Module 1 Questions Set

From the "Flat Earth" video, explain what the philosophy of empiricism is and how Flat Earthers use this philosophy to promote their theory.

If you want to understand nature, you should only rely on information from your own senses. Flat Earthers use this as their sense of seeing bottoms of clouds flat and the world looking flat.

From lecture, explain why the "Greening Earth" hypothesis is not valid.

Plants will eventually die. When the plants or trees die, they decompose, and microbes eat them and release the carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere.

From Chapter 5.2, briefly describe the three main characteristics of blackbody radiation. Also, sketch a graph of intensity vs wavelength for a hot blackbody like the Sun and a cool blackbody like the Earth.

(Figure 5.8: https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20220815.182343/resources/6a47d55943035469cc43227c4c0c3bdf9c115fc0) Emits radiation at all wavelengths because with of solid or denser gas, some molecules or atoms vibrate between collisions slower or faster than average, an object at a higher temperature emits more power at all wavelengths than a cooler one, and a shorter wavelength means a higher frequency and energy.

From the Scientific American article "The Permafrost Prediction," climate scientists are trying to learn what will happen as the permafrost thaws by artifically warming small areas of the permafrost using fences. Explain how the fences warm the soil, enabling scientists to study the warming effects.

Accumulate compressed snow that insulates the ground during winter, which keeps the permafrost present warm.

From the article "The Last Great Global Warming," describe the two chemical changes that occured in the oceans due to the buildup of CO2 in the atmosphere.

Acidification and warm water not holding enough oxygen for ocean life.

From the reading "Cargo Cult Science," in a couple of sentences, describe the story of Mr. Young's rat-running experiment (not every detail). Specifically, (a) explain why it is an "A-number-one" experiment compared to other experiments and (b) how Young could tell that the rats really did learn in response to his training.

An average experiment are presented with different possibilities of the outcome of your experiment. However, Young controls many variables throughout the experiment such as suppressing the smell of the reward and changing the doors' appearances. Eventually concluded that after eliminating all factors of how the rat would tell where the reward is, the rats learned that the reward would be behind the 3rd door.

From the decoding weather video, explain how we test the accuracy of models (describe the process of calibration) before using them to try to predict the future.

Can be compared to actual measurements to see if the models created are accurate.

From Chapter 5.3, explain the cause of all of the dark lines in the solar spectrum seen in figure 5.11?

Caused by atoms in the solar atmosphere that absorb light at certain wavelengths.

From the Scientific American article "Meltdown," we learn that when "permanent" ice melts (either on the ocean or on land) due to warming, feedback effects from this can cause even more warming. Explain three ways the melting ice causes further warming in the Arctic.

Causes more warmth on Earth from the melting ice would be the double amount of CO2 released from the melting ice, exposes darker surface which absorbs heat, and more moisture warming the air.

From the Scientific American article "Meltdown," explain three ways in which increased moisture in the normally dry arctic air causes additional warming.

Causes slower ice formations, moisture traps heat in the atmosphere, and alter the jet-stream swings to cycle the acceleration of Artic warming.

From lecture, describe the three properties of a planet that are the most important factors in determining the planet's average temperature.

Distance from Sun, Greenhouse Effect, and reflectivity of light

From the short video "The Last Time the Globe Warmed," explain why core samples from the deep sea prior to the PETM warming typically lighter in color and those during the PETM warming are much darker.

Due to the core sample being rich with skeletons of deep-sea foraminifera.

From lecture, fossil fuel advocates explain that during the period from about 1940-1970, the overall average temperature of the Earth cooled, despite the fact that CO2 levels were rising, and similar during the period from 2005-2013. Explain why this argument is invalid.

Even though the periods does show that there was a little bit of cooling, there is ignorance of the whole graph that shows a peak in global warming.

From the short video "The Last Time the Globe Warmed," explain the fossil evidence tells us that temperatures in Arctic region were much higher during the PETM event 56 million years ago compared to today.

