MW Theory Paper 2 - Vinification and Pre-Bottling Procedures

oak treatments (1999)*

*Oak Casks* ...EX...in 2007 Veuve Clicquot bought 30 55hl and 75hl wood tanks for vintage champ production to be blended with tank for - 5% of vintage oak, 1-2% of yellow label wood according to cellar master Demarville. Oak gives cream. will be 10% for 2012 and 2015, plans to double tanks. -expensive, must be worthy of cost -can impart oak character (new oak) or be used to round out fruit edges (used oak) -structure/tannin for bottle aging preparation -May be way to add contact with natural bacterias (Lactic from previous batch) -Clarification and stabilization -color fixing and soften tannin through polymerization -complexity of flavor, especially less aromatic -soft oxidation (formation of pigmented tannin, development from fresh fruit) -size, age, and wood type ...EX... light to medium toast in Bd, Oxygenation is positively encouraged during the first six months by leaving the barrels with the bung u -1980s PN treated the same as Bd wine but grape couldn't withstand intense tannin, better char is better barrier to oak and mlf in bbl helped - cask ageing, wine is stored in large, old wooden containers which impart no wood oak flavour but exert some of the favourable aspects of wood influence, provided they are kept clean ...EX...Jean-Hervé Chiquet of Jacquesson approvingly quotes Henri Krug to the effect that controlled oxidation is in fact a vaccine against oxidation. ...EX... Jean-Baptiste Lécaillon at Louis Roederer, by the way, distinguishes between the desirable sweetness of sessile oak (Quercus petraea) aka Tronçais for Champagne, and the less desirable bitterness of pedunculate oak aka Limousin (Quercus robur). 'French oak' could mean either. ...EX..Taittinger's Comtes de Champagne, Chardonnay heavy which is typically stainless, their Grand Cru blend has five per cent oak maturation (often said to be all new oak) -Bollinger has 4,000 bbl and in house cooper. Youngest 5-6 years old oldest 100+ ...EX...Celia Welch against full oak barrels because they are expensive. If you get an infection with alternatives you just throw them out. She also brought up earthquake risks. http://www.winesandvines.com/template.cfm?section=news&content=168133 *Oak Chips* -differing quality and size -can be used to 'recharge' a barrel with GW Kent supplied metal perforated tube or pouring into barrel 1/4 to 1/2 lb per 200 liter barrel. Often thought to taste better. (barrel inserts, infusion tube) -In stainless 5 lb per 1,000 gal typical dosing -most effective when added during fermentation, when presumably a combination of heat and enzymatic activity combine to generate the most favourable flavour extraction. -pinoneered in Aussie and CA -inner staves (suspended in tank) are essentially really big wood chips ....EX....Andy Howard MW oak chips can impart off balance notes of fudge and sweetness ...EX....StaVin in CA offers chips to refresh old bbls (1 # per bbl) ...EX....Up until 1993, in the United States, the use of oak chips in wine was illegal (even though some winemakers were still using them). ...EX...As of 2005, the use of oak chips in wine was approved in the European Union ...EX...French Oak 4 # does 60 gallons 40# does 600 gallons $400 as opposed to 4,000$ (Amer oak $150 vs $600) ...EX...RX South Africa works with top quality tonneliers to get french oak more effective and cheaper by shipping staves and chips - long distance COSTS - softening of harsh tannins do not occur because of lack of oxygen exposure -oak flavors are extracted but do not integrate in the same way -oak character imparted by the chips may intensify after the chips have been removed because lactones take longer time then contact with cube allows to develop and will show after the wine is often bottled 600$ for American oak, $1,200 for French Oak BENEFITS -No oxidative effects -overpoweringly oaky flavour that they must be blended with unoaked wine. -due to surface area less oak overall is needed, this helps with oak shortage and carbon footprint -less oak wasted in production -less storage space needed -very even toast - could cost less than a twentieth of the cost of a new American oak barrel -less evap, loss to oak -dose control -can buy impregnated chips with lactic acid bacteria * Barrel Renewal* -quick and cheap -the toasting process is difficult because the wood is not entirely dry since it has been permeated by alcohol -most effective on relatively young (two- to three-year-old) barrels. - shaved and retoasted older barrels rarely has the subtlety of wine matured in new barrels. -stave fan -stave segments and barrel head segments placed in older barrel ....EX... Stavin offers oak cubes aka beans of air dried, fire treated, high quality oaks ...EX...Re Coop went out of business in 2010 *Other Forms* oak essence- often illegal ...EX...ensure all are tested for TCA, StaVin is

Yeast contribution to wine and risk of off flavors (2002) (2014) (2015)* Control over yeast (2015)

*Positive Flavors* LEES -antioxidant -Can protect wine from too much interaction with wood -More stability, less clarification needed -encourages MLF and autolysis if extended AUTOLYSIS -Improved mouthfeel and stability via release of mannoprotiens -Increase of amino acids creating flavors and aromas of autolysis ...Bollinger's RD, Veuve Clicquot's Cave Privée, Krug's Collection all see extended lees aging creating pronounced autolytic flavor FILM FORMING YEAST -Biological aroma complexity -O2 protection -Extended aging retaining freshness, acetaldehyde development ...EX...In 2007 reported that Tokaji szamoradni's unpopular Sherry-like flavors from flor yeast and 2 year expensive élevage make this unpopular style with producers (especially dry style). This is now comping around as Jura wines become more popular. FERMENTATION ESTERS AND CHARACTER -May keep varietal purity or may produce characterful aromas in more neutral grapes - ethyl acetat most common as ethyl alcohol and acetic acid is present, many combos possible -Creates bouquet ...EX...Champ neutral yeast *Negative Flavors* *Mercaptans* -Wines left in contact with a layer of lees more than 10 cm/4 in thick for more than a week or so, however, are very likely to develop hydrogen sulfide, disulfide, or mercaptan odours. This is because, as the yeasts start to autolyse, or digest themselves, they produce strongly reducing conditions. Any fungicide residues of sulfur, sulfur dioxide, or even the sulfur-containing amino acids of the yeasts, are likely to be reduced to the foul-smelling sulfide. ...EX...Le Bon Pasteur intense reductive aromas from no racking. Fix with copper sulfate addition. Copper ions bind to HS2 and stops aroma, bench trials a must. *Brett* -Can rob varietal expression -Falling acidity -undesired secondary flavors -MLF typically undesired for early release wine, and fresh whites *VA production* ...Chr. Hansen producing NoVA yeast *Other Spoilage Yeast* *CONTROLL OF YEAST* So2 pH ferm temp filtration storage regime nutrition, dosage, (100ppm slower start) fortification lees aging Efficiency (% abv)

