Motor Learning Final Exam
To help beginning dancers learn the rhythmic structure of a dance routine, either auditory or visual demonstration will be similarly effective for learning. A. True B. False
B. False
Which of the following is not a generally accepted hypothesis explaining why mental practice is so effective? A. Neuromuscular Hypothesis B. Fatigue Hypothesis C. Brain Activity Hypothesis D. Cognitive Hypothesis
B. Fatigue Hypothesis
According to Wrightman and Lintern (1985), which method of practicing parts of a skill involves praciticing individual limbs first fo a skill that involves asymmetric coordination of the arms and legs? A. Segmentation B. Fractionisation C. Simplification D. Division
B. Fractionisation
Which of the following statements about Terminal Feedback is FALSE: A. Feedback is provided after a person has completed the performance of a skill B. It is less effective than concurrent feedback C. It is a sort of Augmented Feedback, supplementary to Task-intrinsic feedback D. There are two intervals of time associated with it: KR delay interval, post KR interval
B. It is less effective than concurrent feedback
Externally presented information about the outcome of performing a skill or about achieving the performance is known as: A. Knowledge of Performance B. Knowledge of Results C. Task-intrinsic Feedback D. Terminal Feedback
B. Knowledge of Results
Which of the following is NOT a limit to the contextual interference effect? A. task characteristics B. environment characteristics C. learner characteristics D. a) & b) E. a) & c)
B. environment characteristics
There are 2 types of performance related feedback. Augmented feedback adds to or enhances task-intrinsic feedback. Which of the following best defines task-intrinsic feedback: A. Conscious Internal feedback that the performer infers themselves B. sensory-perceptual feedback C. feedback given from an external source ie. coach D. a) & b)
B. sensory-perceptual feedback
The interference that results from performing variations of a skill within the context of practice (Batting, 1979) is known as: A. Elaboration Interference B. Variable Practice C. Contextual Interference D. Variable Interference
C. Contextual Interference
Highly organised activities that: - have a structured set of rules - requires effort and are not particularly enjoyable - are specifcally designed to improve current level of performance; and - involve delayed gratification (promise of return effort) are classified as what sort of practice? A. Part B. Whole C. Deliberate D. Efficient
C. Deliberate
Which of the following statements about Imagery is CORRECT: A. All people have equal ability when it comes to imagery B. Mental Practice is still very effective even when imagery is not used effectively C. Imagery Ability is focussed on being able to image an action when requested to do so D. b) & c)
C. Imagery Ability is focussed on being able to image an action when requested to do so
A coach saying to his 100m sprinter athlete after a practice trial: "Great job, you did 3 seconds better than your last run" is an example of what sort of feedback? A. Augmented Feedback B. Knowledge of Results C. Knowledge of Performance D. External Feedback
C. Knowledge of Performance
Practice where the amount of rest between practice session or trials is short is considered to be: A. Varied Practice B. Grouped Practice C. Massed Practice D. Distributed Practice
C. Massed Practice
Which of the following statements about Intertrial Interval and Practice Distributions is FALSE: A. distributed practice schedules are better for learning discrete skills B. massed practice schedules are better for learning continuous skills C. the amount of practice interacts with other variables to yield optimal learning (ie. type and frequency of feedback and variability of practice) D. all of the above E. none of the above F. a) & b)
F. a) & b)
The reduced frequency benefit associated with the frequency of presenting Augmented Feedback describes: A. the guidence hypothesis B. the athlete may grow dependent on intrinsic feedback however will also need to develop extrinsic feedback for competition scenarios C. the optimal frequency for augmented feedback is not 100% D. all of the above E. b) & c) F. a) & c)
F. a) & c)
What is the most correct definition of Demonstration? A. A form of teaching that encourages individuals to examine a skill from an observers point of view B. A common method for providing information C. Another way of explaining modeling, or observational learning D. All of the above E. a) & b) F. b) & c)
F. b) & c)
Research has shown that beginners who observe other beginners practicing a skill will perform at a higher level when they begin to perform the skill than the beginners they observed. A. True B. False