From places like North America, Asia, and Europe, it suggests that rainforests had a much wider spread during the PETM.

From the Scientific American article "Meltdown," explain two ways in which "blocking high pressure systems" (more common in a warmer climate) tend to accelerate the melting of the Greenland ice sheet.

From the heat and moisture from the South and soot from wildfires around the Northern Hemisphere.

From the article "The Physical Science Behind Climate Change," describe two observations that demonstrate humans are responsible for the large increase in greenhouse gases in our atmosphere (as opposed to natural sources, like volcanos).

Gas emissions from burning fossil fuels and the geographic concentrations revealing that sources occur over land in more heavily populated areas like the Northern Hemisphere.

From lecture, (related to Q1.11 and Q1.12) use a graph of blackbody radiation to help explain why gases that block infrared light tend to warm the Earth due to the nature of the incoming and outgoing light (the blackbody curves).

Greenhouse gases block more outgoing light than incoming light which causes this energy to be trapped in our atmosphere and warms it. Greenhouse gases block 10-20% of incoming light but 50-60% of outgoing light.

From the reading "Philosophy and the Scientific Method," (a) describe how the author uses a barrel of apples analogy to explain the difference between "conceivably" true, "probably" true and "almost definitely" true. And (b) explain why no scientific theory is "absolutely" true (why can you never say with absolute certainty that all of the apples in the barrel are rotten, even though every one you have examined so far is rotten).

Having a hundred apples in the barrel, pulling one apple out of a hundred apples can give you a "conceivably" observation, pulling fifty apples out of a hundred apples can give you a "probably" observation, and pulling ninety-nine apples out of a hundred apples can give you a "almost definitely" observation. Nevertheless, no scientific theory is "absolutely" true especially with small amounts of evidence.

From the reading "Cargo Cult Science," describe the story of the history of subsequent research that followed the Millikan oil drop experiment, and explain why, in Feynman's opinion, it is such an embarrassing story for scientists.

He essentially measured the charge of an electron with oil drops. However, had incorrect values for the viscosity of air.

From the decoding weather video, we find there is an imbalance in carbon. When we calculate how much carbon we are emitting, only about half of it shows up in the atmosphere, so we want to know where the rest of the carbon goes. Explain (a) how Dr. Greg Asner is attempting to answer this question (what instrument does he use and what does he measure), and (b) explain about what fraction of emitted carbon is being accounted for with Asner's measurements.

He uses a plane that captures data of millions of trees. He then uses this data to compare forests that have high and low carbon areas. About a quarter of the carbon emitted into the atmosphere is absorbed by plants and trees.

From the decoding weather video, describe John Tyndall's experiment that showed Carbon Dioxide gas blocks the transmission of heat, thus enabling it to trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere. How exactly did Tyndall measure this effect?

He uses a thermopile that has two sensors to measure heat. When there is a difference of temperature between one side and the other, it produces voltage to a voltmeter. Finally, he lets in gas from the opposite side of the thermopile to determine which gas would block heat from reaching the other side. He measures this effect based on if the voltmeter budges or not.

From the reading "Philosophy and the Scientific Method," (a) explain the bias that led Tycho Brahe to disregard his carefully collected observational data and instead embrace the traditional view of his time of an Earth-centered Universe. (b) Explain the bias that helped Kepler solve the problem of predicting planetary motion from Tycho's data.

He would see God not "wasting" that much space. Kepler had his own bias of the Sun being the home manifestation of God in the center of the universe.

From the reading "Philosophy and the Scientific Method," explain what is the distinguishing difference between scientific and non-scientific ideas.

How it's vulnerable to change. Non-scientific ideas are constantly modified or evolving. Non-scientific ideas cannot be tested.

From the decoding weather video, (a) explain what is the purpose of an Argo Float. Also, using these floats, (b) explain what Dr. Stephen Riser's team has discovered about the role of oceans in absorbing heat (by how much would our atmospheric temperature increase if they oceans weren't absorbing any heat, for example).

