Modern Middle East Study Guide

Characteristics of the Gunpowder Empires

· One of the main characteristics of the Gunpowder Empires was their use of firearms and military technology, which gave them a significant advantage in warfare over their enemies. This allowed them to conquer and control large territories, making them some of the most powerful empires in the world at the time. · Another characteristic of the Gunpowder Empires was their strong centralized governments, which were led by powerful monarchs who wielded significant political and military authority. They also had well-organized bureaucracies and efficient tax collection systems that enabled them to fund their military campaigns and maintain their power.

Cultural History

· Cultural history is an approach that examines the cultural, social, and intellectual aspects of a society. This mode of historiography looks at the beliefs, customs, and practices of a people and how these have changed over time. It also analyzes the ways in which cultural values are expressed through art, literature, and other forms of creative expression.

Relationships between Gunpowder Empires

· In terms of their relations with each other, the Gunpowder Empires were often in conflict with one another, as they competed for territory and resources. However, they also engaged in diplomatic and trade relations, and sometimes formed alliances against common enemies. · The Gunpowder Empires also had complex relations with Europe, which was expanding its influence in the world at the time. Initially, the Europeans were seen as a source of valuable trade and technology, and the Gunpowder Empires sought to establish diplomatic and commercial ties with European powers. However, as the Europeans began to encroach on their territories and challenge their power, the Gunpowder Empires became more defensive and suspicious of European motives.

Military History

· Military history, on the other hand, focuses on the military conflicts and strategies of a society. It examines the tactics and weapons used in warfare, as well as the political and economic factors that influenced military decisions. This mode of historiography often involves a close analysis of military archives and other primary sources.

Tunisia under the control of the French protectorate.

· . The first period, from the 1880s to the 1920s, saw the development of the Tunisian economy under French control, with the expansion of agriculture, industry, and trade. This period was marked by the establishment of French control over key sectors of the Tunisian economy, including the railway network, the port of Tunis, and the mining industry. · The second period, from the 1920s to the 1950s, saw a shift in the nature of economic penetration, with a greater emphasis on modernization and development. The French invested in infrastructure projects such as roads, hospitals, and schools, and introduced new technologies and agricultural techniques. This period also saw the growth of a new urban middle class, which benefited from the economic growth and modernization.

Long 19th Century

The "long 19th century" is a term used by historians to describe the period between the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 and the outbreak of World War I in 1914. This period was characterized by significant political, economic, and cultural changes, some of which include:

3 essential assumptions of Nationalism

1. Cultural identity: One of the essential assumptions of nationalism is that individuals have a cultural identity that is tied to their nation or ethnicity. Nationalists believe that people share a common language, history, culture, and traditions, which set them apart from other groups. This cultural identity is seen as the foundation of the nation and the source of its strength and resilience. 2. Sovereignty: Nationalists believe that the nation has a right to self-determination and sovereignty. This means that the nation should be able to govern itself without interference from external powers. Nationalists often see the nation-state as the best form of political organization because it allows the people to exercise their sovereignty and shape their own destiny. 3. Homogeneity: Nationalists often assume that the nation is a homogenous group of people who share a common culture and identity. This assumption is based on the idea that a nation is a natural and organic community that has evolved over time, and that its members have a deep and abiding connection to each other. Nationalists believe that diversity and multiculturalism threaten the unity and cohesion of the nation, and that it is therefore important to promote a sense of national identity and shared values.

Egypt major cultural and intellectual trends from 1922-1952

1. Taha Husayn: Husayn was a prominent writer, scholar, and cultural critic who played a key role in shaping modern Egyptian culture and identity. He was an advocate for secularism and modernization, and he sought to challenge traditional Islamic values and promote rationalism and critical thinking. His most famous work, "On Pre-Islamic Poetry," argued for a critical re-examination of the pre-Islamic Arab heritage, which he believed had been neglected in favor of religious texts. 2. Mustafa Lutfi al-Manfaluti: Al-Manfaluti was a popular poet, composer, and musician who played an important role in the development of Egyptian popular culture in the early 20th century. He was known for his use of colloquial Arabic in his writing and his innovative musical compositions, which Western and Middle Eastern styles. He was also an advocate for social justice and a critic of colonialism and imperialism. 3. Hasan al-Banna: Al-Banna was the founder of the Muslim Brotherhood, one of the most influential Islamist organizations in the Middle East. He sought to revive traditional Islamic values and practices and to promote social and political reform in Egypt and the wider Islamic world. He advocated for a return to Islamic law and morality and for the establishment of an Islamic state.

