Music History Test #4

Ritornello (in the classical era)

3. In an aria or similar piece, an instrumental passage that recurs several times, like a refrain. Typically, it is played at the beginning, as interludes (often in modified form), and again at the end, and it states the main theme. 4. In a fast movement of a concerto, the recurring thematic material played at the beginning by the full orchestra and repeated, usually in varied form, throughout the movement and at the end.

The Enlightenment

A European intellectual movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries emphasizing reason and individualism rather than tradition. It was heavily influenced by 17th-century philosophers such as Descartes, Locke, and Newton, and its prominent exponents include Kant, Goethe, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Adam Smith. So, how do these ideas translate into music? Well for one, the Enlightenment changed how people saw music. Before this, fine music was mostly reserved for the highly educated, the nobility, and the wealthy. The common people were traditionally assumed to be unable to appreciate fine arts. However, Enlightenment scholars challenged this tradition. They claimed that since all humans are inherently equal, all people can appreciate fine music and, therefore, more people should have access to such music. During the Enlightenment, the number of amateur musicians skyrocketed as musical learning was opened to more than just the wealthy. Composers also felt they had a moral obligation to provide fine music for the common people.

C.P.E. Bach

A precocious musician who remained successful, C.P.E. Bach was his father's true successor and an important figure in his own right. In his autobiography he writes: "For composition and keyboard-playing, I have never had any teacher other than my father." He studied law, taking his degree at Frankfurt in 1735, although he probably never had any intention of a career other than music. In 1740 he was appointed harpsichordist to Frederick II of Prussia. Frederick was a good flutist and so fond of music that he had his court orchestra accompany him in concerti every night except Mondays and Fridays, which were opera nights. The subservience that he required from his distinguished harpsichordist grew irksome, but it was not until 1767 that Bach was able to resign his Berlin post to take up an appointment as music director at Hamburg. Meanwhile, he had married (1744), published his Versuch über die wahre Art das Klavier zu spielen (1753, rev. ed. 1787; Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments), and acquired an enviable reputation, as a composer, performer, and teacher. Unlike his elder brother Wilhelm Friedemann, C.P.E. Bach was successful in assimilating the powerful influence of their father and in making the transition into the new style then evolving. This represented a break with the past such as has occurred in very few other periods of musical development. The monumental character of Baroque music gave way to a mercurial Romanticism, for which the favourite contemporary description was "sensitivity" (Empfindsamkeit). Bach became a leader of that movement but retained the advantage of a solid craftsmanship and assurance for which he always gave full credit to his father's teaching and example.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