B. False
Research has shown that the overlearning strategy benefits the learning of all types of motor skills. A. True B. False
B. False
Which of the following principles of Demonstration for skill acquisition is FALSE: A. Demonstrators should perform the skill correctly, however make small skill errors in order to allow the novice observer to engage in more active problem solving B. The observer perceives the invariant movement patterns correctly, the more likely these patterns will promote the quality from the demonstration C. Observer perceives information about the strategy used by the model to solve movement problems. D. Demonstration leads to better skill learning than other instruction forms
A. Demonstrators should perform the skill correctly, however make small skill errors in order to allow the novice observer to engage in more active problem solving
Shaping a skill occurs when: A. Simplified or incomplete versions of a skill are rehearsed and missing components are gradually added B. The skill is broken down into components that are rehearsed as if they were isolated skills. Over time, the components of the skill are then put together to perform the skill C. The difficulty of specific parts of features of a skill is reduced D. The skill is separated into parts and practicing the parts so that it is practiced together with the next part (progressive)
A. Simplified or incomplete versions of a skill are rehearsed and missing components are gradually added
Augmented feedback that tells a beginner those aspects of the performance that were correct can serve a motivational role to encourage the person. A. True B. False
A. True
Before you determine whether to use a whole or part strategy to practice a skill, it is important to first do a task analysis to assess the complexity and organization characteristics of the skill. A. True B. False
A. True
Giving augmented feedback to a beginner only when he or she requests it is better than giving the augmented feedback on every trial. A. True B. False
A. True
Novices should observe other novices as part of demonstration A. True B. False
A. True
Quantitative KR leads to better motor skill learning than qualitative KR. A. True B. False
A. True
Research has shown that people who practice in a blocked practice schedule tend to overestimate how well they are learning during practice. A. True B. False
A. True
Research has shown that the segmentation part-practice strategy will facilitate the learning of a musical score on a piano. A. True B. False
A. True
The Elaboration Hypothesis states that contextual interference improves learning because as learners create new skill variations during random practice they create a more distinct memory representation of the skill. A. True B. False
A. True
The guideline for implementing practice variability for the learning of open skills is to vary both regulatory and nonregulatory conditions. A. True B. False
A. True
The term practice variability refers to the variety of movement and context characteristics the learner experiences while practicing a skill. A. True B. False
A. True
The terms modeling and observational learning often are used interchangeably with the term demonstration when they refer to the learning of motor skills. A. True B. False
A. True
Verbal instructions that direct the performer's attention to the intended movement outcomes will lead to better learning and performance than instructions that direct attention to the movements used to perform the skill. A. True B. False
A. True
A dance routine is considered to be: Complexity; organisation eg. high complexity; high organisation A. high ; low B. low ; high C. high ; high D. low ; low
A. high ; low
If you are asked to demonstrate how you tie your shoes, you would base your demonstration on knowledge stored in long-term memory in the A. procedural memory system B. episodic memory system C. muscle memory system D. semantic memory system
A. procedural memory system
The Elaboration Hypothesis (Shea & Morgan, 1979) proposed that: A. the contextual interference effect is related to the elaboration of memory representation of the skill variations that a learner is practicing. B. high amounts of contextual interference benefit learning because the interference benefit learning because the interference requires a person to reconstruct an action plan on the next trial for a particular skill variation. C. higher levels of contextual interference involves greater attention demands during practice D. people who practice according to a blocked schedule tend to overestimate how well they are learning during practice
A. the contextual interference effect is related to the elaboration of memory representation of the skill variations that a learner is practicing.