Skin contact (2014)*

Skin contact reduces must acidity, gives color, flavors, stability, tannin, can supply natural yeast, potassium, -primary aroma compounds are contained in the cells on the inner surface of the skin (leach into pulp as soon as picked) -temperature balances skin extraction with aroma -skin contact can extract potassium and amino acids -skin contact can raise pH ...EX Ulrich Stein of Weingut Stein says one hour of maceration would reduce acidity by 0.1 g/litre *ABSENCE OF SKIN CONTACT* -champagne pinot noir ...EX....Oxford Landing Pinot Gris (no color desired) gentle crushing only ...EX...Short contact for blending PN for rose at Gossett so he may add up to 15% but maintain pale color (2-4 days) WHITE WINE --Pre Ferm -Fortified muscat usually sees 1 week pre ferm contact to extract flavors and aromas as it is fortified at 1-2% very quickly after onset of ferm. Natural yeast causes natural delay but chilling happens in modern times -Some grapes simply left in cool storage, minimizes contact with outside of grape, perfect condition required to avoid oxidation -Free run -white temp of skin extraction important because volatile aroma is important, not for fermentation so fermentation temp is not important. -traditional to separate white skin and juice immediately for risks of bittering polyphenols -Now we see 'maceration pelliculaire' where juice and skins are left in contact with free run juice for several hours at cool temp (up to 2 days at 0C), only water soluble aromatic compounds and color are extract (absence of alcohol) -agitation can extract unpleasant flavors --During Ferm ...EX...Tokaji (berries macerated with base wine that was not botrytis affected, then refermented) 48 hours Royal Tokaji *ROSE and Orange WINE* --Pre Ferm -Short contact limits anthocyanins -Vin d'une nuit, overnight maceration (hihi quality) -Bleed Off (lesser method) ...EX...Crios Value priced Malbec rose is saignee -Double Pasta, spanish method, 2 vats, first vat short maceration and drained off for a rose, skins added to second vat for very dark wine oft bulk (lesser method for rose and red) RED WINE *Pre Ferm* ...EX...*Veuve Clicquot's cellar master Dominique Demarville* "The red wines at Clicquot are made in a way that is so close to the approach in Burgundy: we love to make a cold skin contact at the beginning, before fermentation, and then, during the fermentation, we do a very light pigeage [punch down] to extract very delicate tannins," he said. -Free Run (high quality), Press Run (lower quality blended off) -use of SO2 pre ferm (at must adjustment phase) increases polyphenol extraction of skins -Lagares, foot treading high quality deep color ...Ex. Port Grahams 3-4 days high agitation -Maceration -Carbonic Maceration, good purple color -Pre ferm cold soak Maceration can extract aromas (15-4C) the temp stalls fermentation so that aroma and flavor compounds can be broken, common in Europe as ferm starts slower due to natural yeast or high sulfur in must, gives color especially to difficult Pinot Noir and Zin -Thermovinification, heat instead of fermentation to extract color, 65-70C for 20-30 minutes, then brought to ferm temp, anthocyanins extracted because heat weakens cell walls, can caused cooked flavors, color is unstable, lesser technique ...EX......EX...Caves de Rauzan Co-op Thermovinification is crucial to the process. The machine Called the Gulf Stream, grapes are passed through a trough of must heated to 90 ºC. This extracts colour and flavour, without extracting any crude flavours from the pips. It also claims to evaporate pyrazines - that is, green, unripe flavours - as well as destroying oxidative enzymes. ...Ex.... Ch. de Beaucastel heat exchanger heats only surface of grapes 90C this retains cool juice inside. Also, polyphenoloxidase enzyme (causes oxidation) destroyed. Allows lower dose sulfur dioxide. -Flash detente, 1993, well-ripened and stripped of all stems, 95C for several minutes with no O2, low vacuum applied and cell walls ripped apart, then polyphenols and flavors are extracted in maceration that follows, very rich and needs to be blended with traditional ...EX...Angeline PN *During Ferm* -Color is more water soluble than tannin and is extracted faster, tannin soluble by alcohol and rising temps. Highest quality tannins are extracted first -3-4 days for lighter wines, up to weeks and a month for nobel bigger reds -Warm to hot fermentation temps ...Ex. BV Latour wine in heated room -Punch down, tedious but gentle, safety concerns, mechanical options on timer, med quality tech risks of VA -Submerged Cap Process, limits VA formation, skin becomes compressed under screen (by CO2) limiting extraction, vats can burst, less technique -Pumping over, can be automated, CO2 production, O2 risks, handling determines quality -Delestage, extreme racking off, drain entire vat and return (aerates, anthocyanin and tannin combine for stable color, softer tannins, redistributes heat, pips removed by screens) -Autovinifier, thoroughly churns skin and extracts polyphenols but can be rough, lesser quality -Rotary Fermentor, tank on its side: blades rotate one way-tank goes the opposite, very effective especially difficult grapes, disturbance of skins can cause over extraction, lesser quality ...Ex. Port short ferm, fortified, accelerates extraction due to solvent properties of elevated ethanol. *Post Ferm* -Post ferm maceration extracts polyphenols for enhancing aging characterists (caution for tannin and bitter) 5-12 days conventional for soft tannin (Bordeaux, Cali, Italy) Piedmont can see up to 1 month O2 risks -Needs constant monitoring so as not to be overdone ...Ex... Ripasso post ferm 10-12 days Tommasi (check this) ...EX...Columbia Crest experimenting with 9 weeks to get full polymerization!

temperature at different stages of winemaking (2010) (2007)*

Temperature has direct effects on the rates of the biochemical reactions involved in fermentation, and on the slower reactions involved in clarification and stabilization of wine. *Grape Reception* -The harmful effects of acetobacter and wild yeast are encouraged by high temperatures. -Low temperatures are vital if there is any interval between harvest and crushing; the potential quality of white wines in particular can be lost through carelessness at this early phase of wine-making. -During destemming and crushing, when the phenolics in grape juice are in direct contact with oxygen, oxidation begins at a rate proportional to the temperature. Temp kept cool. -Oxidation of red grape juice is less of a problem because its higher phenolic content, including the red colour compounds, can conceal small amounts of amber or brown, although lower temperatures during prefermentation processes are in general desirable whatever the colour of the grape skins. ...EX...Ch Musar does not temp control grapes over extended travel time, lifted quality signature. *Cold Soak* -No ferm begins -No oxidation -retains juicy fruit character -theory of cold maceration is that a more favourable combination of phenolics is extracted by water and added sulfur dioxide than is obtained with an alcoholic solution. ...Soter in OR cold soaks Pinot Noir for fruited character with softer structure. *Primary* -some yeast selected for ability to ferm in cold German cellars, long and slow -Warm yeast (over 85F) will cause damaged flavors -fast ferm can boil off aromas -warm ferm = baked character -Yeast may throw off stress hormone making it hard to restart ferm even if temp brought down -White wines cool 18-20C (no need for warm maceration) (retain aromas- esters are low weight and lost easily in warm ferm) -Neutral whites ferm warmer for more secondary flavor instead of grape flovor (MLF and BBL) -too cool can produce banana and pear drop -Red wines typically warmer (25-30C) to extract tannin and anthocyanins, less varietal character more secondary ...EX...Trimbach in Alsace does cellar ambiant fermentation temp for Pinot Gris, Pinot Blanc for characterful yeast ferm and lees character of neutral grape ...EX...Palamino in Sherry quick and warm because varietal character not important TRANSITION -Oxidation and loss of fruitiness in white wines can be discouraged by low temperatures, while the bacterial activity that stimulates malolactic fermentation can be positively encouraged by storing the newly fermented wine between 25 and 30 °C (77-86 °F) until this secondary fermentation is completed. *MLF* -20C-25C to keep bugs alive and happy -too cool inhibits -too warm damages flavor -typically done in bbl without temp control other than size of vessel. ...Fetzer... even stainless, cube fermented value wines can be temp controlled for it to stay warm, but not hot in CA *Aging* -chemical reactions slowed with cooler temp -Cellar temperature can be altered by location or controll ...Rutherglen... Hot tin roof accentuates baked quality. Jen Pfeiffer of Pfeiffer remembers the tin roofs flapping in the wind in childhood. ...Noval... ages up in the Douro after fire in Villa Nova de Gaia, underground cellar in steep hillside keeps temps down to avoid 'Douro Bake'.