A prolific artist, Austrian composer Wolfgang Mozart created a string of operas, concertos, symphonies and sonatas that profoundly shaped classical music. Synopsis Born on January 27, 1756, in Salzburg, Austria, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was a musician capable of playing multiple instruments who started playing in public at the age of 6. Over the years, Mozart aligned himself with a variety of European venues and patrons, composing hundreds of works that included sonatas, symphonies, masses, chamber music, concertos and operas, marked by vivid emotion and sophisticated textures. Early Life Central Europe in the mid-18th century was going through a period of transition. The remnants of the Holy Roman Empire had divided into small semi-self-governing principalities. The result was competing rivalries between these municipalities for identity and recognition. Political leadership of small city-states like Salzburg, Vienna, and Prague was in the hands of the aristocracy and their wealth would commission artists and musicians to amuse, inspire, and entertain. The music of the Renaissance and Baroque periods was transitioning toward more full-bodied compositions with complex instrumentation. The small city-state of Salzburg would be the birthplace of one of the most talented and prodigious musical composers of all time. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's was the sole-surviving son of Leopold and Maria Pertl Mozart. Leopold was a successful composer, violinist, and assistant concert master at the Salzburg court. Wolfgang's mother, Anna Maria Pertl, was born to a middle class family of local community leaders. His only sister was Maria Anna (nicknamed "Nannerl"). With their father's encouragement and guidance, they both were introduced to music at an early age. Leopold started Nannerl on keyboard when she was seven, as three-year old Wolfgang looked on. Mimicking her playing, Wolfgang quickly began to show a strong understanding of chords, tonality, and tempo. Soon, he too was being tutored by his father. Leopold was a devoted and task-oriented teacher to both his children. He made the lessons fun, but also insisted on a strong work ethic and perfection. Fortunately, both children excelled well in these areas. Recognizing their special talents, Leopold devoted much of his time to their education in music as well as other subjects. Wolfgang soon showed signs of excelling beyond his father's teachings with an early composition at age five and demonstrating outstanding ability on harpsichord and the violin. He would soon go on to play the piano, organ and viola. In 1762, Wolfgang's father took Nannerl, now age eleven, and Wolfgang, age six to the court of Bavaria in Munich in what was to become the first of several European "tours." The siblings traveled to the courts of Paris, London, The Hague, and Zurich performing as child prodigies. Wolfgang met a number of accomplished musicians and became familiar with their works. Particularity important was his meeting with Johann Christian Bach (Johann Sebastian Bach's youngest son) in London who had a strong influence on Wolfgang. The trips were long and often arduous, traveling in primitive conditions and waiting for invitations and reimbursements from the nobility. Frequently, Wolfgang and other members of his family fell seriously ill and had to limit their performance schedule. Budding Young Composer In December, 1769, Wolfgang, then age 13, and his father departed from Salzburg for Italy, leaving his mother and sister at home. It seems that by this time Nannerl's professional music career was over. She was nearing marriageable age and according to the custom of the time, she was no longer permitted to show her artistic talent in public. The Italian outing was longer than the others (1769-1771) as Leopold wanted to display his son's abilities as a performer and composer to as many new audiences as possible. While in Rome, Wolfgang heard Gregorio Allegri's Miserere performed once in the Sistine Chapel. He wrote out the entire score from memory, returning only to correct a few minor errors. During this time Wolfgang also wrote a new opera, Mitridate, re di Ponto for the court of Milan. Other commissions followed and in subsequent trips to Italy, Wolfgang wrote two other operas, Ascanio in Alba (1771) and Lucio Silla (1772). Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and his father returned from their last stay in Italy in March, 1773. His father's benefactor, Archbishop von Schrattenbach had died and was succeeded by Hieronymus von Colleredo. Upon their return, the new archbishop appointed young Mozart as assistant concertmaster with a small salary. During this time, young Mozart had the opportunity to work in several different musical genres composing symphonies, string quartets, sonatas and serenades and a few operas. He developed a passion for violin concertos producing what came to be the only five he wrote. In 1776, he turned his efforts toward piano concertos, culminating in the Piano Concerto Number 9 in E flat major in early 1777. Wolfgang had just turned 21. Despite his success with the compositions, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was growing discontent with his position as assistant concert master and the confining environment of Salzburg. He was ambitious and believed he could do more somewhere else. Archbishop von Colloredo was becoming inpatient with the young genius's complaining and immature attitude. In August 1777, Mozart set out on a trip to find more prosperous employment. The archbishop wouldn't give Leopold permission to travel, so Anna Maria accompanied Wolfgang on his quest to the cities of Mannheim, Paris and Munich. There were several employment positions that initially proved promising, but all eventually fell through. He began to run out of funds and had to pawn several valuable personal items to pay traveling and living expenses. The lowest point of the trip was when his mother fell ill and died on July 3, 1778. After hearing the news of his wife's death, Leopold negotiated a better post for his son as court organist in Salzburg and Wolfgang returned soon after. Making it in Vienna Back in Salzburg in 1779, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart produced a series of church works, including the Coronation Mass. He also composed another opera for Munich, Ideomeneo in 1781. In March of that year, Mozart was summoned to Vienna by Archbishop von Colloredo, who was attending the accession of Joseph II to the Austrian throne. The Archbishop's cool reception toward Mozart offended him. He was treated as a mere servant, quartered with the help, and forbidden from performing before the Emperor for a fee equal to half his yearly salary in Salzburg. A quarrel ensued and Mozart offered to resign his post. The Archbishop refused at first, but then relented with an abrupt dismissal and physical removal from the Archbishop's presence. Mozart decided to settle in Vienna as a freelance performer and composer and for a time lived with friends at the home of Fridolin Weber. