Motivation

What are the range of positive behavioral, cognitive and affective outcomes associated with more self determined motivation?

Attendance / Participation Lower Drop out Positive affect Lower Burnout Flow Concentration Effective coping strategies Goal Attainment Sportsmanship Less stress and anxiety Performance

Summary of motivational climate?

Motivational climates can be manipulated - coaches, teachers, and parents pay an important role in facilitating motivation Do not decrease ego involvement, but increase task involvement

What are the 4 attributions of Weiner's attribution model?

-Ability -Effort -Task difficulty -Luck

What is identified regulation?

-Action motivated by appreciation of valued outcomes of participation (e.g. exercise to stay fit)

What is the CET hypothesis?

-Any events affecting perceptions of competence and feelings of self- determination will also affect levels of intrinsic motivation. It is how the athlete perceives something.

What are the 3 basic psychological needs that the self-determination theory suggests people are motivated by?

-Autonomy, Competence, Relatedness • Extent to which these are fulfilled leads to a continuum of motivation -Deci and Ryan suggest that when people experience these 3 things, they become more self-determined and able to be intrinsically motivated to pursue that things that interest them

What is external regulation?

-Behaviour controlled through external means (e.g. rewards

What is integrated regulation?

-Behaviour performed to satisfy important personal goals symbolic of person's self-identity (i.e. they are integrated with the self), eg. "I am a swimmer"-becomes who they are-why they partake

What is the trait-centered approach?

-Contends that motivated behaviour is primarily a function of individual characteristics -Some people have personal attributes that seem to predispose them to success and high levels of motivation, personal goals and desire. -However, most would agree that this is also influenced by the situations in which we are placed

What is the situation-centered view?

-Contends that motivation is determined primarily by the situation -However many would agree that although the situation influences motivation, you can also recall situations in which you remained motivated despite a negative environment--therefore it is not recommended that the situation-centered view of motivation is the most effective for guiding practice

What is introjected regulation?

-Individual acting out of avoidance of negative feelings (e.g. guilt, anxiety)

How are the different types of extrinsic motivation placed on the continuem between intrinsic motivation and amotivation?

-Integrated regulation and identified regulation are forms of extrinsic motivation, but are more closely associated with intrinsic motivation than the others -Want athletes to be as intrinsically motivated as possible

What are the two dimensions of Weiner's attribution model?

-Locus of causality -Stability

What is autonomy?

-People need to feel in control of own behaviour and goals

What is competence?

-People need to gain mastery of tasks and learn different skills

What are the 2 components of stability?

-Stable factors -Fixed factors (don't change over time) -Ability/task difficulty -Unstable factors -Vary with time -Effort/luck

What is Cognitive Evaluation Theory (Deci, 1975; Deci & Ryan, 1985)?

-Sub theory of SDT. It states that SDT focuses on intrinsic motivation, but doesn't say what causes it -Explores factors affect intrinsic motivation (variability in intrinsic motivation) -Rewards, feedback/reinforcement, communication

What is the interactional view?

-View most widely endorsed by sport and exercise psychologists today -Contends that motivation results neither solely from participant factors, such as personality, nor solely from situational factors, such as a coach's style -Rather, the best way to understand motivation is to examine how these two sets of factors interact

What are the different types of multidimensional extrinsic motivation?

-more than 1 form of extrinsic motivation • Integrated Regulation • Identified Regulation • Introjected Regulation • External Regulation

What are the different achievement goal orientations? (achievement goal theories)

1. A Task-mastery orientation when they take pride in the progressive improvement of their knowledge and ability relative to their own past performances- beating yourself 2. An ego orientation when they are intent on demonstrating superiority over others (motivated by social comparison)-beating other people

What are the 2 performance climates that Ames (1992) identifies?

1. Mastery (or Task-Involving) Climate - focused on individual improvement, effort and cooperative learning 2. Performance (or ego-Involved) Climate - highlighted by competition, outperforming others, viewing mistakes as failures, and achieving success with minimal effort

What is the theoretical approach associated with the question: •Does it matter if we hold different views about what constitutes success?

