?

• Operant conditioning: humans/animals learn to behave in certain ways as a result of receiving rewards—consequences of one kind or another—whenever they do so • Modeling: individuals learn responses simply by observing other individuals and repeating their behaviors • Classical conditioning: learning occurs by temporal association. When 2 events repeatedly occur close together in time, they become fused in a person's mind and before long the person responds in the same way to both events.

according to psychodynamic model, psychological conflicts are tied to what?

• Psychological conflicts are tied to early relationships and to traumatic experiences that occurred during childhood. • Theories rest on the deterministic assumption that no symptom/behavior is "accidental": all behavior is determined by past experiences

psychodynamic therapies

• Therapies seek to uncover past traumas and the inner conflicts that have resulted from them • Try to help clients resolve/settle those conflicts and to resume personal development • Therapists must subtly guide therapy discussions so that the pt's discover their underlying problems for themselves.

behavioral therapies

• Therapists aim to identify the behaviors that are causing a person's problems and then try to replace them with more appropriate ones by applying the principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or modeling. • The therapists attitude toward client is that of teacher rather than healer. • Abnormal reactions to particular stimuli = classical conditioning treatments can be used

cognitive therapies?

• Therapists believe that people with psychological disorders can overcome their problems by developing new, more functional ways of thinking. • Beck's approach: Cognitive therapy—therapists help clients recognize the negative thoughts, biased interpretations, and errors in logic that dominate their thinking and cause them to feel depressed.

The Physiological Perspective

• aka Medical Model, Neuroscience Perspective focuses on the persons physical and psychological functioning but with a biological emphasis • Biological emphasis • Emphasis on neurons & neurotransmitters; malfunction in the nervous system • Involves Behavior genetics • Focus on Brain Anatomy as well as Brain Functioning • Reliance upon medication

Humanistic model

"be all that you can be" Major proponent: ROGERS Key concept: self-actualization (trying to be better person, separates us from animals); people are basically good, rational and social beings Structure of personality: SELF Development: process of cumulative self-actualization Source of pathology: Discrepancy between real self versus ideal self

drug therapy

--> psychotropic medications—drugs that mainly affect emotions and thought processes. -->Antianxiety drugs—reduce tension and anxiety. Anti-depressant drugs; Anti-bipolar drugs—mood stabilizers; antipsychotic drugs—help reduce the confusion, hallucinations, and delusions of psychotic disorders (disorders marked by a loss of contact with reality.

anal stage?

2 to 3 years; child learns to respond to parental demands for bladder and bowel control. EROGENOUS ZONE: anus

sources of biological abnormalities

3 factors: genetics, evolution, and viral infections

biological treatments

3 leading treatments: drug therapy, electroconvulsive therapy, psychosurgery (drug therapy most common)

other psychodynamic explanations (opposed to Freud)

3 of today's most influential psychodynamic theories: Ego theory, Self theory, Object relations theory

phallic stage?

3 to 7 years; child learns to realize differences between males and females. EROGENOUS ZONE: Genitals

latency stage?

7 to puberty; sexual urges are relatively quiet. EROGENOUS ZONE: none

Radical behaviorism

A thoroughgoing form of behaviorism that attempts to understand all human behavior including private events such as thoughts and feelings in terms of controlling variables in the history of the person and of the species. SKINNER. Behavior includes all that a person does, says, and feels

Neurotransmitters with important roles in psychopathology:

Acetylcholine; dopamine; Enkephalins; GABA; Norepinephrine; Serotonin; Glutamate

group of neo-freudian psychologists

Carl Jung: analytical psychology, emphasis on the collective unconscious. Adler: individual psychology and emphasis on fulfillment derived from working for the social good Erikson: psychosocial —for each stage there is a psychological crisis • Psychodynamic perspective • Proposed 8 stages of psychosocial processes; at each stage there is a conflict between the individual and expectations that society places—ego is called upon to resolve crisis

Beck's cognitive perspective

Concept of automatic thoughts: I am worthless, everyone hates me, I never do anything right—leads to depression Errors in Logic: arbitrary inference, selective abstraction, overgeneralization, magnification or minimization, personalization Arbitrary inference: Drawing unwarranted conclusions on the basis of little or no evidence. Selective abstraction: Drawing conclusions on the basis of a single piece of data while ignoring contradictory data. Overgeneralization: Drawing a general conclusion on the basis of a single, sometimes insignificant, event. Magnification or minimization: Overestimating the importance of negative events and/or underestimating the importance of positive events. Personalization: Taking the blame for something that is clearly not one's fault.