Knowledge of Results (KR) and Knowledge of Performance (KP) are examples of what sort of feedback: A. Task-Intrinsic Feedback B. Augmentented Feedback C. Extrinsic Feedback D. External Feedback
B. Augmentented Feedback
The ________________ (Bandura 186) states that when a person observes a model, they translate the observed movement information into a symbolic memory code the forms the basis of a stored representation in memory and uses it when the observer performs the skill: A. Central Resource Capacity Theory B. Cognitive Medation Theory C. Dynamic View of Modeling D. Filter Theory
B. Cognitive Medation Theory
Overlearning is most correctly described as: A. Spending too much time learning a skill so that it actually becomes detrimental to the performance of said skill B. Continuation of practice beyond the amount needed to achieve a certain performance criteria C. Extra practice completed once the performer has become proficient at a skill D. A positive effect that occurs when a skill is learnt for an extended period of time
B. Continuation of practice beyond the amount needed to achieve a certain performance criteria
Which of the following is not a hypothesis which has aimed to explain why distributed practice sessions lead to better learning: A. Fatigue Hypothesis B. Elaboration Hypothesis C. Cognitive-effort Hypothesis D. Memory consolidation Hypothesis
B. Elaboration Hypothesis
Which of the following statements about overlearning is FALSE: A. The overlearning of procedural skills, a combination of both cognitive and motor components, B. Extra practice in dynamic balance skills tend to be detrimental for balancing skill acquisition C. Diminished returns have been observed from over-practicing skills in the PE Class setting D. Overlearning has a positive influence on retention performance for motor learning skills
B. Extra practice in dynamic balance skills tend to be detrimental for balancing skill acquisition
A limitation of the contextual interference effect is that it applies only to beginners and not to more skilled performers of motor skills. A. True B. False
B. False
A schedule that organizes the practice of several skill variations in a serial order is an example of a practice schedule that involves a low amount of contextual interference. A. True B. False
B. False
Concurrent augmented feedback always has negative effects on motor skill learning. A. True B. False
B. False
If you see where your golf ball goes after you hit it, the visual feedback you receive is known as knowledge of results. A. True B. False
B. False
Mental practice is as effective as physical practice when it comes to certain motor skills A. True B. False
B. False
Overlearning only has positive effects on learning, as athletes become extremely proficient at the motor skills they are practicing A. True B. False
B. False
Research evidence shows that you can hinder the learning of a motor skill by a beginner by delaying the augmented feedback too long. A. True B. False
B. False
Which of the following statements about practice variability is FALSE: A. It refers to the variety of movement and context characteristics the learner experiences while practicing a skill B. The learner can benefit from increased capability to perform the skill in future test situations. C. Practice variability is associated with a decreased amount of performance error during practice D. Practice variability benefits future performance by comparing the effects of retention of practice situations involving one variation of a skill with those involving several variations of the skill Practice variability is associated with an increased amount of performance error during practice (as the athlete must adapt the skill to new contexts and scenarios that thye may have to face on game day)
C. Practice variability is associated with a decreased amount of performance error during practice
Verbal Instructions rank with demonstration as a commonly used means of communicating how to perform skills. Which of the following factors about developing effective verbal instructions is FALSE: A. You need to focus on the movement outcomes ie. action effect hypothesis B. Focus attention on invariant environmental context and regulatory conditions C. They should be descriptive and long so that the observer understand what is required D. Give verbal instructions the influence goal achievement strategies
C. They should be descriptive and long so that the observer understand what is required
Which of the following is an example of a skill requiring high organisation? A. handwriting B. a dance routine C. a free throw in basketball D. none of the above
C. a free throw in basketball
Which of the following is not a reason why augmented feedback is essential for learning? A. some skill situations do not make critical sensory feedback available to the person B. there exists the possibility that a person may not have available sensory pathways needed to detect feedback C. many people depend on receiving feedback from external sources D. feedback is provided from the sensory system, however, the person cannot use the feedback It is important that people do not become dependent on augmented feedback - intrinsic feedback must also be developed
C. many people depend on receiving feedback from external sources
If a novice and highly skilled typist were required to perform a verbal secondary task while typing on a keyboard the novice's typing performance would be A. impossible to assess B. more positively influenced than the skilled typist's C. more negatively influenced than the skilled typist's D. no different from the skilled typist's
C. more negatively influenced than the skilled typist's
A skill low in organisatoin has: A. A large number of parts involved in the skill and high attention demands B. A small amount of components involved with lower attention demands needed for the task C. Component parts that are spatially and temporally interdependent D. Component parts that are spatially and temporally independent
D. Component parts that are spatially and temporally independent
Augmented feedback provided while the person is performing the skill is known as: A. Terminal Feedback B. Knowledge of Performance C. Knowledge of Results D. Concurrent Feedback