Achievement Goal Theory (Nicholls, 1989)

What is amotivation?

Amotivation: Relative absence of motivation- "I have nothing better to do"

What are the 2 components of locus of causality?

Internal factors -Under the control of performer -Ability/effort External factors -Beyond performers control -Task difficulty/luck

What is relatedness?

People need to experience a sense of belonging and attachment to other people

What are the 3 different approaches to motivation?

Trait-centered view Situation-centered view Interactional view

What is motivation?

• "the direction and intensity of one's effort" (Sage, 1977) -Direction: you can be motivated towards or away of something. Intensity= how much effort are you putting in to get there, or to avoid something • Direction of effort - seek out, approached or is attracted to certain situations (or avoid certain situations) • Intensity of effort - how much effort a person puts forth in a particular situation

What do low achievers do according to Weiner?

• Attribute success to external factors • Attribute failure to internal factors • Avoidance behaviour

What do high achievers do according to Weiner's model?

• Attribute success to internal factors • Failure is attributed to external factors • Approach behaviours

What are some of the strategies coaches use to control athletes behaviour?

• Controlling feedback (e.g. coach picks up on all the negative aspects of an athletes behaviour but says nothing positive and no suggestions for improvement) • Excessive personal control (interactions are authoritative and commands athletes to do things - orders, controlling questions, directives, deadlines) • Intimidation behaviours (use the threat of punishment to push athletes to work harder or keep them in line) • Promoting ego involvement (coach evaluates athletes performance in front of peers) • Conditional regard (says things to make athletes feel guilty - "you let me down..." or "When you don't perform well..

What is attribution theory interested in?

• Does it matter how we attribute success or failure? • Attributions = specific causes used to explain an outcome or behaviour -May not be the actual cause but perceived to be the cause of events • How performers explain / attribute performance affects expectations and emotional reactions -In turn influence future achievement motivation • Coaches (and parents) convey powerful messages through the attributions that accompany feedback

What is motivational climate theory interested in?

• Does it matter if the environment values winning over improvement? • Motivational influence exerted by key social agents - 'Motivational Climate' • Situational factors play important role in adopting a goal and engaging in particular behaviours (Ames, 1984; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Elliot, 1997, 1999). • Increasing evidence peers and parents (in sporting context), as well as coaches play important role in influencing motivation • Research based on notion that nature of individuals experience is influenced by extent significant others in environment emphasise -Winning/beating others vs. improvement/mastery

What are the questions associated with the theoretical approaches to motivation?

• Does it matter if we have a choice? • Does it matter if we hold different views about what constitutes success? • Does it matter how we attribute success or failure? • Does it matter if the environment values winning over improvement?

What are achievement goal theories?

• Does it matter if we hold different views about what constitutes success? • To understand someone's motivation - must understand what success and failure mean to them • Best way to achieve this - examine achievement goals and how they interact with perceived ability/competence • Achievement Goal Theory -How people evaluate their competence or incompetence and orient their behaviour accordingly.

What is extrinsic motivation? (self-determination theory)

• Extrinsic Motivation: when sport involvement is driven by trophies, ribbons, salaries or scholarships, or the approval of others- want some sort of external reward, eg. a medal, money

What is the self-determination theory interested in?

• General theory on WHAT motivates people (as opposed to how)

What are individual differences in achievement goals?- how is this related to task and ego orientation?

• Goal orientations considered independent (orthogonal) - combination of high, moderated, low (Nicholls, 1984) • Individual differences in orientations result of socialisation of task or ego involvement in home or experiences in achievement (i.e. classroom) (Nicholls, 1989) • Adoption of task and ego goals for specific activity involve both individual goal orientations and situation cues -High ego orientation is fine, as long as you can balance it with high task orientation

What is intrinsic motivation (self-determination theory)

• Intrinsic Motivation: participation in sport that is inherently pleasurable, when effort is based on enjoyment of competition, excitement, or the desire to learn and improve. People to do things because they love it- no rewards

What theory is interested in answering this question? -Does it matter if the environment values winning over improvement?