PROS of psychodynamic model

Freud and followers have helped change the way abnormal functioning is understood. Bc of their work, wide range of theorists today look for answers outside of biological process. o Also help us understand that abnormal functioning may be rooted in the same processes as normal functioning. o Huge impact on treatment—first to apply theory systematically to treatment and first to demonstrate the potential of psychological, as opposed to biological, treatment o Their ideas have served as starting points for many other psychological treatments

source of pathology?

Having learned faulty or inappropriate behaviors How do behaviorists explain abnormal functioning?

key concept, structure of personality, development, and source of pathology of COGNITIVE MODELS

Key Concept: Distorted thinking/ reasoning (Beck), irrational beliefs (Ellis) • Depressive disorders may be caused by learned helplessness Structure of Personality: Changing responses Development: Process of thinking about new responses Source of Pathology: Inappropriate thoughts or faulty reasoning

The cognitive model

Proposed by Ellis and Beck: cognitive processes are at the center of behaviors/thoughts/emotions and that we can best understand abnormal functioning by looking to cognition. Claimed that clinicians must ask questions about the assumptions and attitudes that color a client's perceptions, the thoughts running through that person's mind, and the conclusions to which they are leading.

two components of Freud's psychoanalytic theory?

The structural hypothesis (id, ego superego) and development (5 psychosexual stages)

Major proponents of behavioral model?

Watson and Skinner. Skinner--"everything a person does, feels constitutes a behavior". Key concept: learning Structure of personality: Responses

biological reductionism

a theoretical approach that aims to explain all social or cultural phenomena in biological terms, denying them any causal autonomy. the simplification of medicine to the biological cause/source.

genetics

abnormalities in brain anatomy or chemistry are sometimes the result of genetic inheritance

Twin studies

an important tool in the physiological paradigm Shared environment vs. nonshared environment Studies used to separate the effects of genetics and the environment.

resistance

an unconscious refusal to participate fully in therapy, when pt suddenly cannot free associate or when they change a subject to avoid painful discussion

relational psychoanalytic therapy

argues that therapists are key figures in the lives of pt's—figures whose reactions and beliefs should be included in the therapy process. Therapists should also disclose things about themselves, particularly their own reactions to pt's and try to est more equal relationships w/ pt's. VS FREUD: freud believed that psychodynamic therapists should take on the role of a neutral, distant expert during treatment sessions

Law of effect

behavior that is followed by satisfying consequences will be repeated; behavior that is followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged

PROS of behavioral model

behavioral model can be tested in the laboratory, whereas psychodynamic theories generally cannot. Research as found that behavioral treatments can be helpful to people with specific fears, compulsive behavior, social deficits, mental retardation, and other problems.

CONS of behavioral model

behavioral researchers have produced specific symptoms in participants. Improvements noted in the therapist's office do not always extend to real life. Nor do they necessarily last w/o continued therapy.

systematic desensitization

behavioral treatment in which clients w/ phobias learn to react calmly instead of with intense fear to the objects or situation they dread. • Pt's construct a fear hierarchy—list of feared objects/situations, starting w/ those that are less feared and ending w/ ones most dreaded.

list models

biological model; psychodynamic model; behavioral model; cognitive model; humanistic model

oral stage:

birth to 2 years—children fear that the mother who feeds/comforts them will disappear. Children whose mothers consistently fail to gratify their oral needs may become fixated at oral stage and display characters marked by extreme dependence or extreme mistrust. Likely to develop depression. EROGENOUS ZONE: mouth

CONS of cognitive model?

cognitions seen in psychologically troubled people could well be a result rather than a cause of their difficulties. o Growing body of research suggest that its not always possible to achieve the kinds of cognitive changes proposed by Beck. • New-wave cognitive therapies o Often employ mindful-ness techniques—borrow heavily from mindfulness meditation: teaches individuals to pay attention to the thoughts and feelings that are flowing through their minds during meditation and to accept such thoughts in a nonjudgmental way.

cognitive model

concentrates on the thinking that underlies behavior

CONS of psychodynamic model

concepts are hard to research. Processes such as id drives, ego defenses, and fixation are abstract and supposedly operate at an unconscious level—no way of knowing for certain if they are occurring. o Psychodynamic explanations and treatments have received limited research support over years and theorists rely largely on evidence provided by individual case studies.