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fermentation related to quality (2010) (2015)*

*Yeast* -unique character created in yeast becomes less apparent as wine ages -haemocytometer measures cell count -Cultured vs Wild: Wild is sensitive to Sulfur and alcohol strength >5%) Cultured less risk of stuck ferm and off odor, specific goals (like flor), -need a good supply of carbon (6carbon sugars) and nitrogen, a source of sulfur, phosphorus, and oxygen, various minerals and trace elements, and several vitamins for growth and reproduction -During fermentation of grape juice, yeast produce small amounts of other compounds from sugar glycolysis, and the metabolism of amino acids and other nutrients contributing flavor and aroma -understanding of how yeast control the formation of aroma compounds is leading to the development of new yeast strains which can alter the emphasis of various aroma notes in wine. Glycerol, acetic acid, and succinic acid, which contribute to the taste of wine, are the most important non-volatile compounds produced by yeast. -Another class of grape-derived flavour precursors are the cysteine-linked compounds, which, when hydrolysed by enzymes present in some strains of yeast, generate volatile thiols with fruity aromas. SB -Some yeasts also have the ability to degrade phenolic acids to volatile vinyl phenols (e.g. 4-vinylphenol and 4-vinylgaiacol), which contribute a phenolic off-flavour. ...EX...Chr. Hansen "We have launched products and technologies that are landmarks in enology," Hubert says, picking out Prelude, "the first pure non- Saccharomyces yeast for mouthfeel improvement"; Concerto, "acidic balance management in red wines"; and FrootZem, "fruit flavour optimization". CiNe is the first direct inoculation of pure Oenococcus oeni culture to manage malolactic fermentation without producing buttery, lactic flavours, while Viniflora Freasy is the first red wine malolactic culture that can be stored at 18°C instead of -50°C, making it an easier product for smaller wineries to use. NoVA no VA yeast that allows MLF of raw juice in 3 days. *Temperature* -Temperature has direct effects on the rates of the biochemical reactions involved in fermentation, and on the slower reactions involved in clarification and stabilization of wine -Most chemical reactions happen about twice as fast if the temperature is raised by 10 °C / 18 °F—and it is for this reason that refrigeration slows down the reactions of harmful bacteria, as well as the reactions involved in ageing. -reds 20-32C -whites 10-18C -Specialty yeast for ferm at cold cellar temps ...EX...R. Lopez de Heredia fermentation temp creeps up to 38C to reduce primary and develop more secondary, tertiary ...EX...Development of amylic aromas at cooler temps 10-14C POSITIVE COOL TEMP -The harmful effects of acetobacter and wild yeast are encouraged by high temperatures -At temperatures below 10 °C/50 °F most yeasts will act prohibitively slowly or not at all, while at temperatures above 45 °C/113 °F they are damaged and finally killed. -at higher temperatures, some of the desirable flavour compounds are volatilized in the rapidly evolving stream of carbon dioxide, literally 'boiled off' -aromatic grapes fermented slowely to retain aroma -Fermentation temperatures govern the types of esters that are formed and accumulate in the wine. Lower temperatures (10 to 15 °C/50-59 °F) favour both the production and retention of the fruity esters, which have lower molecular weights. Among these are nearly all of those possible by reactions between acetic, propionic, isobutyric, and isovaleric acids with ethanol, propyl, isobutyl, and fusel oils. These are the esters which give tropical fruits their characteristic flavours ...EX... Mosel nov temp 40F, December 30F natural stop to MLF POSITIVE HIGH TEMP -warm ferm extracts components from skin, cool ferm retains volatile aromatics - needs balance -extraction of sufficient tannins, anthocyanins, and flavour compounds from the grape skins -pineapple and banana esters lost at higher temps now seen in modern wines (sameness concerns with low temp ferm) -faster ferm means tank turn over -malolactic fermentation can be positively encouraged by storing the newly fermented wine between 25 and 30 °C (77-86 °F) until this secondary fermentation is completed. -neutral grapes fermented warmer, relying less on aromatics of ferm and more on secondary components -Fermentation temperatures govern the types of esters that are formed and accumulate in the wine. High temps favor heady, heavier esters and, at the same time, destroy more of the varietal character of the grape. Temperatures of 30 °C and higher result in the loss of much of the fruity ester complex through hydrolysis and volatilization and its replacement by substances which smell 'cooked'. ...EX....-Sarah Burton, Cloudy Bay, After the fermentation Te Koko SB spends about 18 months on its lees (the dead yeast cells) in the barrel, with occasional stirring if appropriate. ...EX...-R. Lopez de Heredia ferm warmer temp up to 36C 97F, less varietal, more process *pH and TA* -Wines with low pHs taste very tart while those with high pHs taste flat, or 'flabby' -pH is between 3.2 and 3.5 not only tend to taste refreshingly rather than piercingly acid, they are also more resistant to harmful bacteria, age better, and have a clearer, brighter colour -retain freshness and balance -esterfication ...EX...V1116 creates acidity reducing pH in crisp whites -The pH can be increased by decreasing the concentration of hydrogen ions, however, and vice versa. Acidification, de-acidification -Different yeasts and bacteria have varying tolerances for hydrogen ion concentration and for the nature and concentration of the acid. -pH is also important in wine-making because the pigmented tannins that colour red wines exist (like the monomeric anthocyanins from which they are formed) in several forms of different colours. At low pH values, the high concentration of hydrogen ions forces the pigment molecule into a form with a positive charge and a bright red colour. As pH increases (and hydrogen ion concentration decreases), the pigment molecules tend more and more to change through dull purple to blue, and ultimately greyish forms. The net result in the several pigments of red wine is a passage from bright to purplish red and finally to a dull brownish red as pH increases. *Lees* -Lees contact for autolysis -Anti ox -Lees contact encourages the second, softening malolactic fermentation because the lactic acid bacteria necessary for malolactic fermentation feed on micro-nutrients in the lees. This has the effect of adding complexity to the resultant wine's flavour. - increase the influence of the lees on flavour by lees stirring, or bâtonnage -red wines, added complexity of the malolactic fermentation, which is encouraged by lees contact, is very valuable. - lees more than 10 cm/4 in thick for more than a week or so, however, are very likely to develop hydrogen sulfide, disulfide, or mercaptan odours

Brettanomyces (2012) (2008) (2004)*

-400ppm threshold -hidden by high ph, often detected on finish -introduced from air, sanitization, Hygiene and inoculation needed in ferm -can live in hoses, crush equipment, barrels, tanks, and possibly carried by fruit flies -sulfur at 0.5 mg/l molecular controls -sulfur tolerance varies -Few large doses of SO2 best method of controll -eliminate at bottling by steril filtration and dimethyl dicarbonate -Chitosan, natural polysaccharide eliminates Brett -Brett produces 4-ethylphenol (farm/antiseptic), 4-etylguaiacol (bacon, spice, clove, smoke), isovaleric acid (cheese, rancid, sweat) *What practical steps may be taken to avoid Brettanomyces contamination in a winery, and why?* Brett= wild yeast in the present in the air and on surfaces exposed to brett yeast Contamination = unwanted Brett does: Produces acetic acid Undesirable secondary flavors: barnyard, cheese and sweat flavors Can rob varietal expression Ferments sugars Saccharomyces cerevis cannot, overtly dry wines Matt Donaldson, Pegasus Bay Winery (Waipara, New Zealand) says SO2 is a vital tool for fighting brett Hygein -125ml of PPA paracetic acid to 65 gallons water on a CIP loop -Heat steam treatments -Use metal fittings and piping -Dispose of all rubber and plastic hoses that have come in contact with Brett -Avoid constact with organic surfaces that have had contamination ...EX...Wood with Brett must be removed. If wine is couped and re barreled can spread systemically. Lapierre Beaujolais. Sulfur 80ppm free sulfur dose controls post MLF Brian O'Donnell Belle Pente A series of strong doses is a good way to knock Brett out of a wine displaying taint To remove RO DMDC deactivates enzymes in microorganisms, added at bottling, inhibit yeast metabolism to prevent re-fermentation in bottle as well as spoilage yeasts such as Brettanomyce Eliminate at bottling by steril filtration and dimethyl dicarbonate ...EX...David Bird MW, for Decanter, replies: Brett infections occur in the winery when the wine is being made. The yeast that causes it is one of many strains used in winemaking and its presence at low levels is actually beneficial, adding extra complexity. Sensitivity towards the taste effect produced by this yeast varies greatly from person to person - some find it disgusting, while others think it quite attractive. As this change in the wines' character is caused by an infection, tight filtration should remove the agent, thus preventing further change in the bottle. On the other hand, with the rise in popularity of natural winemaking, using neither fining nor filtration, it is possible that microbiological activity could continue after bottling. As this is a personal preference, it would be hard to introduce any control on acceptable levels - chacun à son goût.