D. Concurrent Feedback
Which of the following statements about distribution of practice is FALSE: A. Research shows that practice sessions can be too long and infrequent to lead to optimal learning B. Better learning results when people practice skills in larger number of shorter sessions than when sessions are long and fewer in number C. Massed sessions refer to longer sessions within a day or a few days D. Distributed sessions account for sessions with large amounts of rest during practice sessions, and more sessions across more days
D. Distributed sessions account for sessions with large amounts of rest during practice sessions, and more sessions across more days
Which of the following statements about Mental Practice is FALSE: A. It involves the cognitive rehearsal of a physical in the absence of overt physical movement B. It can include engagement of visual or kinesthetic imagery of the performance of a skill or part of a skill C. Visual imagery can be either internal (imagines themselves performing the skill) or external (viewing themselves as an observer ie. movie) D. none of the above
D. none of the above
Which of the following statements is FALSE: A. If the skill is low in complexity and high in organisation, practice of the whole skill is best B. If the skill is high in complexity and low in organisation, practice by using the part method is best. C. all of the above D. none of the above
D. none of the above
How frequently should a demonstration be given? A. At the start of practice only B. Only once the learners have attempted the skill on their own C. At the start of practice and then immediately after every attempt D. At the start of practice and then at the end of practice E. At the start of practice and then intermittently as frequently as necerssary
E. At the start of practice and then intermittently as frequently as necerssary
Skill complexity is best defined as: A. The level of difficulty of the skill that is being practiced or peformed B. The number of parts of components in a skill C. The attention demands required by a task D. a) & b) E. b) & c)
E. b) & c)
If a priority list of KP statements is used as the basis for giving augmented feedback: a. KP is given according to which error has the highest priority on the list. b. the first KP statement is given on the first trial, the second statement is given on the next trial, and so on. c. any statement can be given on any trial as long as the KP is from the priority list. d. the teacher can be more aware of potential problems with the skill but does not need to be limited to giving KP from the list.
a. KP is given according to which error has the highest priority on the list.
Which of the following attention-related concepts is essential to apply to the delivery of verbal instructions about how to perform a motor skill? a. Limited attention capacity b. Attention switching c. Attentional spotlight d. All of these
a. Limited attention capacity
If person A practiced a skill for 30 seconds and then had a 5-second rest between each trial, and person B practiced the same skill for 30 seconds and had a 40-second rest between each trial, which person is in the massed practice condition, and which one is in the distributed condition? a. Practice for person A is massed and for person B is distributed. b. Practice for person B is distributed and for person A is massed. c. Both persons are in a distributed condition. d. Both persons are in a massed condition.
a. Practice for person A is massed and for person B is distributed.
Learning a skill can be hindered if which of the following activities is engaged in during the KR-delay interval? a. Practicing another skill that has KR presented on each trial b. Performing any type of motor skill c. Performing any type of verbal skill d. Estimating your own error for the just completed response
a. Practicing another skill that has KR presented on each trial
Which of the following is an example of regulatory conditions in a motor skill performance situation? a. Speed of a tennis ball during a rally b. Score of a baseball game c. Number of spectators at a game d. All of these are regulatory characteristics
a. Speed of a tennis ball during a rally
The "guidance hypothesis," which relates to the frequency of KR, takes issue with which traditional viewpoint about the best frequency for KR? a. The more frequently KR is given, the better the learning will be. b. The less frequently KR is given, the better the learning will be. c. A combination of 100% and relative frequency leads to the best learning. d. More frequent KR early in practice and less frequent KR later in practice leads to the best learning.
a. The more frequently KR is given, the better the learning will be.
Providing additional practice beyond what is needed to achieve a specific performance criterion seems to be especially useful when a. a skill will be practiced and then not used for a long time. b. skills are being learned that do not demand much attention. c. a skill is highly complex and low in organization. d. a skill will be performed in a variety of unique contexts.
a. a skill will be practiced and then not used for a long time.
There appears to be general agreement that an important motor learning process engaged in during the post-KR interval is a. action plan development. b. feedback evaluation. c. error estimation. d. schema development.
a. action plan development.
The view that modeling benefits skill learning because the model helps the learner develop an accessible representation in memory that will serve as a guide for performing the skill is known as the a. cognitive mediation theory. b. symbolic coding theory. c. dynamic view. d. behavioral view.
a. cognitive mediation theory.
Comparisons of augmented feedback that is based on performance errors and correct performance have usually shown that a. error-based feedback is better for learning. b. correct performance feedback is better for learning. c. error-based feedback is better early in practice, whereas correct performance feedback is better later in practice. d. correct performance feedback is better early in practice, whereas error-based feedback is better later in practice.
a. error-based feedback is better for learning.