Similarities between Tunisia/Egypt, Syria/Palestine

All four countries were subject to direct colonial rule at some point in the late 19th or early 20th century. Egypt was colonized by Britain, Tunisia was colonized by France, and Syria and Palestine were colonized by France and Britain respectively, following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire after World War I. All four countries experienced significant economic and political exploitation by European powers. European colonizers extracted natural resources, such as oil and cotton, and established monopolies over industries such as banking and transportation. European colonial powers also imposed their cultural and linguistic influence on the region, leading to the marginalization of local cultures and languages.

Similarities between post-WW1 Turkey and Iran

Both countries experienced a decline in the power of their traditional ruling elites after World War I. In Iran, the Qajar dynasty was weakened by the war and the subsequent internal conflicts, leading to the establishment of a new constitutional monarchy in 1925. In Turkey, the Ottoman Empire was dissolved and replaced by a secular republic under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. Both countries experienced a rise of nationalist movements after World War I. In Iran, the nationalist movement led to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and a new sense of Iranian identity. In Turkey, the nationalist movement led to the establishment of a secular republic and a new sense of Turkish identity.

2 forms of European imperialism in the Middle East

Direct Colonization: One form of European imperialism in the Middle East was direct colonization, where European powers established colonies and territories in the region. The most prominent example of this was British colonization of Egypt in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In 1882, Britain invaded Egypt and established a colonial administration that remained in place until 1952. During this time, Britain exercised significant control over Egypt's economy, politics, and society. Economic Imperialism: Another form of European imperialism in the Middle East was economic imperialism, where European powers used economic means such as investment, trade, and debt to exert influence and control over Middle Eastern countries. An example of this is the French Mandate in Syria and Lebanon after World War I. While France did not directly colonize these countries, it did exercise significant economic and political control over them. France controlled Syria and Lebanon's banking systems, railways, and ports, and used its economic leverage to promote French business interests in the region. This form of imperialism was often referred to as "informal imperialism" because it did not involve direct colonial rule.

2 goals of "defensive developmentalism"

Economic Diversification: One of the main goals of defensive developmentalism was to diversify the economies of Middle Eastern countries beyond their traditional reliance on agriculture and extractive industries. This was seen as a way to promote sustainable economic growth, create jobs, and reduce dependence on foreign imports. Industrialization: Another goal of defensive developmentalism was to promote the growth of manufacturing industries in the Middle East. This was seen as a way to create new sources of wealth and reduce dependence on foreign imports. Many Middle Eastern countries established state-owned industries in key sectors such as steel production, petrochemicals, and machinery manufacturing.

British Mandate development of tensions

Favoritism towards Jewish immigration: The British had issued the Balfour Declaration in 1917, which declared their support for the establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine. As a result, the British administration showed a clear bias towards Jewish immigration, despite protests from the Palestinian Arab population. The influx of Jewish immigrants, who were often given preferential treatment by the British authorities, caused resentment among Palestinians who feared that their land was being taken over by outsiders. Land policies: The British administration implemented land policies that favored Jewish settlers and often dispossessed Palestinian Arab farmers. The British introduced laws that allowed Jews to purchase land from absentee landlords, which often resulted in the displacement of Palestinian farmers who had been living and working on the land for generations. This fueled Palestinian resentment towards Jewish settlers and the British administration that supported them. Repression of Palestinian Arab protests: Palestinian Arabs often protested against British policies that they perceived as discriminatory towards them. The British responded with force, often using military or police power to quell protests and demonstrations. This repression further deepened Palestinian resentment towards the British administration and towards Jewish settlers, who were seen as benefiting from British support.

Gamal Abdel Nasser

Gamal Abdel Nasser was an Egyptian statesman who served as the second President of Egypt from 1956 until his death in 1970. During his tenure, Nasser implemented a series of domestic and regional policies that left a significant mark on Egypt and the wider Arab world. Here are some of his key policies and legacies:

Historical Contexts and Early Expressions of Palestinian Nationalism

Historical context: Palestinian nationalism emerged in the early 20th century in response to the growing Zionist presence in Palestine and the displacement of Palestinians from their land. Palestinians felt that their national identity and way of life were under threat from the Zionist movement, which was backed by European powers. Early expressions: The first Palestinian Congress was held in 1919, where Palestinian leaders called for self-determination and independence from British rule. Palestinian nationalism was closely tied to the Arab nationalist movement, and Palestinian leaders worked to promote Arab unity and resist Zionist expansion. The 1936-1939 Arab revolt in Palestine was a major expression of Palestinian nationalism, in which Palestinians protested British rule and Zionist land purchases.