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priorities for balance and complexity (2001)*

-well balanced, if its alcoholic strength, acidity, residual sugar, tannins, and fruit, complement each other so that no single one of them is obtrusive on the palate -Each piece is a lego locking into the other -Immediate consumption and extended aging goals *Alcohol* -Integration is a result of balance -Too low loses drive -Too high can sear the palate and kill fruit ...EX...David Bruce at Taylor Fladgate is experimenting with fortification spirit to change alcohol character for better balance *Acid* -needs to offer refreshment without making wines sharp, tart, and sometimes unpleasant to drink -Alters color to bring in alignment with drinkers expectation (could be argued other way around) -Flabby quality can let down another component in the wine such as making fruit taste dull and past its prime or exposing alcohol to be too aggressive when flabby or making it taste hotter than it is when accelerated by sensation of acid. ...EX...acidity necessary for balancing rich character of extended autolysis, keeps it form being spread and oppressive in CA chardonnay (fetzer acidifies?) *Residual Sugar* -Can balance highly acidic wine -Can exacerbate flabby character of low acid wine -Can push up fruit character by playing on mental perceptions -Can add density and body to complement concentrated character ...EX...Chateau Coutet Sauternes celebrates natural concentration of sugar as a pillow for lifting up and supporting rich fruit character. Their winemaker halts fermentation when equilibrium is reached with SO2 instead of naturally. *Body/Tannin* -Body and tannin should match the intended style and fruit character -Is impacted by, alcohol, sweetness ...EX... Though pioneered in Aussie, Le Bon Pasteur ferments in BBl to soften tannin and give rounded body and less aggressive tannin to complement their riper and less green fruit due to extreme v.y. work for ripeness ...EX...Australia, development of a mouthfeel wheel rather like the aroma wheel *Fruit/Secondary Flavor* - fruit is a perceptible element essential to a young wine -During bottle ageing, the fruity flavour compounds in a good wine evolve into more complex elements which are described as bouquet -When low the fruit simply dissipates to leave a non-fruity wine sometimes described as 'hollow' or dead and wooden -Highly structured wint with no fruit cannot live long -Low structure wine with no fruit has no character -Too much fruit can make a wine seem jammy and one dimensional -Expressive grape do not want to smother with secondary, neutral grape want to fill out with secondary. All of this to bring character to the structure ...EX...Lees stirring added to S.A. Chenin, Rachel's Chenin Blanc 2015 Boschendal, Coastal Region to add secondary character to punch up Chenin ...Alma Negra from Argentina uses expressive fruit to bring balance to natural high acid and med+ texture

rose (2009)*

Drawing on examples of rose production in different parts of the world, illustrate how production methods influence the style of the wine. (Paper 2 2009) Rose wines, wines that is lightly pigmented, have many methods of production for creating the unique hues that define them. Each one of the production methods undertaken to create their color will inherently have an effect on the style of the finished wine impacting their color, aroma, texture, structure, stability, complexity, and may need to be specially utliized to accommodate potential residual sugar levels. Rosé wines have as many unique styles as they do production methods. *Maceration* -few hours to few days -Vin d'une nuit STYLE -limits Anthocyanins but allows some extraction of aroma compounds (limited by time) -highly aromatic, some 'thicker' skin tannin potentially, well fixed color ...EX...For thick-skinned varieties, a shorter maceration period is required to prevent perceptible tannins. For example, Croft Pink (Port), based on Touriga Nacional, only spends 12 hours on the skins. A greater maceration period would otherwise produce deep-coloured rosés with darker fruits and phenolic bitterness. ...EX... For example, Laurent-Perrier - one of the few Champagne producers to use the maceration method - has a maceration period of 48-72 hours for Pinot Noir. *Saignée* -French term meaning 'bled' for a winemaking technique which results in a rosé wine made by running off, or 'bleeding', a certain amount of free-run juice from just-crushed dark-skinned grapes after a short, pre-fermentation maceration. STYLE -often to concentrate a red and can be lower quality because it is secondary to intention of prime wine -Common in US ...EX... Crios Rosé Malbec ...EX...This is commonly practiced in Bordeaux and Burgundy as it has the additional benefit of concentrating the skin-to-juice ratio for the resulting red wines, important in wet vintages to prevent dilution of the wine's character *Blending* -Pink Moscato: white moscato wine blended with touch of merlot (Caposaldo Brand) STYLE -more varietal options, multi dimensional potential -different aromatic profile potential (direct press/ saignée means less contact and less varietal expression due to earlier harvest.) -fine tuning hue of other rosé methods -Champagne, avoids browning while in tirage/élevage -Potential for tannin texture ...EX... In Niagara, Sue Ann Staff Winery blends 95% Riesling and 5% Cabernet Franc to produce a pale-coloured, citrus-driven rosé remarkably reminiscent of Riesling. The dominance of white wine in the blend means the flavour profile lacks red fruits with no tannin. ...EX... Sutter Home (California) blends aromatic white varieties such as Riesling and Muscat into its White Zinfandel. This also has the benefit of reducing costs by using cheaper varieties. ...EX...Pol Roger 2008 Vintage Rosé's 60 per cent Pinot includes 13% red wine to achieve color *Vin Gris* -Unlike the maceration method which gives some, albeit very brief, time for the juice to be in contact with the skins vin gris are wines made from the immediate pressing of red skin grapes without any maceration time. -Common in Provence -notion that it gives winemakers more control over the finished rosé, as vintners can opt to pick grapes at optimal sugar and acid levels specifically for making rosé and not red wine, as is the case with saignée -Picking at this time can mute varietal character as opposed to saignée STYLE -Very pale -Little aroma or texture extracted from skin contact ...EX...Chris Phelps at Swanson in the Napa Valley :"We do whole cluster press rosé, intentional rosé, which is better than saignée. The Syrah is harvested at no more than 22º Brix, which leads directly to a wine with relatively low alcohol and high acidity. If picking at 26º and did a saignée, have to add water and acid to make it work. A lot of saignée can be flat and alcoholic." *Decolorization* -absorbent charcoal such as activated carbon. This purer form of charcoal obtained by the dry distillation of carbon compounds (such as wood or peat) has a high ratio of surface area to weight that absorbs color compounds as well as other phenolics and colloids in a wine. -Less aggressively, PVPP or casein may also be used to polish and lighten a rosé's colour. STYLE -often much more than just color is stripped from the wine which makes this method very rarely used in the production of quality rosés *Sweet Rosés* -fermentation may be suspended -finished wine back-sweetened with RCMG, to achieve a desired sweetness level. The result is an off-dry mass-market, commercial style of rosé. For example, Mateus (Portugal) has 16 g/L residual sugar; Yellow Tail (Australia) targets 22-24 g/L dosage for its sparkling rosé. *Colorized* -Sterile filtration rates for sweet, large volume blushes mean post filtering color added -May be colored by small dose of OptiRed ...EX...Blossom hill uses filter that removes color and makes wine sterile. STYLE -reserved for sweet, large volume, lower quality wines *Vessels* -Stainless = purity -Oak ...EX...For example, DOCa Rioja Gran Reserva Rosada must be aged for a minimum of four years prior to release, including at least six months in barrel. For example, Vina Tondonia barrel ages their rosé for four-and-a-half years to add complexity and richness.