It drop to three thousand feet and drift around for ten days. Then sink about six thousand feet into the water, and as it floats back up it collects data all the way up such as the chemistry and temperature. The teams discovers that the water circulates. On the surface the water is warm, and the deep water is cold. However, at the Southern Ocean is where the deep cold water rises to the surface, which later absorb heat from the atmosphere. If this heat would have been released into the atmosphere, it would raise the global temperature by about twenty degrees Fahrenheit.

From lecture, what is (a) the major benefit and (b) the major drawback of a system of knowledge based upon scientific principles?

It has the ability to resolve disagreements, but science can be wrong or modified in the future.

From the video "Patterns and Scientific Thinking," it is possible to come up with more than one rule that could explain each sequence of cards. What problem does this lead to in the scientific method analogy?

It leads to scientists argue about having the best or accurate theories based on the laws of nature.

From the "Flat Earth" video, in one popular variant of the Flat Earth theory, our apparent weight is not caused by gravity but rather a constant upward acceleration of the flat disk of the Earth. Describe an observational fact that refutes this model.

It would mean that the gravitational force on Earth would be the same everywhere. However, he gravitational force around the world is not the same.

From the reading "Cargo Cult Science," give two examples of practices scientists should follow in order to have scientific integrity, to make it more likely that their work will make a positive contribution to the overall body of human knowledge (instead of being refuted or disproven a short time later).

Record all observations you find regardless of it even disproving your theories and disclose factors that can come into play with your findings.

From Chapter 5.1, explain why the behavior of light led scientists to believe that the space between the planets, stars and galaxies was not empty but instead filled with a thin air-like substance known as aether.

Scientists first knew that waves need a substance for waves to travel through. However, with electromagnetic waves do not require any substance to travel through any space. This led to scientists believing that light can travel through space in an airless vacuum, calling it the aether.

From lecture, describe an example of a negative feedback effect in the Earth's climate.

Warmer temp --> more H2O vapor --> more low, thick clouds reflecting sunlight --> Earth cools Warmer temps --> northern ice caps melt --> stops conveyor belt current in Atlantic --> Earth cools

From the decoding weather video, explain how Dr. Andrea Dutton is able to reconstruct the history of how high the sea level was a long time ago, when Earth's average temperature was similar to what it is today. Explain how she estimates sea level from long ago.

She finds cores with fossils of ancient coral, which brings up the observation of the area being once submerged underwater.

From the decoding weather video, explain how Dr. Andrea Dutton is able to reconstruct the history of temperature in the Earth's atmosphere over the past 800,000 years (explain how is oxygen used in the process).

She uses seashell's layers that different temperatures of water in each layer. When these shells grow, they absorb oxygen. However, with more Oxygen-18 present it shows that the ocean water was cooler. Therefore, the shells are capsules of the different time periods of when the Earth was warm or cool.

From the article "The Physical Science Behind Climate Change," explain the evidence found in computer models of the climate that indicate that natural climate forcings are not sufficient to explain the rise in average temperature since the mid-20th century and that anthropogenic (human-caused) factors must be largely responsible.

Showed that the rise of aspects like global land and ocean temperature change are more accurate using ranges from both natural and anthropogenic forcings rather than just natural forcings alone.

From the Scientific American article "The Permafrost Prediction," if the permafrost in a given region thaws, (a) not all of its Carbon will be released and (b) what is released will be released slowly over decades or centuries. Explain each of these two claims (the first two of three key questions posed about Carbon release in the article).

Simply due to microorganisms finding the carbon inaccessible, which will remain on the ground. And the carbon that is not released into the air within a year is because of the carbon already being in a semidecomposed those microbes could only degrade it slowly.

From lecture, describe two examples of positive feedback effects in the Earth's climate.