Historical contexts and early expressions of Zionism

Historical context: Zionism emerged in the late 19th century in response to the growing anti-Semitism in Europe and the desire among Jews for a homeland of their own. Many Jews felt that they were not fully accepted in European societies and faced discrimination and persecution. Early expressions: The first Zionist Congress was held in Basel, Switzerland in 1897, where Theodor Herzl presented his vision for a Jewish state. The movement gained support from Jewish communities around the world, and efforts were made to purchase land in Palestine and establish Jewish settlements there. The Balfour Declaration of 1917, in which the British government expressed support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine, was a major milestone in the Zionist movement.

Nasser domestic policies

Land reform: Nasser's government implemented a series of land reforms that aimed to redistribute land to small farmers and reduce the power of large landowners. Nationalization of industries: Nasser nationalized several key industries in Egypt, including banking, transportation, and oil, with the goal of promoting economic independence and self-sufficiency. Educational reforms: Nasser implemented a series of educational reforms that aimed to promote literacy and modernize the Egyptian education system.

Characteristics of the long 19th century

Nationalism: The 19th century saw the rise of nationalism, which emphasized the importance of the nation-state and the sovereignty of the people. This led to the emergence of new nation-states in Europe and the spread of nationalist movements around the world. Industrialization: The 19th century was characterized by the rapid industrialization of Europe and North America. This led to significant economic growth and the emergence of new industries, but also resulted in significant social and environmental changes. Imperialism: The 19th century saw the expansion of European colonialism and imperialism, as European powers sought to establish control over territories around the world. This had significant economic and political consequences, and led to the exploitation and subjugation of many non-European peoples.

Nasser Regional Policies

Pan-Arabism: Nasser was a key proponent of pan-Arabism, the idea that the Arab world should be united politically and culturally. Opposition to colonialism and imperialism: Nasser was a vocal critic of Western imperialism and supported anti-colonial movements in Africa and Asia. Support for Palestine: Nasser was a strong supporter of the Palestinian cause, and Egypt played a key role in the Arab-Israeli conflict during his presidency.

WW1 impacts on the Middle East

Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire: One of the most significant impacts of World War I on the Middle East was the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire. After the war, the Ottoman Empire was dissolved and its territories were divided among the victorious European powers. This led to the creation of new states in the Middle East, including Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine. The new borders drawn by European powers often ignored pre-existing ethnic and religious boundaries, and led to significant political and social upheaval. Rise of Nationalist Movements: World War I also led to the rise of nationalist movements in the Middle East. The experience of being colonized and partitioned by foreign powers sparked a sense of national identity and a desire for self-determination among many people in the region. This led to the emergence of movements for independence and the establishment of new nation-states. Emergence of Oil as a Strategic Resource: The discovery of significant oil reserves in the Middle East during World War I had a major impact on the region's economy and global politics. The region's oil reserves became a key strategic resource for European and American powers, leading to significant foreign investment and involvement in the region's politics. Legacy of Imperialism: Finally, World War I left a legacy of imperialism and political instability in the Middle East that continued to shape the region's politics and society for decades. The imposition of European colonial rule and the division of the region into artificial states created deep-seated conflicts and tensions that continue to shape the region's politics and security today. Additionally, the involvement of foreign powers in the region's politics and economies created a legacy of dependency and exploitation that continues to impact the region's development.

Political, economic, and cultural changes of the long 19th century

Political changes: The 19th century saw the emergence of new political ideologies such as liberalism, nationalism, and socialism. These ideologies challenged the traditional monarchies and aristocracies that had dominated Europe for centuries and led to the establishment of new nation-states. Economic changes: The 19th century was marked by significant economic growth and the rise of capitalism. This period saw the development of new technologies, such as the steam engine and the railroad, which transformed the way goods and people were transported. It also saw the expansion of international trade and the growth of new industries. Cultural changes: The 19th century saw a flourishing of art, literature, and philosophy. This period saw the emergence of new artistic movements such as Romanticism and Realism, as well as new philosophical ideas such as existentialism and positivism. The 19th century was also marked by significant advances in science and technology, which led to new discoveries and inventions.

Political History

Political history is another mode of historiography that looks at the political systems and structures of a society. It examines the key players and decision-makers in government, as well as the relationships between different political factions. Political historians also analyze the impact of political decisions on society.