Sorbic Acid (2005)* aka potassium sorbate

_Must use with potassium metabisulfite -Geranium scent, caused by Sorbic acid, SO2 treats -used to inhibit yeast and mold - common in RS and low alch wines - does not work on lactic - some tasters very sensitive 50 g/l, average is 135 g/l -limit is 200 g/l -when lactic metabolizes sorbic creates geranium so SO2 must be paired ...EX...Matt Williams warns that Potassium Sorbate may ignite papers if spilled in the winemaking area and is a major eye irritant

Crushing/ pressing*

*CRUSHING* -skins not torn from pulp, affects extraction of aroma-stalks not torn open, too astringent-no damage to pips-hence, 3mm gap between rollers that may be adjusted -pectinolytic enzyme, breaks down pectin allowing more juice, concerns of reduced character -good drainage for white means little disturbance of skins, best with static drainer- percolates through, can be slow, mechanical drainers has archimedes screw in horizontal tank, rotates every 2-3 minutes but does cause some release of polyphenols -for white free run juice typ 400-500 liters per tonne ...EX...'Switch it to the slowest speed it can go', I told him. I wanted to crush the grapes as gently as possible and to hell with how long it took.-Pigott in Würzburg *PRESSING* -in white post crush press typically gets another 150-200 liters (polyphenols and aromas released -chilled white wine grapes can be whole bunch pressed without desteming minimizing phenolics -Press wine can be very rich, if coarse. Is pressed off post primary ferm. -Basket Press, cannot be hurried, O2 is introduced, shoveling out is labor intense, static bed works as filter giving fine juice with clarity, batch ...EX Ch Petrus uses basket press also common in Champ -Horizontal Screw Press, two pistons that move towards and away when cylinder is rotated. moves towards presses, moves away chain strung between the two stretches breaking up matter, filling and empty simple, can be automated, faster, produces coarse juice, highly pressured, O2, batch -Pneumatic press, low pressure (as low as o.1 bar), O2, batch ...EX...Adelsheim in OR for soft fine high quality juice -Tank press, like nematic press but in closed tank flushed with nitrogen, complex and expensive, batch ...EX...Giaconda in Victoria uses basket press thinks airbag press contributes to Burgundy premox problem -Continuous screw press, large wineries, archimedes variable pitch screw so closer to end more pressure, can take finer juice off at top where less pressure, or can regulate pressure with action of screw, or can have release door at certain pressure, use to be terrible, now much better ...EX...different levels pressing juice for fino (soft) and olorosso (harsher) Sandeman

tannin (2005)*

*Foundation* - a tannin is a compound that is capable of interacting with proteins and precipitating them - believed to be responsible for the sensation of astringency. -Tannins in wine come predominantly from the grapes and, to a much lesser extent, from the wood in which the wine is aged. -natural tannins of grapes are flavonoids consisting of oligomers and polymers of catechins. -Formation of tannin occurs under the control of enzymes as part of the metabolism of the grape but they may rearrange to longer or shorter molecules in the acidic wine medium - INRA station at Montpellier study tannin -Catechins and small tannins are responsible for bitterness, while larger ones elicit the astringency sensation, presumably by interaction with the proteins on the tongue and insides of the cheek. *Measuring tannin* -Traditional methods report them as if they were all gallic acid, and such analyses, including the widely used Folin Ciocalteu method, are popular because of their analytical convenience. -Alternative methods for measuring the phenolic compounds of grape tannins more directly and as other than gallic acid are time consuming and require considerable analytical expertise. -Gallic acid or GA equivalent concentration averages about 300 mg/l in white wines, but 1,800 mg/l in reds. vary considerably with vine variety and wine-making -Australia, development of a mouthfeel wheel rather like the aroma wheel *Oak* -diff wood, diff tannins -how wood was aged affects tannin *Mgmt Reduce* -Excessively high tannin levels by fining with casein, gelatin, or albumin, which selectively precipitate large-sized astringent tannins. (protein positive ion brings out negative charged ions) -Formation of soluble complexes with macromolecules such as proteins and polysaccharides may also prevent tannins from interacting with salivary proteins and eliciting astringency -Given sufficient time, tannins are removed naturally, however, during wine ageing -The tannins polymerize and form aggregates that eventually precipitate as sediment so that they no longer have any bitter or astringent effect on the palate -Depending on the wine composition and pH, reactions of tannins can also yield smaller tannins and pigmented tannins, thus resulting in lower astringency -Red wine may be removed from skins and put in bbl with sugar still present to finish in bbl offering softer style (Aussie/ CA) ...EX...Muga, Rioja Spain uses 2-3 per 100 liter of red wine. Fining is done in large oak vats 17,500 liters, bottled after. Dregs used for fertilizers. ...EX... Infinite Monkey Theorem, polymerizes out to be silky with adequate skin and new cooperage *Mgmt Raise* -improve the ageing characteristics, texture, depth of colour, and colour stability of red wines -Oenological tannins aka tannin powder (made by extraction of tannin from oak, chestnut, or birch woods and other suitable plant sources, including grape seeds) -excessive skin, stem, and seed contact -oak type and toast char level ...EX...Leopold at Durfot-Vivens adds tannin powder to red bordeaux in grey rot years *White/Rosé* -little tannin in pulp of grapes -Although white wines have similar structures to the pigmented tannins of a red wine, the absence of anthocyanins condensed into the tannins of white wines accounts for how different they look. -Whites have little own tannin to bond with protein before barrel maturation, picked up lots of polymerization in barrel *Reds* -Handling tannins during red wine-making is one of the most critical steps in optimizing the quality and character of a red wine, yet the process is based almost totally on experience and intuition because of our understanding of the principles involved is still rudimentary - pigemented tannin is tannin and anthocyanin. Thought to be less astringent that white wine tannins that do not combine with anthocyanin -Red wine has own tannin and protein so they are not available for barrel tannin. Barrel tannin therefor gives finely dry, additional astringency, that will be more apparent that in a white wine. (layers of tannin) -tannins from seeds seem to be more difficult to retain in the wine matrix because they may undergo interactions with other components, such as polysaccharides, that can "sequester" them and avoid tannin extraction. Wash State Univ Dr. Casassa -Varieties notably high in tannins include cabernet sauvignon, nebbiolo, syrah, and tannat ...EX....Staatsweingut Weinsberg has an intenal net for whole berrie ferm to ctach seeds of Pn and remove to keep fruit pure *What are the roles of tannins in wine and how can a winemaker vary their extraction and presence in wine?* Role of Tannin -improve the ageing characteristics, texture, depth of colour, and colour stability of red wines Building Tannin Tannin Powder ...EX...Leopold at Dufort-Vivens will add tannin powder to reds in high botrytis years Skin Contact ...EX...Gossett careful of skin contact to avoid unwanted tannin, also paler color allows more red wine to be added making more fruited nose with pale salmon hue ...EX...Color affixing character of tannin vital to ports deep color Graham's includes some stems for this Stems and Seeds ...EX....Staatsweingut Weinsberg has an intenal net for whole berrie ferm to ctach seeds of Pn and remove to keep fruit pure Ferment in bbl thought to soften tannin ...EX...D'Ardbeg Reds and Whites Age in barrel to offer tannin (oak type and char level) ...EX...Vicard, few tonneliers who still offer single forest barrels 2-4 x price Reducing Tannin Fining with positively charged agent (protein) ...EX...Muga 2-3 eggs per 100 liters of wine Extended bottle aging ....EX...Jancis Tobinson points out that bottle aging was done when winemaking could not reduce tannin Like cures like, polymerize out ...EX...Infinite Monkey Theorem