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart quickly found work in Vienna, taking on pupils, writing music for publication, and playing in several concerts. He also began writing an opera Die Entführung aus dem Serail (The Abduction from the Seraglio). In the summer of 1781, it was rumored that Mozart was contemplating marriage to Fridolin Weber's daughter, Constanze. Knowing his father would disapprove of the marriage and the interruption in his career, young Mozart quickly wrote his father denying any idea of marriage. But by December, he was asking for his father's blessings. While it's known that Leopold disapproved, what is not known is the discussion between father and son as Leopold's letters were said to be destroyed by Constanze. However, later correspondence from Wolfgang indicated that he and his father disagreed considerably on this matter. He was in love with Constanze and the marriage was being strongly encouraged by her mother, so in some sense, he felt committed. The couple was finally married on August 4, 1782. In the meantime, Leopold did finally consent to the marriage. Constanze and Wolfgang had six children, though only two survived infancy, Karl Thomas and Franz Xaver. As 1782 turned to 1783, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart became enthralled with the work of Johannes Sebastian Bach and George Frederic Handel and this, in turn, resulted in several compositions in the Baroque style and influenced much of his later compositions, such as passages in Die Zauberflote (The Magic Flute) and the finale of Symphony Number 41. During this time, Mozart met Joseph Haydn and the two composers became admiring friends. When Haydn visited Vienna, they sometimes performed impromptu concerts with string quartets. Between 1782 and 1785 Mozart wrote six quartets dedicated to Haydn. European Fame The opera Die Entführung enjoyed immediate and continuing success and bolstered Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's name and talent throughout Europe. With the substantial returns from concerts and publishing, he and Constanze enjoyed a lavish lifestyle. They lived in one of the more exclusive apartment buildings of Vienna, sent their son, Karl Thomas, to an expensive boarding school, kept servants, and maintained a busy social life. In 1783, Mozart and Constanze traveled Salzburg, to visit his father and sister. The visit was somewhat cool, as Leopold was still a reluctant father-in-law and Nannerl was a dutiful daughter. But the stay promoted Mozart to begin writing a mass in C Minor, of which only the first two sections, "Kyrie" and "Gloria," were completed. In 1784, Mozart became a Freemason, a fraternal order focused on charitable work, moral uprightness, and the development of fraternal friendship. Mozart was well regarded in the Freemason community, attending meetings and being involved in various functions. Freemasonry also became a strong influence in Mozart's music. From 1782 to 1785, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart divided his time between self-produced concerts as soloist, presenting three to four new piano concertos in each season. Theater space for rent in Vienna was sometimes hard to come by, so Mozart booked himself in unconventional venues such as large rooms in apartment buildings and ballrooms of expensive restaurants. The year 1784, proved the most prolific in Mozart's performance life. During one five-week period, he appeared in 22 concerts, including five he produced and performed as the soloist. In a typical concert, he would play a selection of existing and improvisational pieces and his various piano concertos. Other times he would conduct performances of his symphonies. The concerts were very well attended as Mozart enjoyed a unique connection with his audiences who were, in the words of Mozart biographer Maynard Solomon, "given the opportunity of witnessing the transformation and perfection of a major musical genre." During this time, Mozart also began to keep a catalog of his own music, perhaps indicating an awareness of his place in musical history. By the mid-1780s, Wolfgang and Constanze Mozart's extravagant lifestyle was beginning to take its toll. Despite his success as a pianist and composer, Mozart was falling into serious financial difficulties. Mozart associated himself with aristocratic Europeans and felt he should live like one. He figured that the best way to attain a more stable and lucrative income would be through court appointment. However, this wouldn't be easy with the court's musical preference bent toward Italian composers and the influence of Kapellmeister Antonio Salieri. Mozart's relationship with Salieri has been the subject of speculation and legend. Letters written between Mozart and his father, Leopold, indicate that the two felt a rivalry for and mistrust of the Italian musicians in general and Salieri in particular. Decades after Mozart's death, rumors spread that Salieri had poisoned him. This rumor was made famous in 20th century playwright Peter Shaffer's Amadeus and in the 1984 film of the same name by director Milos Foreman. But in truth there is no basis for this speculation. Though both composers were often in contention for the same job and public attention, there is little evidence that their relationship was anything beyond a typical professional rivalry. Both admired each other's work and at one point even collaborated on a cantata for voice and piano called Per la recuperate salute di