Evidence from research investigating observational learning has shown that one reason why observing a skilled person demonstrate a skill benefits the learning of that skill is that the observer perceives and uses a. invariant relationships in the observed movement pattern. b. kinematic details of the movement of a critical limb segment. c. kinetic information about the movement pattern. d. all of these.
a. invariant relationships in the observed movement pattern.
In experiments comparing different levels of contextual interference during motor skill practice, the typical results show that the a. low contextual interference schedule is better during practice, but the high contextual interference schedule shows better retention. b. high contextual interference schedule is better during practice, but the low contextual interference schedule shows better retention. c. low and high contextual interference schedules are similar during practice, but the low schedule shows better retention. d. low and high contextual interference schedules are similar during practice, but the high schedule shows better retention.
a. low contextual interference schedule is better during practice, but the high contextual interference schedule shows better retention.
If augmented feedback is used by the learner as information to guide error correction, then it will be used to help the learner a. plan upcoming practice trials. b. stay motivated to keep practicing. c. know when he or she has had enough practice to stop practicing. d. establish good habits early in practice.
a. plan upcoming practice trials.
The experiment by Baddely and Longman (1978) concluded that a typing skill was learned better when practice sessions were a. short and held for 12 weeks. b. long and held for 3 weeks. c. short and held for 3 weeks. d. long and held for 12 weeks.
a. short and held for 12 weeks.
If the type of skill is taken into account, massed practice and distributed practice help which types of skills? a. Continuous skills are helped by massed schedules, and discrete skills are helped by distributed schedules. b. Continuous skills are helped by distributed schedules, and discrete skills are helped by massed schedules. c. Both continuous and discrete skills are helped by massed schedules. d. Both continuous and discrete skills are helped by distributed schedules.
b. Continuous skills are helped by distributed schedules, and discrete skills are helped by massed schedules.
Showing people a velocity-time curve of their golf swing performance is an example of using what type of information as augmented feedback? a. Videotape b. KP c. Qualitative KR d. Quantitative KR
b. KP
The statement "your score was 16 on that attempt" is which type of augmented feedback? a. Sensory feedback b. Knowledge of results c. Knowledge of performance d. Augmented sensory feedback
b. Knowledge of results
Which of the following statements about descriptive KP and prescriptive KP is correct? a. Descriptive KP is preferable to prescriptive KP early in practice. b. Prescriptive KP is preferable to descriptive KP early in practice. c. Either descriptive or prescriptive KP is appropriate to use early in practice. d. Neither descriptive nor prescriptive KP should be used early in practice.
b. Prescriptive KP is preferable to descriptive KP early in practice.
When massed practice has hindered learning for continuous skills, the most probable cause is a. boredom. b. fatigue. c. anxiety. d. frustration.
b. fatigue.
A beginner can benefit from observing another beginner practice a skill especially when the observer can a. hear the verbal instructions given to the other beginner. b. hear the augmented feedback given to the other beginner. c. both a and b. d. neither a nor b; beginners cannot benefit by observing other beginners in practice.
b. hear the augmented feedback given to the other beginner.
In experiments in which erroneous KR was given to participants for skills that could be learned without KR, the results have shown that the participants a. paid attention to the task-intrinsic feedback and ignored the erroneous KR. b. ignored the task-intrinsic feedback and performed according to the erroneous KR. c. paid attention to both the task-intrinsic feedback and erroneous KR and performed according to a mid-point between them. d. became confused and performed rather randomly.
b. ignored the task-intrinsic feedback and performed according to the erroneous KR.
When augmented feedback acts to help a person continue striving to achieve a set performance goal, augmented feedback functions as a. a guide to correcting errors. b. motivation. c. reinforcement. d. information.
b. motivation.
When the length of the post-KR interval is considered in terms of influencing skill learning, research has shown that a. only an interval that is too long will hinder learning. b. only an interval that is too short will hinder learning. c. intervals that are too long or too short will hinder learning. d. the length of the interval will not influence learning.
b. only an interval that is too short will hinder learning.
If videotape is to be used as augmented feedback without the instructor being available, then this form of augmented feedback should be used a. only with beginners. b. only with intermediate- to advanced-level performers. c. only with advanced performers. d. with all levels of performers.
b. only with intermediate- to advanced-level performers.
When you give a person augmented feedback based on a "performance bandwidth," you give feedback when the person's performance is: a. within a specific range of correctness. b. outside a specific range or correctness. c. either a or b d. both a and b
b. outside a specific range or correctness.