oak cask size (2001)*

*France* BORDEAUX -The barrique bordelaise, designated 225 l/59 ga, staves 20 mm/0.8 in thick -The tonneau, at 900 l equivalent to four barriques, or 100 cases of wine, no longer exists BURGUNDY - 228-l pièce, provide a deeper bilge for the lees which accumulate in this region where racking is generally less frequent than in Bordeaux, squat helps with small space in the cellar, staves 27 mm thick - Chablis was the feuillette, at 132 l about half the size of the pièce, more rare now -Some domaines on the côte d'or may still have their own size of feuillette, holding 114 l, or even a quartaut holding 57 l, used primarily for topping up. CHAMP -A 205-l barrel is traditional here but those few houses which persist with barrel fermentation may also buy in Burgundy barrels. OTHER -A wide range of different barrel types is used in the Loire and the Rhône, from small new oak barrels to large wooden vats such as the 600-l demi-muid used in Châteauneuf-du-Pape. -In Alsace, large ovals, or foudres of varying capacities, are most common. *Germany* -some barrique now -typically and traditionally large, old casks typically -Mosel: Fuder holding 1,000 l -Rhine a Stück of 1,200 l. -A Halbfuder and Halbstück are half these sizes respectively. *Spain* -Sherry: butt used for sherry (American oak and has a capacity of between 600 and 650 l/172 gal.) -Sherry: A bota chica or shipping butt holds 500 l and is sometimes used as a unit of measurement. -The American oak barrels used in rioja, and elsewhere, are 225-l barricas bordelesas modelled on Bordeaux barriques. -Spanish cooperage can vary considerably in size and shape, however, and new wood was until recently not generally prized. *Portugal* -Portuguese cooperage, which can vary considerably in size and shape, may be made from French, American, or even Portuguese oak. -Douro = 550 l/145 gal pipe -Vila Nova de Gaia pipe may vary in size between 580 and 630l, typically 620 liter -For shipping purposes, however, a pipe of port is 534.24 l, divided into 21 measures of 25.44 l called almudes -Pipes of madeira and Marsala are 418 and 423 l respectively *Italy* The large botti, or old wooden casks, traditionally used in Italy are typically made from Slavonian oak and have varying capacities -barrique is increasingly common, sometimes called a carato -vin santo are caratelli holding between 50 and 225 l -Large wooden casks standing vertical rather than being laid horizontal may be called tini *Hungary* -Gönci holding 136 l are traditional in the production of tokaji, named after village where made *US* -Variations on the barrique and pièce imported from France are the most desired, and most common, barrels used by American winemakers. -265 liter barrels, with Burgundy sized heads and Bordeaux length staves,have become popular for both aesthetic and practical reasons. -Use to use Bourbon bbls, decline 1980s of bourbon meant more tailored to wine *Aussie NZ* -Barriques of 225 l have become the most commonly used barrel, and if imported from France, are imported whole. -Hogsheads of 300 l and puncheons holding 450 or 500 l may also be found in New World wineries. -Hogsheads too large to move with ease and do not impart oak flavour as fast as many winemakers desire (may prove more suitable than barriques for some lighter wines.)

Oak (2003)(2011) (2009)*

*From tree to finished BBL* -cheaper to ferment in stainless than age in oak imparting direct oak character -tyloses keeps barrels from leaking and American oak is rich in tyloses (structures that plug the tube like structures running up and down the length of the tree.) -air seasoning means rain can carry of hydrolysable tannin off, softening tannin quality. -lactones may rise if dried in a hotter climate (Australia vs France study) -Toasting also reduces the concentration of ellagitannins, which may contribute to mouthful and colour stability. -Char and toast create natural barrier between wood and wine -'Haute Futaie' Stamp means 'high trunks' and garuntees wood from fully mature 150-200 y.o. tree -Light toast 10-15 min, dry edge spices -Medium toast 15-30 min, sweeter, coconut, vanilla, meldet butter -High toast 30-45 minutes, roasted coffee, creosote, tar *Types of oak* -American oak, used in Spain, North and South America, and Australia. Powerful flavor. Because of it's stronger tyloses staves can be sawn leading to 50% waste as opposed to 8O% in French Oak -Baltic and Slavonian oak were the most admired oaks in the 19th century -European Oak: Has tighter grain, was popular until 20th century -Has tighter grain -French oak: 1 150 year old oak will make 2 barrique , tyloses are weak and must be split -Limousine, clay or limestone-granite soils, more tannic and tight grained -Nièvre and Allier: Tronçais is a region within, south of Sancerre, silica and clay soils, tight grained -Vosges, Alsace-Lorraine, tight grained, clear white color, -Jura and Bourgogne, important for Bourg -Argonne, near champagne and used for bbl ferm champ ...EX... Jean-Baptiste Lécaillon at Louis Roederer, by the way, distinguishes between the desirable sweetness of sessile oak (Quercus petraea) aka Tronçais for Champagne, and the less desirable bitterness of pedunculate oak aka Limousin (Quercus robur). 'French oak' could mean either. ...EX..Taittinger's Comtes de Champagne, Chardonnay heavy which is typically stainless, their Grand Cru blend has five per cent oak maturation (often said to be all new oak) *Oak flavor* -Lactones, from lipids in oak, coconut, open air seasoning decreases/softens, -cis and trans isomers of β-methyl-g-octalactone. Trans: spiciness and has a higher threshold value in wine. Seasoning changes the ratio of cis and trans isomers -vanillin: phenolic aldehyde, product of lignin degradation, increases through toasting until it begins to fall again, falls with air seasoning, alcoholic ferm in barrel also reduces aromatic vanillin to vanillin alcohol -volatile phenols are only present after lignin degradation, produces spice tones, softens with air seasoning (eugenol/clove) (guaiacol/smoke) -terpenes, more in Amer oak, less in French, may not impart flavor -carbohydrate degradation, can enhance other flavors (Maltol and cyclotene/ caramel) (furfurals/bitter almond - increase with toasting) -tannin and phenolics- acts as reservoir to protect from oxidative/reductive, Hydrolysable tannins derived from oak lignin are known as ellagitannins =decreases with heavy toasting *Fermentation in BBL* -Red wine may be removed from skins and put in bbl with sugar still present to finish in bbl offering softer style (Aussie/ CA) -Barrels on rollers for skin contact in bbl, hard to remove material through bung - may have manway or port -whites easier to bbl ferment as they have no plant material - fermenting wine in barrel can buffer against oak flavor tannin absorption. This began in Aussie. Not quite fermented wine is run off skin and into barrel where ferm finishes. -yeast acts on the highly aromatic oak flavour molecules to transform them biochemically into much less aromatic substances -furfurals have a bitter flavour when originally extracted and are derived from hemicellulose, its transformed by the yeasts into compounds which have a range of flavours from smoked meat to leather - bacteria are also active in wine and, in the case of white wines, the barrel contributes compounds which bacteria can transform from relatively flavourless to highly aromatic ones reminiscent of smoke, cloves, and coffee. -Fermentation in barrel also gives large increases in polysaccharides, or complex sugars, which add richness and apparent length of flavour on the palate. (yeast mass in the barrel and the frequency of stirring affect) -The yeast also make and release enzymes that could reduce the stability of aromatic compounds in the wine. -Complexity gained from small lots of individual ferments being mixed in final wine -cost of bbls, time needed for cleaning and maintenance, constant top up to avoid oxidation and diligence to seek out infected bbl are costs WHITE WINE - with lees in barrel lighter in color than added to barrel later: Certain colloids are liberated during fermentation and lees contact; this stabilizes some of the phenolics extracted from the oak, causing pigment to be precipitated. -lees buffer wood from wine, stirring regime -The often higher temperature of fermentation in barrel rather than vat causes a loss of floral flavours and a reduction of the most obvious white wine fermentation aromas reminiscent of tropical fruit. There are fewer fatty acid esters and fatty acids which are described as perfumed or soapy, and more higher alcohols, which makes the wine taste fuller bodied. RED WINE -MLF in bbl can make wine more flattering in youth, good for en primeur *Aging in BBL* -deepens and stabilizes color (oxygen aids formation of pigmented tannin) -softens tannin -slow oxidation -racking 3-4 months important to avoid reduction and soften wine -first 6 months 'bung up' in Bd to encourage oxidation, fining at start of second year (2 years total) -Time is important: 3 years for top Sauternes, 10 years for some Vega Sicilia, Brunello 4 years --barrel matured wines are quite stabilized, have good clarity -...EX new standard-size barrels have oxygen transmission rate of 20-45 mg/L/year versus 10 mg/L/year for old barrels ...EX...Jean-Hervé Chiquet of Jacquesson approvingly quotes Henri Krug to the effect that controlled oxidation is in fact a vaccine against oxidation. *Post BBL* -fining may be used to remove oak compounds