Influence of Ulema

Religious education: The Wahhabi ulema have played a central role in the establishment of Saudi Arabia's religious education system, which teaches a strict interpretation of Islam that emphasizes obedience to the ruler and the importance of following traditional Islamic practices. Judicial system: The Wahhabi ulema have played a key role in the country's judicial system, serving as judges and advisors to the ruling family on matters of Islamic law. Social norms: The Wahhabi ulema have been instrumental in shaping Saudi Arabia's social norms, particularly in relation to gender segregation and the role of women in society. They have also been vocal advocates for the strict enforcement of Islamic moral codes, including the prohibition of alcohol and other vices. Political influence: The Wahhabi ulema have historically been closely aligned with the ruling family in Saudi Arabia, and they have often served as a source of political legitimacy for the monarchy. However, there have been instances in which the ulema have expressed dissent or opposition to the ruling family, particularly on matters related to social reform.

2 consequences of the Napoleonic invasion of Egypt were

Spread of Western Influence: The invasion of Egypt by Napoleon introduced Western ideas, culture, and technology to Egypt, and the Middle East as a whole. This led to significant changes in the region, including the spread of Western education and the adoption of Western institutions and practices. Rise of Egyptian Nationalism: The Napoleonic invasion of Egypt sparked a sense of national pride and unity among the Egyptian people, who rallied to defend their country against foreign invasion. This sense of nationalism eventually led to the emergence of Egyptian independence movements in the 20th century. The invasion also paved the way for the eventual British colonization of Egypt, which had a lasting impact on the country and the region as a whole.

2 causes of the Napoleonic invasion of Egypt

Strategic Interests: France, under the leadership of Napoleon, saw Egypt as a key strategic location that could be used to disrupt British trade routes to India, a vital part of the British Empire. Napoleon also saw the invasion of Egypt as an opportunity to expand French influence in the Middle East and establish a French presence in the region. Intellectual and Scientific Curiosity: The invasion of Egypt was also motivated by intellectual and scientific curiosity. Napoleon was interested in Egypt's ancient civilization, culture, and history, and saw the invasion as an opportunity to study and learn about these things.

Major events in the emergence of modernity

The Industrial Revolution: This was a period of rapid industrialization that began in England in the late 18th century and spread to other parts of Europe and North America. It marked a shift from manual labor to machine-based manufacturing, leading to a significant increase in production and economic growth. The Enlightenment: This was an intellectual movement that emerged in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. It emphasized reason, science, and individualism, challenging traditional religious and political authority and paving the way for the emergence of modern democratic societies. The French Revolution: This was a period of political upheaval in France that lasted from 1789 to 1799. It led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic, symbolizing the triumph of democratic ideals over absolute monarchy. Colonialism and Imperialism: The period of colonialism and imperialism in the 19th and early 20th centuries involved the subjugation and exploitation of non-European societies by European powers. This period had significant economic, political, and social consequences, including the formation of new nation-states and the spread of European culture and values. World Wars: The two world wars of the 20th century had a profound impact on the world, leading to the deaths of millions of people and the emergence of new global powers. They also marked a turning point in human history, ushering in a new era of international relations and the establishment of new political and economic systems.

War of 1948 Consequences

The establishment of the state of Israel: The war resulted in the establishment of the state of Israel, which declared its independence on May 14, 1948. Palestinian displacement: Hundreds of thousands of Palestinian Arabs were displaced as a result of the war, becoming refugees in neighboring countries or displaced within Palestine. Arab-Israeli tensions: The war marked the beginning of a long period of tensions between Israel and its Arab neighbors, which continues to this day. International recognition of Israel: The establishment of Israel led to its recognition by a number of countries around the world, including the United States. Changing demographics of Palestine/Israel: The war resulted in a significant shift in the demographic makeup of Palestine/Israel, with the Jewish population becoming the majority for the first time in the region's history.

Differences between post-WW1 Turkey and Iran

The nature of the political changes in each country was different. In Turkey, the establishment of a secular republic involved a radical break with the past, including the adoption of a new legal system, the introduction of a new alphabet, and the promotion of Western-style education and culture. In contrast, the changes in Iran were more gradual and focused on modernizing the existing system, rather than replacing it entirely. The role of religion was also different in the two countries. In Iran, Islam played a key role in shaping the nationalist movement and in the establishment of the constitutional monarchy. In Turkey, Ataturk promoted a strict separation of religion and state, leading to the marginalization of Islamic institutions and practices in Turkish society. The impact of foreign powers on each country was different. In Iran, foreign powers, particularly Britain and Russia, played a significant role in shaping the country's politics and economy, leading to significant anti-imperialist sentiment. In contrast, Turkey was able to establish a more independent foreign policy, with the support of nationalist sentiment and a strong military.