For which of the following tasks has research consistently demonstrated that KR is not needed to learn? a. Ball throwing task b. Force production learning task c. Linear positioning task d. Anticipation timing task
c Anticipation timing task
Verbal cues seem to work because they a. direct attention to relevant information in the environment. b. prompt a specific sequence of movements to be performed. c. both a and b. d. neither a nor b.
c. both a and b.
When verbal encouragement given to people learning a skill leads to improvement in performance but verbal KP leads to a greater improvement, the influence of KP in this situation a. is essential for skill learning. b. is not needed for skill learning. c. enhances skill learning. d. hinders skill learning.
c. enhances skill learning.
There appears to be general agreement that an important motor learning process engaged in during the KR-delay interval is a. action plan development. b. motor program organization. c. error estimation. d. response preparation.
c. error estimation.
Concurrent augmented feedback appears to be effective to the extent that it a. shows the learner his or her errors. b. indicates when a correct performance has occurred. c. helps the learner discover important control variable related to performance. d. augments task-intrinsic feedback that is difficult for the beginner to identify.
c. helps the learner discover important control variable related to performance.
When augmented feedback tells the person which movement characteristics produced the movement outcome that occurred, the form of augmented feedback is known as a. sensory feedback. b. knowledge of results. c. knowledge of performance. d. augmented sensory feedback.
c. knowledge of performance.
A classic experiment investigating the massed vs. distributed practice schedule issue was done by Adams and Reynolds (1954). They concluded that for a pursuit motor task, a. massed practice benefits practice performance and learning. b. distributed practice benefits practice performance and learning. c. massed practice leads to a performance decrement but not a learning decrement. d. distributed practice leads to a performance decrement but not a learning decrement.
c. massed practice leads to a performance decrement but not a learning decrement.
Experimental evidence shows that when quantitative and qualitative KR have been compared in terms of their effects during practice when learning a skill, the results have shown that quantitative KR leads to: a. better performance than qualitative KR only early in practice. b. better performance than qualitative KR early and late in practice. c. no better performance than qualitative KR early in practice but better than qualitative KR later in practice. d. no better performance than qualitative KR early and later in practice.
c. no better performance than qualitative KR early in practice but better than qualitative KR later in practice.
If we follow Gentile's suggestion, developing variable practice experiences for closed skills would focus on varying a. all aspects of the skill. b. the regulatory conditions related to the skill. c. the nonregulatory conditions related to the skill. d. no specific aspects of the skill.
c. the nonregulatory conditions related to the skill.
An example of qualitative KR is, "you...: a. were 10 msec too slow." b. were 10 msec from the goal time." c. were too slow." d. should try again."
c. were too slow.
In the study by Schendel and Hagman (1982), what type of skill was shown to benefit from overtraining? a. An open skill b. A continuous skill c. A dynamic skill d. A procedural skill
d. A procedural skill
To help a person lean to activate a specific muscle group to produce a desired movement, which of the following is a type of biofeedback that has been shown to be effective? a. Force-time curve resulting from the movement b. Displacement curve from their movement c. Velocity profile of their movement d. EMG results from their movement
d. EMG results from their movement
The view that explains the contextual interference effect based on the argument that between-trial interference causes us to forget critical information encoded on the previous trial is called the a. interference view. b. elaboration view. c. recognition schema forgetting view. d. action plan reconstruction view.
d. action plan reconstruction view.
In the experiment where objects were given 50%, 100%, and 200% additional practice on a balancing task, results showed that the extra practice was a. not beneficial. b. beneficial in that each additional amount yielded better learning. c. beneficial, but only for the 200% extra practice. d. beneficial, but there was a point of diminishing returns.
d. beneficial, but there was a point of diminishing returns.
For open skills, regulatory conditions a. do not change from one performance to another. b. can change from one performance to another but do not change during the movement execution. c. can not change from one performance to another and do not change during the movement execution. d. can change from one performance to another and during the movement execution.
d. can change from one performance to another and during the movement execution.
One common problem of much of the research investigating the massed vs. distributed practice issue is a. too many practice trials. b. inappropriate tasks to be learned. c. not sufficiently long enough retention intervals. d. the lack of a retention or transfer test.
d. the lack of a retention or transfer test.