Ophelia. Toward the end of 1785, Mozart met the librettist Lorenzo Da Ponte, a Venetian composer and poet and together they collaborated on the opera The Marriage of Figaro. It received a successful premier in Vienna in 1786 and was even more warmly received in Prague later that year. This triumph led to a second collaboration with Da Ponte on the opera Don Giovanni which premiered in 1787 to high acclaim in Prague. Noted for their musical complexity, the two operas are among Mozart's most important works and are mainstays in operatic repertoire today. Both compositions feature the wicked nobleman, though Figaro is presented more in comedy and portrays strong social tension. Perhaps the central achievement of both operas lies in their ensembles with their close link between music and dramatic meaning. Later Years In December, 1787, Emperor Joseph II appointed Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart as his "chamber composer," a post that had opened up with the death of Gluck. The gesture was as much an honor bestowed on Mozart as it was incentive to keep the esteemed composer from leaving Vienna for greener pastures. It was a part-time appointment with low pay, but it required Mozart only to compose dances for the annual balls. The modest income was a welcome windfall for Mozart, who was struggling with debt, and provided him the freedom to explore more of his personal musical ambitions. Toward the end of the 1780s, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's fortunes began to grow worse. He was performing less and his income shrank. Austria was at war and both the affluence of the nation and the ability of the aristocracy to support the arts had declined. By mid-1788, Mozart moved his family from central Vienna to the suburb of Alsergrund, for what would seem to be a way of reducing living costs. But in reality, his family expenses remained high and the new dwelling only provided more room. Mozart began to borrow money from friends, though he was almost always able to promptly repay when a commission or concert came his way. During this time he wrote his last three symphonies and the last of the three Da Ponte operas, Cosi Fan Tutte, which premiered in 1790. During this time, Mozart ventured long distances from Vienna to Leipzig, Berlin, and Frankfurt, and other German cities hoping to revive his once great success and the family's financial situation, but did neither. The two-year period of 1788-1789 was a low point for Mozart, experiencing in his own words "black thoughts" and deep depression. Historians believe he may have had some form of bipolar disorder, which might explain the periods of hysteria coupled with spells of hectic creativity. Between 1790 and 1791, now in his mid-thirties, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart went through a period of great music productivity and personal healing. Some of his most admired works -- the opera The Magic Flute, the final piano concerto in B-flat, the Clarinet Concerto in A major, and the unfinished Requiem to name a few -- were written during this time. Mozart was able to revive much of his public notoriety with repeated performances of his works. His financial situation began to improve as wealthy patrons in Hungary and Amsterdam pledged annuities in return for occasional compositions. From this turn of fortune, he was able to pay off many of his debts. However, during this time both Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's mental and physical health was deteriorating. In September, 1791, he was in Prague for the premier of the opera La Clemenza di Tito, which he was commissioned to produce for the coronation of Leopold II as King of Bohemia. Mozart recovered briefly to conduct the Prague premier of The Magic Flute, but fell deeper into illness in November and was confined to bed. Constanze and her sister Sophie came to his side to help nurse him back to health, but Mozart was mentally preoccupied with finishing Requiem, and their efforts were in vain. Death and Legacy Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart died on December 5, 1791 at age 35. The cause of death is uncertain, due to the limits of postmortem diagnosis. Officially, the record lists the cause as severe miliary fever, referring to a skin rash that looks like millet seeds. Since then, many hypotheses have circulated regarding Mozart's death. Some have attributed it to rheumatic fever, a disease he suffered from repeatedly throughout his life. It was reported that his funeral drew few mourners and he was buried in a common grave. Both actions were the Viennese custom at the time, for only aristocrats and nobility enjoyed public mourning and were allowed to be buried in marked graves. However, his memorial services and concerts in Vienna and Prague were well attended. After his death, Constanze sold many of his unpublished manuscripts to undoubtedly pay off the family's large debts. She was able to obtain a pension from the emperor and organized several profitable memorial concerts in Mozart's honor. From these efforts, Constanze was able to gain some financial security for herself and allowing her to send her children to private schools. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's death came at a young age, even for the time period. Yet his meteoric rise to fame and accomplishment at a very early age is reminiscent of more contemporary musical artists whose star had burned out way too soon. At the time of his death, Mozart was considered one of the greatest composers of all time. His music presented a bold expression, often times complex and dissonant, and required high technical mastery from the musicians who performed it. His works remained secure and popular throughout the 19th century, as biographies about him were written and his music enjoyed constant performances and renditions by other musicians. His work influenced many composers that followed -- most notably Beethoven. Along with his friend Joseph Haydn, Mozart conceived and perfected the grand forms of symphony, opera, string ensemble, and concerto that marked the classical period. In particular, his operas display an uncanny psychological insight, unique to music at the time, and continue to exert a particular fascination for musicians and music lovers today.