• Motivational Climate (Ames, 1992)

What are the characteristics of an athlete who is ego orientated?

• Other - referenced perceptions of competence • Perspective concerned with one's current ability level: either going to beat or lose to their people -Sense of competence depends on demonstrating superior performance to others -or an equal performance to others but with less effort exhibited -Outcome orientation (results) -NOT conducive to maintaining perceptions of high competence / ability

What are the outcome predictions for an athlete who is task orientated?

• Positive involved - positive pattern of Cognitive, Affective & Behavioural Reponses occur: -Effort -Persistence in the face of failure -Selection of challenging tasks -Perceived competence -Intrinsic motivation -Performance

How does coaches behaviour effect motivation of athletes?

• Reward contributing to internal locus of causality (i.e., the cause of one's behaviour resides inside the person) ---intrinsic motivation will increase. -Individuals feel high levels of self-determination and perceive that their behaviours are determined by their own internal motivation. -For example, sport and exercise programs in which individuals have the opportunity to provide input about the choice of activities, personal performance goals, and team or class objectives result in higher intrinsic motivation because they increase personal perceptions of control

What are some applied implications for fostering intrinsic motivation and self-determination?

• Rewards - performance contingent & structured to provide information (not control) • Verbal and non-verbal feedback should be positive • Autonomy supportive coaching style • Set challenging but achievable goals • Encourage social support and team cohesion

Summary of self-determination theory?

• SDT views motivation from a multi-dimensional perspective • Motivational styles exist on a continuum of self-determination • High levels of intrinsic motivation associated with positive behaviours, cognitions and affect • Coaches, teachers, & parents should seek to satisfy the needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness • Facilitate intrinsic motivation and self-determined behaviours.

What is the theory associated with the question: •Does it matter if we have a choice?

• Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000)

What are the characteristics of people who are task-orientated?

• Self-referenced perceptions of competence • Focused on improving ability over time, rather then proving current ability • Current ability is less important • Process orientation (one step at a time) • Conducive to maintaining high perceptions of competence/ability

What are the predictions for an athlete who is ego orientated?

• Similar to Task orientation - if high perception of ability is maintained • However - external source of control - perceptions of ability are fragile: based on whether they are beating people • Low perceived ability or athletes not certain of success maladaptive psychological responses can occur - including: -Effort withdrawal -Low persistence -Avoid challenging tasks -Cognitive interference -Higher stress and anxiety -Higher tendency to cheat

What is the self-serving bias? -What are the outcomes of this?

• Successful performers take credit for success -Done by attributing success to their own qualities -Natural ability, ability to respond to competitive stress • Enhances feeling of pride, self-worth & self-esteem • Also tend to blame external factors for failure -Done automatically to avoid internal controllable & stable factors (even if such factors may be true) -Self -Serving Bias - give attributions to protect self-esteem rather than look for true attributions which would reflect reality • Unsuccessful performers - do not always attribute failure to external factors -Do not protect self-esteem & tends to reduce motivation

What are the 6 achievement structures that Epstein identified that promote either performance or a mastery orientated environment?

• Task (Design of tasks) • Authority (location of decision making) • Recognition (distribution or rewards) • Grouping (manner & frequency of grouping) • Evaluation (standards of performance) • Time (pace of learning)

What is the locus of causality, and how does this effect motivation levels?

• Variable at work - athletes perception of which force controls their behaviour (Locus of Causality) • If athlete view cause of their behaviour as external to themselves - someone else 'pulling the strings' - they feel a reduced sense of determination & motivation declines • If athlete believes that they are the cause of their behaviour, they feel greater autonomy and motivation rises • Locus of Causality is a perception (Murphy, 2005)

What is the theory associated with the question: •Does it matter how we attribute success or failure?

•Attribution Theory (Weiner, 1985; 1986) -Why were we successful? Why were we not?