Id

denotes instinctual needs, drives, and impulses. Operates in accordance w/ pleasure principle: it always seeks gratification. All id instincts tend to be sexual, from earliest stages of life a child's pleasure is obtained form nursing, defecating, masturbating, engaging in other activities he considered to have sexual ties o a person's libido, or sexual energy, fuels the id

behavior model

emphasized behavior and the ways in which it is learned

ego theory

emphasizes the role of the ego/considers it a more independent and powerful force than freud did

self theory

emphasizes the role of the self--the unified personality. Believe that the basic human motive is to strengthen the wholeness of the self

psychodynamic therapists use what techniques

free association, therapist interpretation, catharsis, working through

Neo-Freudians

group of psychologists who agree with Freud on some aspects--how we treat children does affect alter development, there are unconscious influences on abnormal behavior, there are unconscious influences on behavior. But disagree on his emphasis on sex and aggression

superego

grows from the ego (just as ego grows out of id). Operates by mortality principle: a sense of what is right and what is wrong. We develop a conscious that adopts our parents' values.

Maslow's theory

humans are basically good• Concept of the hierarchy of needs; series of needs that must be met in the process of development before the adult can pursue self-actualization • You cannot strive towards self-actualization until your basic needs ar met • First: physiological needs; security needs; needs to belong/love; esteem needs (needs to achieve, to be competent); cognitive needs (the need to know); esthetic needs (needs for beauty, order); Final—the need to self-actualize • 3 tiers of needs: basic fundamental needs, psychological needs, and self-actualization needs (the need to fulfill one's unique potential)

Anna O--book description

hysterical symptoms included paralysis of the legs/right arm, deafness, and disorganized speech. Freud worked w/ physician Josef Breuer who placed woman under hypnosis—pt began to talk about traumatic past events/expressed deeply felt emotions. "Talking cure" o Freud developed theory of psychoanalysis to explain both normal and abnormal psychological functioning

the behavior model began where?

in laboratories where psychologists were running experiments on conditioning--simple forms of learning. Researchers manipulated stimuli and rewards, then observed how their manipulations affected the reposes of their research participants

psychodynamic model

looks at people's unconscious internal processes and conflicts

Defense mechanisms

most basic: repression, denial, projection, rationalization, displacement, intellectualization, regression

what did critics of the behavioral model say?

o Critics believe that the behavioral view is too simplistic—its concepts fail to account for the complexity of behavior. o Bandura argued that in order to feel happy and function effectively people must develop a positive sense of self-efficacy: belief that one can master and perform needed behaviors whenever necessary o Cognitive-Behavioral therapies: therapy approaches that seek to help clients change both counterproductive behaviors and dysfunctional ways of thinking.

Reciprocal gene-environment interaction

o Genes predispose individuals to seek out situations that increase the likelihood of developing a disorder • Adolescent girls with genetic vulnerability for depression more likely to experience events that can trigger depression (Silberg) • Dependent life events influenced by genes

Glutamate

o Implicated in schizophrenia

GABA

o Inhibits neurons from firing o Implicated in anxiety disorders

Norepinephrine

o Mental processes involved in learning and memory; also involved in activating alertness to danger o Implicated in mood disorders

psychosurgery/neurosurgery

o Past: lobotomy—surgeon would cut the connections between the brain's frontal lobes and the lower regions of brain. o Today: procedures much more precise but are still considered experimental and used only after certain severe disorders have continued for years w/o responding to any other form of treatment.

Cross-fostering adoptee method

o Rats born to mothers with low parenting skills who were raised by mothers with high parenting skills showed lower levels of stress reactivity o Environment (mothering) was responsible for turning on (or turning up) the expression of a particular gene

Serotonin

o Regulation of mood states, constraint, satiety, and sleep o Implicated in depression and eating disorders, OCD

Dopamine

o Regulation of muscle contractions; regulation of reward-related behavior; mental processes involving learning, memory, and emotions o Implicated in schizophrenia, Parkinson's Disease

Enkephalins

o Regulation of pain, affect, mood, and motivation o Implication in addictions

electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

o Two electrodes are attached to a pt's forehead, and an electrical current of 65 to 140 volts is passed briefly through the brain. The current causes a brain seizure that lasts up to a few minutes. Many pt's feel less depressed after 7-9 sessions.