Gluck

Christoph Willibald Gluck was an opera composer who tried his hand at almost all of the operatic genres of his day. He is probably most famous for his first two "reform operas" (Orfeo ed Euridice and Alceste) and the debate that they engendered. Debate aside, his works, especially his reform operas, continued to influence composers for several generations. His famous student, Antonio Salieri, benefited from Gluck's teachings in his own well-received operas, and, as Salieri mentored famous composers such as Beethoven, Schubert and Liszt, Gluck's legacy was indeed substantial.

Domenico Scarlatti

Domenico Scarlatti, in full Giuseppe Domenico Scarlatti (born October 26, 1685, Naples [Italy]—died July 23, 1757, Madrid, Spain), Italian composer noted particularly for his 555 keyboard sonatas, which substantially expanded the technical and musical possibilities of the harpsichord.

Intermezzo

Eighteenth-century genre of Italian comic opera, performed between acts of a serious opera or play.

The Galant Style

French, "elegant" Eighteenth-century musical style that featured songlike melodies, short phrases, frequent cadences, and light accompaniment.

Concerto

From Italian /concertare/, "to reach agreement" 1. In the seventeenth century, ensemble of instruments or of voices with one or more instruments, or a work for such an ensemble. 2. Composition in which one or more solo instruments (or instrumental group) contrasts with an orchestral ensemble.

Ballad Opera

Genre of eighteenth-century English comic play featuring songs in which new words are set to borrowed tunes.

The Emfindsam Style

German, "sensitive style" or "sentimental style" Close relative of the Galant Style, featuring surprising turns of harmony, chromaticism, nervous rhythms, and speech-like melodies.

Singspiel

German, "singing play" German genre of opera, featuring spoken dialogue interspersed with songs, choruses, and instrumental music

Opera Buffa

Italian, "comic opera" Eighteenth-century genre of Italian comic opera, sung throughout.