Warmer temp --> reflective ice melts, exposing darker surface --> more warming Warmer temp --> permafrost melts, releasing CO2 --> more warming

From the reading "Cargo Cult Science," explain the difference between science and advertising (or advocacy).

Someone reporting facts that only support your argument, while science integrity is telling the whole truth.

From Chapter 5.2, (a) explain what is the definition of temperature (at the microscopic level), then (b) explain why hotter particles tend to emit light that has a shorter wavelength (or higher frequency) compared to cooler particles.

The amount of kinetic energy in the particles of the substance. Hotter particles that give off enough heat simply emit photons with more visible light then cooler particles.

From the reading "Cargo Cult Science," how would you explain to the "cargo cult" people of the South Seas why the planes don't land? Answer in a simple, direct way: what are they doing wrong, or why is what they are doing not working? Hint: think about why the planes REALLY landed and what has changed.

The cargo came simply because of the war. Elaborating on that, when the war ended it does not matter what variables you try out to have these planes drop cargo again. The planes will drop cargo if there is a war and will not drop cargo when there is no war.

From the article "The Physical Science Behind Climate Change," explain what are positive and negative "forcings" in climate science, and briefly describe two examples of each from the article.

The change in the global energy balance in the Earth, with positive inducing warmth and cool negative inducing cooling. Examples would be the increase levels of greenhouse gases and increase in the global sea level, and opposite examples would be aerosols particles interacting with the clouds and reflecting sunlight.

From the Scientific American article "Meltdown," explain why increases in Arctic temperatures impact weather in lower latitudes (like the continental United States) via the changing jet stream.

The high- and low-pressure centers will linger around longer such as longer heatwaves and thunderstorms.

From the Scientific American article "The Permafrost Prediction," if the permafrost in a given region thaws, some Carbon will be released from the soil, but it is also true that the same region will absorb more Carbon from the atmosphere. (a) Explain why, and (b) explain whether the net result is more Carbon added to the atmosphere or more absorbed from the atmosphere.

The microbes in the soil release carbon and the plants absorb the carbon in the air. However, the net results show an excess of carbon being released into the atmosphere due to the abundance of carbon released from melting permafrost in multiple regions.

From lecture, describe how we use a comparison of Earth and Moon to prove that the greenhouse effect is real and warms that Earth by approximately 60 degrees Fahrenheit.

The moon has related distance from the Sun and reflectivity, which can only account the difference from greenhouse gases

From the article "The Last Great Global Warming," after an initial buildup of Carbon Dioxide in the atmosphere caused perhaps by volcanic eruptions 56 million years ago, describe three other changes that occured (likely due to the initial Carbon buildup) to add even more heat-trapping gases to the atmosphere in a geologically short time (thousands of years).

The ocean mixing, wildfires, and melting permafrost all release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

From the decoding weather video, explain why carbon dioxide levels in Dave Keeling's experiment go down in the Spring and up in the Fall.

The plants absorb carbon dioxide during the spring. However, in the fall and winter a lot of plants die off and release the gas back into the air.

From the article "The Last Great Global Warming," explain what is different about the current era of global warming compared to the warming that occured at the beginning of the PETM.

The rate of warming from PETM compared to now.

From the "Flat Earth" video, Hossenfelder explains that many Flat Earthers believe you should not trust evidence collected by others. (a) Explain what is wrong with this argument and/or explain why accepting this argument would seriously cripple our way of life. (b) Explain how Hossenfelder recommends scientists address this philosophical problem.

The trust in the scientific evidence is essential for society and science to progress, meaning every one of us would have to start over in reinventing modern science. Scientists should address the problem by providing evidence how science works.

From the reading "Philosophy and the Scientific Method," an example is given of a letter written to a local paper criticizing the value of sex education in schools. Explain the difference in how the letter writer explains trends (such as a rise in sexually transmitted diseases) compared to how a scientist attempts to explain such trends (not every detail, just a sentence or two summarizing the scientific approach).

The writer simply made observations to conclude that there is a relationship between sex education in school and an increase in STDs. A scientist would look at the correlation between the two.

