Module 4.1 Chapter 9. The Quest for Meaning.

Describe Fowler's theory of faith development (second theory of spiritual development).

A second theory of spiritual development is Fowler's theory of faith development. Like Kohlberg, Fowler was interested in the individual search for meaning, not the specific beliefs. In Fowler's first stage, synthetic-conventional faith, meaning comes from an authority outside oneself. In the second stage, individuative reflective faith, the individual takes responsibility for his or her own meaning system. In the third stage, conjunctive faith, an individual opens up to others beliefs and welfare. Finally there is universalizing faith, the full opening of a person to disregard personal concerns.

What sources offer valuable information about individual's search of spiritualism? Through analysis of these sources what 5-stage course of quest of meaning did Underhill discover?

Autobiographies, biographies, and case histories offer valuable information about individuals search for meaning and thoughts about spiritualism. Underhill studied the accounts of many diverse individuals who described their quests for meaning, and she found commonalities in these quests that made up five possible stages. The first stage is awakening to a self-transcendence experience. This is followed by purification, in which the person is made aware of his or her faults and imperfections. The third stage is illumination, in which the person is made even more aware of the presence of a higher power. In the fourth stage, the person undergoes the dark night of the soul, turning inward for more critical self-examination. Stage five is unity, in which the individual feels one with the universe.

Explain spirituality and religion age and gender wise. Has there been an increasing progress in empirical studies of spirituality?

Empirical study of spirituality has increased dramatically in the last 15 years, and most of the studies address the question of whether this trait changes as we age. Religious participation is greater in older adults than younger adults, but there is a drop-off in late adulthood, possibly due to poor health. More women attend religious services and belong to religious organizations than men, and this gender difference is even greater for African Americans and Mexican Americans.

Does the experience of living for many years causes changes in spirituality? Explain.

It is as yet uncertain whether the experience of living for many years causes changes in spirituality, or whether the changes are due to the adversity older adults have to cope with. This will be an important topic of future research.

What research has been done on Kohlberg's theory? What has it discovered?

Kohlberg's theory has been evaluated and refined over the years. For example, Carol Gilligan has pointed out that Kohlberg based his theory on interviews with boys, who use a system of justice, whereas girls base their moral decisions on a system of caring.

Explain Kohlberg's theory of the development. (First theory of spiritual development)

One theory of the development of meaning systems is Kohlberg's theory of the development of moral reasoning. Based on Piaget's theory of cognitive development, this theory consists of six stages of moral reasoning, evaluating the level of moral reasoning by the explanations people give for their responses to moral dilemmas. At the first level, preconventional, reasoning reflects the punishment and obedience orientation in which what is moral is simply behavior that is rewarded, and the naive hedonism orientation in which the moral choice is the one that brings pleasure. At the second level, conventional, moral decisions are explained by following rules of the family or society. The third level, postconventional, chooses moral responses based on a search for underlying reasons for rules and laws.

Why people, especially women, who attend religious services live longer than those who do not? Explain.

People, especially women, who attend religious services live longer than those who do not. One reason is that spirituality is related to lower levels of cortisol response during stressful situations. Cortisol has been implicated in many of the negative physiological effects of stress reactions, such as lowered immune function. This finding has been replicated in a number of populations and for a number of measures of spirituality, especially forgiveness and frequency of prayer.

Which is correct: we attach meaning to experience or experience defines the reality? How do we filter experiences?

Psychology has long held that it is the meaning we attach to our experiences rather than the experiences themselves that defines reality for us. We filter experience through a set of basic assumptions we have each created, known as internal working models or meaning systems.

Explain age-dependent variation in rates of private religious practices. When are they steady, when do they increase? How about rates of public practices?

Rates of private religious practices, such as prayer and reading sacred texts, also increase with age, but remain steady into late adulthood, when participation in religious services drops off. It is suggested that people in late adulthood retain their spiritual beliefs and private practices even though they are no longer able to attend services.

Explain the idea of gerotranscendence. In which areas is the idea of gerotranscendence well-known? Is there an agreement on what experiences cause changes in meaning systems?

The idea of gerotranscendence, or the growth of meaning systems as we go through adulthood, is well known in literature, mythology, and psychological theories, although there is no agreement on what experiences in life cause the changes in meaning systems.

Is quest for meaning important in our lives? Is the notion of quest for meaning new or has a history? Is there a genetic origin? Explain.

The quest for meaning, or spirituality, is an integral part of the human experience, with signs of its existence found in archaeological sites, in all cultures today, and even as a genetic trait in humans.

What factors lead to changes in meaning systems over adulthood? Is it an old or a new topic of research?

The question of what factors lead to changes in meaning systems over adulthood is a relatively new topic of research. It is known that these changes may be triggered by unique life changes, by adversity, by peak experiences, and by intentionally pursuing self-knowledge and spiritual growth.

Are there similarities between the theories that seek to explain the development of spirituality over the adult years? What is the theory that seems to encompass all of them?

There are similarities between the theories that seek to explain the development of spirituality over the adult years. There are also similarities between the theories of spiritual development and the personality theories discussed in previous chapters. One theory that seems to encompass all of them is Kegan's Synthesizing Model, which proposes that we move between the need to be part of the group and the need to be individuals.

Do people agree with Underhill's findings? Who agrees with her findings?

This process described by Underhill has been described similarly by many people from different eras and fields of interest, for example, American psychologist William James in the early 20th century, Spanish nun St. Teresa of Ávila in the 16th century, and Swiss-born American psychoanalyst Carl Jung in the mid-20th century.

What do longitudinal studies show about increase or decline in spirituality during adult years. How is the timing different between women and men? How is it different between cohorts?

Two groups that were followed longitudinally show an increase in spirituality during the adult years, but women begin the increase earlier in adulthood than men. Those in a younger cohort showed a different pattern of increase than those in an older cohort, indicating that events we experience during our lifetimes also have an impact on changes in spirituality over time.

postformal stages

adult stage of cognitive development that involves thinking beyond the linear and logical ways.

moral reasoning

analyzing what is right and wrong, judging the rightness or wrongness of an act.

decentering

cognitive movement outward from the self.

gerotranscendence

idea that meaning systems increase in quality as we age.

self-transcendence

knowing the self as part of a larger whole that exists beyond the physical body and personal history.

religiosity

outward expression of spiritual beliefs.

quest for meaning

search for ultimate knowledge of life through an individualized understanding of the sacred.

mysticism

self-transcendent experience.