Opera Seria

Italian, "serious opera" Eighteenth-century genre of Italian opera, on a serious subject but normally with a happy ending, usually without comic characters and scenes.

J.C. Bach

Johann Christian Bach was a galant-style German composer of Italian opera during the early Classical period, and the youngest son of famed Baroque composer Johann Sebastian Bach.

Johan Stamitz

Johann Stamitz was an important composer of the early Classical period, notable as the chief member of the so-called Mannheim School. His innovations in the development of the symphony clearly place him in the pioneering ranks of his time. Stamitz was the first major composer to become identified with the use of four movements in the symphony. Moreover, he often used a third movement minuet with a trio, a form that many others would adopt later on, including Beethoven. His first movements often approximated the structure of what would become the typical sonata form of first subject, second subject, development and reprise. He produced at least 72 symphonies, though about 58 survive. He also wrote ten orchestral trios, nine of which come from his mature period and nearly rank with his symphonies in importance. In addition, he wrote a number of concertos, chamber music, and sacred music. None of his original manuscripts have survived, thus creating difficulties in dating some of his compositions.

Missa Solemnis

Latin, "solemn mass" A genre of musical settings of the ordinary mass, which are festively scored and render the Latin text extensively, opposed to the more modest Missa brevis. In French, the genre is "Messe solennelle".

Leopold Mozart

Leopold Mozart became a violinist at the court of the Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg and rose through the orchestra's ranks to become court composer (1757) and (1762) vice chapelmaster. His treatise setting forth his method of teaching, Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule (A Treatise on the Fundamental Principles of Violin Playing), coincidentally published in 1756, the year of Wolfgang's birth, was long a standard text and was widely reprinted and translated. Among his musical compositions are concerti for various instruments, symphonies, and other pieces. In 1763 he began the first of many triumphant and highly publicized exhibitions of his two talented children (the other five of his seven children did not survive infancy): Maria Anna (Nannerl; 1751-1829), an accomplished clavierist, and the precocious genius Wolfgang Amadeus, who, at age six, performed his own and others' works on several instruments, improvised, and played at sight difficult, unfamiliar compositions. Although often criticized for exploiting his son and commercializing his talents, Leopold Mozart sincerely felt it was his God-given obligation to develop such abilities and to exhibit them to the world. Some of the extensive correspondence of father and son is contained in The Letters of Mozart and His Family (1963), by E. Anderson. Leopold Mozart's obsessional relationship to his son has been the subject of much speculation. His troubled relationship with his own birth family; the traceable (and scarcely benign) imprint of his obsession on Wolfgang's personality, career choices, and music; and the peculiar arrangement by which he undertook to raise his daughter's son (also named Leopold), as if to compensate for his own son's "betrayal," combine to make this a particularly dark subject. Certainly, in Leopold's final decade he did much to undermine the enormous support and benefit that flowed to him as a result of his dedication to Wolfgang's early training.

Absolute Music

Music that is independent of words, drama, visual images, or any kind of representational aspects.

Classical Style (as it pertains to melody, harmony, texture, and form)

Musical idiom of the mid to late eighteenth century, generally characterized by an emphasis on melody over relatively light accompaniment; simple, clearly articulated harmonic plans; periodic phrasing; clearly delineated forms based on contrast between themes, between keys, between stable and unstable passages, and between sections with different functions; and contrasts of mood, style, and figuration within movements as well as between them.