Acetylcholine

o control of muscle contraction; formation of memories o Implicated in Alzheimer's disease; reduced levels found in patients with Alzheimer's

underlying forces play what part??

o these internal forcers are described as dynamic—they interact with one another—and their interaction gives rise to behavior/thoughts/emotions. o Abnormal symptoms are viewed as the result of conflicts between these forces

stages?

oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital

Ivan pavlov

place a bowl of meat in front of dog, producing the natural response: start to salivate. Just before presenting dog w meat, he sounded a bell. After several pairings of bell and presentation of meat, Pavlov noted that dog began to salivate when it heard bell. Dog learned to salivate in response to sound. • Meat = unconditioned stimulus; elicits the unconditioned response of salivation; sound of bell = conditioned stimulus, a previously neutral stimulus that comes to be linked with meat in the dog's mind, • When the salivation response is produced by the conditioned stimulus rather than by the unconditioned stimulus, it is called a conditioned response.

behavioral theorists base explanations/treatments on what?

principles of learning: processes by which these behaviors change in response to the environment

Danger in using physiological perspective

problem of biological reductionism

working through

process of facing conflicts, reinterpreting feelings, and overcoming one's problems; usually takes years

biological model

proponents see physical processes as key to human behavior

Detail the biological model

proponents view abnormal behavior as an illness brought about by malfunctioning parts of the organism

object relations theory

proposes that people are motivated mainly by a need to have relationships with others and that severe problems in the relationships between children and their caregivers may lead to abnormal development

free association

pt describes any thought, feeling, or image that comes to mind, even if it seems unimportant

Short-term psychodynamic therapies

pt's choose a single problem—a dynamic focus—to work on. Therapist and pt focus on this problem throughout the treatment and work only on the psychodynamic issues that relate to it.

genital stage?

puberty on; growing adolescent learns how to deal with the opposite sex. EROGENOUS ZONE: genitals

Strengths of the structural hypothesis?

showed us the importance of the unconscious

cons of biological model

some proponents seem to expect that all human behavior can be explained in biological terms and treated w biological methods—this view can limit rather than enhance our understanding of biological/non-biological factors. o Biological treatments are capable of producing significant undesirable effects

humanistic model

stresses role of values and choices; key concepts are self-actualization (trying to be a better person; separates us from animals); people are basically good, rational, and social beings

viral infections

studies found that mothers of many individuals w schizo contracted influenza or related viruses during their pregnancy. A damaging virus may enter the fetus' brain and remain dormant there until individual reaches adolescence/young adulthood. Researchers have sometimes linked viruses to anxiety, depressive, and bipolar disorders, as well as to psychotic disorders

key concept of psychoanalytic theory? psychodynamic in book...

the depth hypothesis--the idea that almost all mental activity takes place outside of conscious awareness

Anna O

the first psychoanalytic patient. Anna O. was a patient of Freud's colleague Joseph Breuer. She suffered from symptoms without an organic basis, which was termed hysteria. In hypnosis, she would remember painful events, which she was unable to recall while awake. Talking about these traumatic events brought about relief and this became the talking cure or catharsis. Although Freud became disenchanted with hypnosis, his association with Breuer led him to his basic premise of psychoanalysis; namely, that techniques which could produce cathartic material, were highly therapeutic.

how do the 3 parts of the personality coexist?

the id, ego, and superego are often in some degree of conflict. A healthy personality is one in which an effective working relationship/acceptable compromise has formed among the 3 forces. Excessive conflict may lead to dysfunction

catharsis

the reliving of past repressed feelings in order to settle internal conflicts and overcome problems

evolution

theorists argue that human reactions and the genes responsible for them have survived over the course of time bc they've helped individuals to thrive and adapt. Theory is rejected by many and controversial

therapist interpretation

therapists listen carefully as pt's talk, looking for clues, drawing tentative conclusions, and sharing interpretations when they think the pt is ready to hear them. Interpretations of 3 phenomena are important—resistance, transference, and dreams

dreams

therapists try to help pt's interpret their dreams (series of ideas/images that form during sleep) Freud identified 2 kinds of dream content: manifest and latent—manifest: consciously remembered dream; latent: its symbolic meaning. To interpret a dream, therapists must translate its manifest content into its latent content.

pros of biological model

treatments often bring great relief when other approaches have failed

ego

unconsciously seeks gratification, but does so in accordance w/ the reality principle: the knowledge we acquire through experience that it can be unacceptable to express our id impulses outright. o Employs reason to guide us to know when we can/cannot express those impulses o Ego develops basic strategies, called ego defense mechanisms, to control unacceptable id impulses and avoid or reduce the anxiety they arouse.