affecting flavor post-ferm (2003)*

*Lees* -Lees contact encourages the second, softening malolactic fermentation because the lactic acid bacteria necessary for malolactic fermentation feed on micro-nutrients in the lees -enhance the structure and mouthfeel of a wine since the polysaccharides released from the dead yeast cells can significantly reduce astringency and increase body -If the lees are stirred, they act as an even more effective buffer between the wine and the wood, limiting the extent to which wood tannins and pigments are extracted into the wine. Wines subjected to lees stirring therefore tend to be much paler and less tannic than those whose lees are not stirred. --Autolysis, SPARKLING— the destruction of cells by their own enzymes, effects are greatest if wine is left in contact with the lees of a second fermentation in bottle for at least five years, and minimal if lees contact lasts for less than 18 months. ..EX...Lees contact even in bulk storage is increasingly used as a way of increasing flavour in everyday white wines—South Africa's Chenin Blanc, for example. *Oak* -can impart oak character (new oak) or be used to round out fruit edges (used oak) -...EX... light to medium toast in Bd, Oxygenation is positively encouraged during the first six months by leaving the barrels with the bung up Leopold Dufort-Vivens -Lactones, from lipids in oak, coconut, open air seasoning decreases/softens, -vanillin: phenolic aldehyde, product of lignin degradation, increases through toasting until it begins to fall again, falls with air seasoning, alcoholic ferm in barrel also reduces aromatic vanillin to vanillin alcohol -volatile phenols are only present after lignin degradation, produces spice tones, softens with air seasoning (eugenol/clove) (guaiacol/smoke) -terpenes, more in Amer oak, less in French, may not impart flavor -carbohydrate degradation, can enhance other flavors (Maltol and cyclotene/ caramel) (furfurals/bitter almond - increase with toasting) -tannin and phenolics- acts as reservoir to protect from oxidative/reductive, Hydrolysable tannins derived from oak lignin are known as ellagitannins =decreases with heavy toasting ...EX... Jean-Baptiste Lécaillon at Louis Roederer, by the way, distinguishes between the desirable sweetness of sessile oak (Quercus petraea) aka Tronçais for Champagne, and the less desirable bitterness of pedunculate oak aka Limousin (Quercus robur). 'French oak' could mean either. ...EX..Taittinger's Comtes de Champagne, Chardonnay heavy which is typically stainless, their Grand Cru blend has five per cent oak maturation (often said to be all new oak *Vessels* -Stainless fresh fruit -Concrete softer edges ...EX...Mike MacMorran of Mark Ryan Winery in Woodinville has begun using concrete eggs (egg-shaped concrete tanks) to ferment and age Viognier: "Concrete produces wines with a fresher, cleaner aromatic profile, similar to stainless steel," MacMorran says, "but without the higher-toned, harsher palate sensations that we get from stainless." -Amphora ...EX...Jean Claude Lapalu in Brouilly has 13 hectares, 55 000 bottles. 400-liter amphorae in 2009. "I immediately noticed that the wines are different. The taste is cleaner and they have a more pronounced minerality -Other wood: eponymous flavor ...EX......EX...For example, Azienda Agricola Inama (Veneto) uses acacia (sweet floral) barrels to age its dessert wine. *Skin* -Post ferm maceration extracts polyphenols for enhancing aging characterists (caution for tannin and bitter) 5-12 days conventional for soft tannin (Bordeaux, Cali, Italy) Piedmont can see up to 1 month O2 risks for VA, develops savory complexity of fruit ...Ex. Ripasso post ferm 10-12 days Tommasi (check this) ...EX....Columbia Crest experimenting with 9 weeks to get polymerization without oak! *Additives* -RCGM (sweetness) -Fining agents -Charcoal to remove some off-odours, especially Sulfurs -Protein (positive charge) used to remove harsh, bitter, or green phenolics (negative charge) *Ox* -aeration can often cure wines suffering from reduction and can usually remove malodorous and volatile hydrogen sulfide, mercaptans, and some other sulfide from young wines. -Protection from OX, or gassing out Ox vital to discourage acetobacter development that will show in bottle aging -Potential for lost aromatics and premature browning -Some O2 may be dosed/measured to avoid reduction under screw cap -Micro ox used in BBL to polymerize tannin, can resolve green notes -Tawny Port vs Ruby port *Temperature* ...EX...Rutherglen... Hot tin roof accentuates baked quality. Jen Pfeiffer of Pfeiffer remembers the tin roofs flapping in the wind in childhood. ...EX......Noval... ages up in the Douro after fire in Villa Nova de Gaia, underground cellar in steep hillside keeps temps down to avoid 'Douro Bake' for ruby, also adds freshness to Tawny. -MLF 20C-25C to keep bugs alive and happy -Cool temps aromatic whites and Champagne (underground cellars) -Fino (cool temps alow for biological complexity) vs Olorosso (high temps raisin and brûlée) *Blending* -Match vintage to vintage ...EX...Gallo Apothic red, large volume smooth out different character of vintages -achieve house style ...EX...Champagne Krug keeps 6 vintages on hand -Achieve complexity ...EX...No place called Grange, Penfolds aussie blending

non oak maturation vessels. (2013) *

*Stainless steel* -total oxygen exclusion (reduction risk) -easy to clean -most temperature control -hose out tartrate -no clarification or stabilization as in oak -Cost effective -easy to repair -can be insulated -variable fill *Plastic* -cheap for beginners -food-grade polyethylene -cheap -not durable -bacteria if not in perfect condition ...EX...Coni-packs *Concrete* -carbon footprint -traditional in France -Surface of concrete has small pores that fill with air and give wine some O2 contact without oak flavor (These tiny pinches of oxygen, winemakers say, help to preserve aromatics, tame tannins and improve mouthfeel.) -naturally insulated, low swings in temp -chip tartrates off the wall -Can be made in any shape to accompany thermo dynamics ...EX...Mike MacMorran of Mark Ryan Winery in Woodinville has begun using concrete eggs (egg-shaped concrete tanks) to ferment and age Viognier: "Concrete produces wines with a fresher, cleaner aromatic profile, similar to stainless steel," MacMorran says, "but without the higher-toned, harsher palate sensations that we get from stainless." -concrete eggs may be less space efficient, but are designed with the aim to keep lees in suspension. The slight temperature variation between the top and bottom of the egg (approximately 1 degree Celsius) results in continuous circulation -concrete absorbes heat away from white wines -Disadvantages include concrete's sheer mass (special forklifts are needed to move concrete tanks, which come in cube, cylinder and egg shapes), its fussy cleaning regimen (many techniques that work for other vessels—scrubbers, metal, very hot water, ozone, chlorine, strong acids—cause damage to concrete) and the potential for "pinking" a white wine by first using the concrete tank for red. The vessel cost is comparable to oak, but the shipping costs from Burgundy to Washington have been considerable. With several domestic concrete sources cropping up, those shipping costs should decline soon. -Sonomas cast stone produces egg ferm ...EX...Michlits (Rheingau), there is negligible evaporation and wine loss with concrete *Amphora* -Yves Canarelli at Clos Canarelli, Corsica, "The amphora protects the wine from oxidation in a natural way. I do not need to add any sulfur. The porous clay protects, the wine does not oxidize." 400-liter amphorae, only 1500 bottles per year. It's very labour-intensive. -Philippe Viret at Domaine Viret in the southern Rhone Valley wines are made without any additives at all; they are as natural as a wine can be. None of them have any added sulphur. -Jean Claude Lapalu in Brouilly has 13 hectares, 55 000 bottles. 400-liter amphorae in 2009. "I immediately noticed that the wines are different. The taste is cleaner and they have a more pronounced minerality, "he says. He runs his whole property organically and try to keep the added sulphur to a minimum. "Long ageing stabilizes the wines and you don't have to add any sulphur," he says. *Stone* *Bottle aging* -close intimate contact with lees -riddling, storage space, long time process of dosage *Other Wood* ...EX...Azienda Agricola Corte Sant'Alda (Veneto) uses cherry wood for its Ripasso, not just because it is traditional in the Veneto, but also because it doesn't "hid[e] natural flavours." -Acacia, in comparison, can be advantageous because it contributes sweetness and does not provide any tannin, making it well-suited to certain wine styles and varieties. ...EX...For example, Azienda Agricola Inama (Veneto) uses acacia barrels to age its dessert wine. ...EX...Segin Moreau also notes that acacia enhances fruit and aromatic qualities of white wines. -Chestnut, when not lined with paraffin or silicone, produces excessively tannic wines ...EX...NW - Quivira - Refuge - Acaicia barrels from Oakasions barrel broker; Tonnellerie du Sud Ouest cooperage