Haydn

Over the course of his 106 symphonies, Austrian composer Franz Joseph Haydn became the principal architect of the classical style of music. Synopsis Franz Joseph Haydn was among the creators of the fundamental genres of classical music, and his influence upon later composers is immense. Haydn's most celebrated pupil was Ludwig van Beethoven, and his musical form casts a huge shadow over the music of subsequent composers such as Schubert, Mendelssohn and Brahms. Early Life Franz Joseph Haydn was recruited at age 8 to the sing in the choir at St. Stephen's Cathedral in Vienna, where he went on to learn to play violin and keyboard. After he left the choir, he supported himself by teaching and playing violin, while studying counterpoint and harmony. Haydn soon became an assistant to composer Nicola Porpora in exchange for lessons, and in 1761 he was named Kapellmeister, or "court musician," at the palace of the influential Esterházy family, a position that would financially support him for nearly 30 years. Isolated at the palace from other composers and musical trends, he was, as he put it, "forced to become original." The Mature Artist While Haydn rose in the Esterházy family's esteem, his popularity outside the palace walls also increased, and he eventually wrote as much music for publication as for the family. Several important works of this period were commissions from abroad, such as the Paris symphonies (1785-1786) and the original orchestral version of "The Seven Last Words of Christ" (1786). Haydn came to feel sequestered and lonely, however, missing friends back in Vienna, such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, so in 1791, when a new Esterházy prince let Haydn go, he quickly accepted an invitation to go to England to conduct new symphonies with German violinist and impresario Johan Peter Salomon. He would return to London again in 1794 for another successful and lucrative season. Already well known and appreciated in England, Haydn's concerts drew huge crowds, and during his time in England the composer created some of his most popular works, including the "Rider" quartet and the Surprise, Military, Drumroll and London symphonies. Later Years Haydn returned to Vienna in 1795 and took up his former position with the Esterházys, although only part-time. At this point, he was a public figure in Vienna, and when he wasn't at home composing, he was making frequent public appearances. With his health failing, his creative spirit outlasted his ability to harness it, and he died at age 77. Haydn is remembered as the first great symphonist and the composer who essentially invented the string quartet. The principal engineer of the classical style, Haydn exerted influence on the likes of Mozart, his student Ludwig van Beethoven and scores of others.

Missa Brevis

Plural: Missae breves Latin, "short Mass" The term usually refers to a mass composition that is short because part of the text of the Mass ordinary that is usually set to music in a full mass is left out, or because its execution time is relatively short.

Sammartini

The son of Alexis Saint-Martin, a French oboist, he spent most of his life in Milan, was organist at several churches there, and was said by Charles Burney to have been organist at the convent of Santa Maria Maddalena from 1730 to 1770. He became known first as a composer of sacred music. He was one of the first to compose symphonies for concert performance; their ancestry was in the Italian opera overtures. As his orchestral and chamber music became known outside Italy, it attracted pupils to Milan, among them Christoph Gluck, who probably studied with him in 1737-41. Sammartini was a prolific composer; by some estimates, he produced 2,000 works. It is impossible, however, to decide whether certain works were composed by him or by his brother Giuseppe, or even by Giovanni Battista Martini (1706-84) or one of the numerous forgers who profited from the popularity of his genuine works. Sammartini's brother, Giuseppe Sammartini (1695-1750), was renowned as the finest oboist of his time and was also a prominent composer in England, where he spent his later years.

Johan Hasse

The youngest son of Johann Sebastian Bach by his second wife, Johann Christian Bach was born in Leipzig in 1735 and on the death of his father in 1750 moved to Berlin to live with his brother CPE Bach. He later travelled to Italy, where he studied with the famous Padre Martini, became a Catholic, and was employed for a short time as organist at Milan Cathedral. In 1762 he moved to London as a composer of Italian opera, like Handel 50 years before him, and enjoyed a considerable reputation there for a number of years, establishing a series of subscription concerts with his colleague Abel. His fame extended both to Mannheim and to Paris, but by the time of his death his popularity in London had waned. His influence on the young Mozart was considerable, and they met both in London and in Paris. He is sometimes known as 'the London Bach'.

Sonata Allegro Form

a type of composition in three sections (exposition, development, and recapitulation) in which two themes or subjects are explored according to set key relationships. It forms the basis for much classical music, including the sonata, symphony, and concerto.