PROS of cognitive model

very broad appeal. Focuses on a process unique to human beings—the process of human thought. Therapists find themselves drawn to a model that considers thought to be the primary cause of normal/abnormal behavior. o Cognitive theories lend themselves to research o Impressive performance of cognitive and cognitive-behavioral therapies in formats ranging from individual and group therapy to cyber-therapy. o Effective for treating depression, panic disorder, social phobia, and sexual dysfunction

transference

when pt act and feel toward therapist as they did or do toward important persons in their lies, especially their parents/siblings/spouses

Freud's 3 central forces

• 3 central forces shape personality: instinctual needs, rational thinking, and moral standards—forces operate at the unconscious level, unavailable to immediate awareness o these forces are dynamic (interactive)—called them the id, the ego, and the superego

how do cognitive theorists explain abnormal functioning?

• Abnormal functioning can result from several kinds of cognitive problems. • Some people may make assumptions or adopt attitudes that are disturbing and inaccurate • Illogical thinking processes—another source of abnormal functioning. Beck found that some people consistently think in illogical ways and keep arriving at self-defeating conclusions.

freud's developmental stages (STRUCTURAL HYPOTHESIS)

• At each stage of development from infancy to maturity, new events challenge individuals and require adjustments in their id, ego, and superego. • If adjustments are successful—lead to personal growth. If not, person may become fixated, or stuck, at an early stage of development. • Freud named each stage of development after the body area that he considered most important to the child at that time

The behavioral model

• Behavioral theorists believe that our actions are determined largely by our experiences in life. o Behavioral model concentrates on behaviors, the responses an organism makes to its environment

review brain anatomy:

• Brain made up of neurons and support cells (glia—"glue") • Top of the brain—cluster of regions referred to as the cerebrum, includes the cortex, corpus callosum, basal ganglia, hippocampus, and amygdala • Cortex—outer layer of the brain. Corpus callosum—connects the brain's 2 cerebral hemispheres. Basal ganglia—plays a crucial role in planning and producing movement. Hippocampus—helps regulate emotions and memory. Amygdala—plays a key role in emotional memory.

Diathesis+stress model

• Diathesis: weakness/vulnerability or a predisposition to a set of circumstances; for developing a certain disorder. Ex: could have diathesis towards diabetes, cardiovascular disorder, etc. o Between dash line and illness (solid line): ex—pre hypertension • Diathesis to schizophrenia example—predisposed, smoking pot, genotype→ could have schizophrenia • Combination of diathesis and stress can trigger the pathology in those at risk • If diathesis is high enough, only a little stress is necessary to exceed threshold—diathesis high, threshold low • Implication: notion of people being at risk; quantitative variable, measurable. • Pretty stable: trait rather than a state • Diathesis is inherited, not the disorder itself

Behavior Genetics

• Distinction between Genotype vs. Phenotype • Study of the degree to which genes and environmental factors influence behavior • Genotype—individual's actual genetic structure; unobservable • Phenotype—expression of a given genotype; influenced by experience; observable behavior and characteristics; depends on interaction of genotype and environment • Heritability o extent to which the variability in behavior is due to genetic factors o heritability estimates range from 0.00 to 1.00

2 premises of behavioral model

• Disturbed behavior doesn't have to be symptomatic of ANY underlying problem, the disturbed behavior IS the problem. • Disturbed behavior can be established by experience (punishment or reward) and can be removed by experience (either punishment or reward)

how do behaviorists explain abnormal functioning?

• Each form of conditioning may produce abnormal behavior as well as normal behavior.

Ellis's Irrational Assumptions

• I must always do well or very well; I must be approved and accepted by people I find important; I can't stand it when life is unfair; I am a bad, unlovable person if I get rejected

Molecular genetics

• Identifies particular genes and their functions o Alleles: different forms of the same gene • Polymorphism: difference in DNA sequence on a gene occurring in a population • SNP's (Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms) o Identify difference in sequence of genes • CNV's (Copy Number Variations) o Identify differences in structure of genes; can be additions or deletions in DNA within genes • Knockout studies o Removing specific genes in animals to observe effect on behavior

current trends in psychodynamic approaches

• Increase in demand for focused, time-limited psychotherapies has resulted in efforts to make therapy more efficient and affordable. Short-term psychodynamic therapies and relational psychoanalytic therapy

Psychodynamic model

• Oldest and most famous model—theorists believe that a person's behavior, whether normal or abnormal, is determined largely by underlying psychological forces of which he/she isn't consciously aware.

Gene-environment interaction? (GxE)

• One's response to a specific environmental event is influenced by genes • Epigenetics: Study of how the environment can alter gene expression or function