From the "Flat Earth" video, although all evidence related to the shape of the Earth is gathered with one's senses, Flat Earthers typically ignore certain kinds of evidence that requires "decoding". As an example of decoding, Hossenfelder talks about buying a can of soup. Explain why it is rational to believe that the soup is safe to eat despite the fact that you cannot see, smell, touch or taste it while it is still enclosed in the can.

There are regulations that go into creating the can of soup to prevent it being unsafe from eating it, which is evidence you already collected in your own senses.

From the decoding weather video, describe the evidence found in New York City that tells us it was much colder there about 20,000 years ago.

There's a huge boulder balance on bedrock, which could only be transported by glaciers or huge sheets of ice.

From the article "The Physical Science Behind Climate Change," explain two patterns in our atmosphere that the authors consider to be a fingerprint of human influence, showing humans are caused the changes and not natural sources (like changes in solar activity).

There's greater warming in land areas rather than ocean areas, and with the solar changes being the dominant forcing would increase the heat in both the troposphere and stratosphere.

From the article "The Physical Science Behind Climate Change," we expect quite a bit of sea level rise from melting glaciers in Antarctica and Greenland. Besides that source, what will be the primary cause of sea level rise during the 21st century?

Thermal expansion of the ocean.

From the article "The Last Great Global Warming," how do we know the temperature of the water at the time these ancient sediment deposits occured?

They are laid down in layers that trap skeletal remains from the surrounding ocean and life-forms. The mix of different forms, or isotopes, of oxygen atoms in the skeletal remains revealed the temperature of the water.

From lecture, what are two distinguishing characteristics of a scientific theory that make that theory likely to be valid for a long time, rather than a theory that is likely to be refuted or overturned relatively quickly?

They have broad implications with their explanation and gives data that was collected from their experiments, even if it disproves their theory.

From the article "The Last Great Global Warming," what makes it so difficult to study the carbonate-rich skeletal remains of sea life during the PETM era?

They're dissolved from acidification during the PETM era.

From the reading "Philosophy and the Scientific Method," (a) explain one of the benefits of irrefutable ideas and also (b) explain the major weakness of a system of knowledge based upon irrefutable ideas.

They're facts that they cannot be proved false. However, you need to consider how two different or contrast belief can't agree mutually.

From lecture, fossil fuel advocates often refer to the "Medieval Warm Period" as a time when temperatures were comparable to current values despite the fact that CO2 levels in the atmosphere were much lower (about 260 ppm instead of the current value of 420 ppm). Explain what is the problem with this argument.

This warming was completely natural unlike how the warming in the past few decades are caused by fossil fuel burning. Also, the argument only looks at the Western Europe average temperate rather than the global temperature.

From Chapter 5.3, explain what property of atoms allows us to use a spectrum of light to identify which type of element (or molecule) is emitting or absorbing that light.

Using an emission spectrum, it's based on the emission of certain wavelengths.

From the video "Patterns and Scientific Thinking," looking at sequence C, you may see three cards in a row with the number 9 and decide the rule is that all of the cards must have the same number. Looking further at the sequence, however, you would find that this rule is wrong. What is this process equivalent to in the scientific method?

When a scientist is developing and testing a hypothesis.

From the short video "Understanding Natural Climate Cycles," why does the amount of Carbon Dioxide in our atmosphere seem to track the Earth's long-term orbital cycles that cause warming and cooling?

When the Earth warms up a bit, it increases the ocean mixing. Therefore, more CO2 in the atmosphere means more heat trapped on the Earth's atmosphere.

From lecture, fossil fuel advocates often refer to the "Greening Earth" hypothesis. Explain what this hypothesis is and why it would "solve" the global warming problem.

When the carbon dioxide goes up into the air, the plants and trees absorb all the carbon dioxide in the air to stay green. So, the thinking is if we just put more carbon dioxide in the air, we're helping the plants and trees.