Significance of the Emergence of Modernity Events

The significance of these events is multifaceted. They represent significant historical turning points that marked the transition from traditional to modern societies, shaping the world as we know it today. They also highlight the role of ideas and values in shaping human history, as well as the impact of technological advancements and economic transformations. Finally, they illustrate the power of political and economic systems to influence human behavior and shape social structures

Differences between Tunisia/Egypt and Syria/Palestine

Tunisia and Egypt were colonized by France and Britain respectively, while Syria and Palestine were jointly colonized by France and Britain under the League of Nations mandate system. This meant that the legal and administrative structures of the colonial regimes varied between the countries. The nature and extent of resistance to European colonialism also varied between the countries. Egypt and Tunisia experienced significant anti-colonial movements, with Tunisia gaining independence in 1956 and Egypt in 1952. In contrast, Syria and Palestine experienced more fragmented resistance, with the establishment of different political factions with varying goals. The impact of colonialism on each country was also different. In Egypt, the colonial period led to significant economic growth and modernization, but also resulted in political repression and authoritarianism. In Tunisia, colonialism led to significant economic underdevelopment and the marginalization of Tunisian society. In Syria and Palestine, colonialism had a significant impact on the region's social and political dynamics, leading to long-term instability and conflict.

The role of Wahhabi ulema/leaders in Saudi Arabian society and politics

Wahhabism is a conservative and puritanical form of Sunni Islam that originated in the Arabian Peninsula in the 18th century. It was founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, who formed a close alliance with the leader of the Saud tribe, Muhammad ibn Saud, that lasted until the establishment of the modern Saudi state in 1932.

War of 1948 Causes

Zionist immigration and land acquisition: The influx of Jewish immigrants to Palestine and their acquisition of land had caused resentment among the Palestinian Arab population, who feared that they were being displaced and dispossessed. The British withdrawal: The British had announced their intention to withdraw from Palestine, leaving behind a power vacuum and no clear plan for the future of the region. Arab rejection of the UN partition plan: In 1947, the United Nations had proposed a partition plan that would have divided Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states. The plan was rejected by the Arab states, who believed that it unfairly favored the Jewish population.

Tunisians rebellion against the French

· The first phase of opposition was the rise of Tunisian nationalism in the early 20th century, which was expressed through the emergence of political parties and the demand for greater autonomy from France. This phase was marked by the emergence of figures such as Habib Bourguiba, who would go on to become the first president of independent Tunisia. · The second phase of opposition was the growth of anti-colonialism and anti-imperialism in the 1930s and 1940s, which was linked to wider global movements such as socialism and communism. This phase was marked by the emergence of figures such as Farhat Hached, who led a workers' movement and was assassinated by French agents in 1952. · The third phase of opposition was the emergence of Tunisian anarchism in the 1950s, which rejected both French colonialism and the emerging nationalist and Islamist movements. This phase was marked by the emergence of figures such as Albert Memmi and Tahar Haddad, who advocated for a radical alternative to the existing political and economic systems.

Gunpowder Empires

· The term "Gunpowder Empires" refers to a group of powerful empires that emerged in the Islamic world in the period between the 16th and 18th centuries. These empires were the Ottoman Empire, the Safavid Empire, and the Mughal Empire, which all shared a number of key characteristics.

Similarities between cultural, military, and political history

· While these modes of historiography differ in their focus and methods, they also share some similarities. For example, all modes of historiography rely heavily on the use of primary sources such as documents, archives, and artifacts. They also strive to present an accurate and objective account of historical events and to understand the context in which these events occurred.

3 ideologies Palestinian nationalism had to deal with

· Zionism: Zionism is a political ideology that seeks to establish a Jewish homeland in Palestine. The Zionist movement gained momentum in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and efforts were made to purchase land in Palestine and establish Jewish settlements there. Palestinian nationalists saw the Zionist movement as a threat to their national identity and way of life, and worked to resist Zionist expansion and protect Palestinian land. · Pan-Arabism: Pan-Arabism is a political ideology that seeks to unite all Arab peoples into a single nation or state. Palestinian nationalism was closely tied to the Arab nationalist movement, and Palestinian leaders worked to promote Arab unity and resist foreign domination. However, there were also tensions between Palestinian nationalists and other Arab leaders, who sometimes saw the Palestinian cause as secondary to their own national interests. · Islamism: Islamism is a political ideology that seeks to establish Islamic law and values in society. While Palestinian nationalism is largely secular, there have been Islamist groups that have sought to mobilize Palestinians in the name of Islam. Hamas, for example, is an Islamist political party that emerged in the late 1980s and has since become a major player in Palestinian politics. While Hamas has sometimes cooperated with secular Palestinian nationalist groups, it has also clashed with them over issues such as the role of religion in society and the use of violence against Israeli occupation.