potassium ferrocyanide (1999)*

- added to wine to remove excess iron and copper -creates a blue deposit (cupric ferrocyanide) -copper and iron cause haze or deposit -copper catalyst to oxidation -copper limit of 1 mg/l -Bronze pumps and fittings, acids in wine attack bronze which is alloy of copper and tin -process is harmless -remaining ferrocyanide avoided as it may convert to cyanide, requires qualified chemist at hand -lab tests needed before, other metal ions may interfere -safe levels are measured by presence or residual iron (1-2mg/l) that guarantees no ferrocyanide is left (all wine contains some natural iron) -banned in many countries, allowed in Germany. -some feel no effect on the wine, others say it strips fruit Steps: 1. lab tests for metals and iron/copper content 2. guess level of PF, lab tests 3. perform on small sample and make adjustments 4. calculate out full amount 5. dissolve in water and and add to wine and stir 6. allow to settle and then rack off

Metatartic Acid (2008) (1999)*

- created by heating tartaric acid in closed vessel, molecules partially bind -dissolves in wine, stops tartaric deposites -may coat crystals -cheap and effective -only works short term, then will revert and make more crystals (6 months at 25C, 18 months 10C) -Great option for bag in box (must be consumed quickly), but eventual formation of crystals can be extra hazordous - No use for intended aging -Good for small wineries lacking capital and equipment -some larger wineries use it because they feel it is higher quality than cold stabilization -EU limit of 100 mg/l, max dose usually used

Phenolics*

- anthocyanins, catechins, and flavonols -anthocyanins, tannin, flavor compounds -Many hundreds of compounds belong to the phenolic category, and they can initially be classified as either non-flavonoid or flavonoid -non-flavonoid Phenolic acids (especially cinnamic acids) are the major phenolics in grape pulp and juice, and thus in white wines made without skin contact. -They are highly water-soluble and are secreted into the berry vacuole, many as glycosides, and some are flavour precursors or precursors of off-flavours. -alcohol durring fermentation speeds up extraction -Additional phenolics (including gallotannins and ellagitannins as well as flavour compounds such as vanillin) may also be present in wine as a result of barrel ageing, the use of oak chips, or the addition of oenological tannins. -Once extracted into the wine, the anthocyanins, catechins, and tannins are gradually converted to various types of derivatives, including pigmented tannins. These reactions are responsible for the colour and taste changes observed during wine ageing. ...EX...Pascal at Beaucastel Hotter, flabbier vintages tend to liberate more grape phenolics into the must and Roussanne is often richer in phenolics than Marsanne or Clairette. *FLAVONOIDS* -Astringent but colorless -Flavonoids encompass catechins and their polymers, called proanthocyanidins or condensed tannins, which are an essential part of the taste and flavour of grapes and other fruits, and pigments, including flavonols and anthocyanins. -More than 45,000 flavonoids in plant kingdom -Up to 90 per cent of the phenolic content in red wine is made up of flavonoids; in white wines lower because of less extraction -antioxidant and cancer chemopreventive capacity -contribute to colour, astringency, bitterness, and texture (with anthocyanins form pigmented tannin) ...EX...Amer Journal of Oenology reported that Increased vine water deficit caused small increases in anthocyanins and decreases in flavonols. (more color less astringent), by modifying flavonoid biosynthesis. *CATECHINS* -found mainly in grape seeds, but also in stems and berry skins -its isomer epicatechin -contribute bitterness, constitutive units of tannins, responsible for astringency and increasing the stability of anthocyanins -involved in browning reactions in both red and white wine (more abundant in red) -may play a role in protecting vine parts from microbial attack as a pre-existing chemical barrier -produced by vines in response to downy mildew infection -antioxidant, health -concentrations of catechins vary pinot noir, then merlot, notably high syrah lowest. As with resveratrol, cool, damp climates seem to stimulate more catechin synthesis than do hot, dry ones. ...EX....Author John Gladstones hypothesises that achieving tannin maturity is a result of a reduction in the total amount of tannin which can be extracted from the berry after veraison. There is a larger reduction of the extractability of the smaller-molecular-weight tannins (catechins) in the seeds due to seed hardening than the larger-molecular-weight polymers (flavonols) from the skins. The catechins are responsible for bitterness and the flavonols for astringency, so the overall organoleptic effect is of a softening of total tannin astringency and the disappearance of bitterness. *ANTHOCYANIN* -natural phenolic glycosides responsible for color in black and red grapes -precursors of pigmented tannins and other derived pigments which are formed after the anthocyanins have reacted with other wine components -mixtures of pigment molecules varying from species to species and from grape variety to grape variety (can be used in identification of varietal) -Pure vinifera varieties have anthocyanin pigments with only one molecule of glucose, while many of the american vines used in breeding rootstocks and american hybrids also have anthocyanins with two molecules of glucose -capable of changing form slightly, depending upon the ph -more acid the grape juice or wine, the greater the degree of ionization of the anthocyanins, and the brighter red the colour; as the acidity decreases, the proportion of colourless and blue forms increase -The concentration of the pigments in the grape skin increases as the level of sugar increases in the grapes during ripening. The increase is intensified if sunlight falls on the berries -During veraison the anthocyanin pigments are formed and sequestered in the berry skins' outer cell layers (sometimes in pulp - teinturiers) -skin contact = transfer the anthocyanin pigments from the skin cells to the wine -once the anthocyanins are mixed with the acids of the wine and other phenolics as well as the many products of fermentation, they begin a series of reactions leading to more complicated molecules, in turn leading to a great diversity of derived pigments and colourless molecules -Derived pigments are classically assimilated to pigmented tannins arising from the addition of tannins to anthocyanins, also rather small molecules formed by the reaction of anthocyanins with other wine constituents such as acetaldehyde or pyruvic acid. Within a few years, only traces of the relatively simple monomeric anthocyanins remain -wine ages and polymerizes precipitating color ...EX....Lungarotti According to Marco, Sagrantino has even more phenolics (colour, tannin and flavour compounds) than the Tannat of Madiran. Only if yields are really low can these phenolics ripen sufficiently to make wines gentle enough to drink with pleasure. *GENERAL* -detriment: coarse, bitter, astringent -excessive phenolics: brutal treatment of skins or pips pre ferm, over- extraction from too long maceration after fermentation ...EX... Dufort-Vivans Leopold adds tannin to help with color fixing when Botrytis has effected red grapes to help with color fixing and lacasse. ...EX...Nicolás Catena It is all about harnessing the extraordinary intensity of sunlight in Argentina to micro-manage phenolics and produce the optimum quality of wine.

Body (2005)*

- result of density and viscosity -alcohol, higher viscosity of water, major component and second largest constituent after water -extract also contributes, minimal fining and filtering makes it taste fuller -sweet wines fuller per abv then dry -glycerol contributes little to wine texture -full body wines get comparative advantage in wine competitions. -In reds skin contact and tannin can give full rounded texture from polymerization -barrel aging: tannin and rounding fruit edges -MLF gives richness and buttery flavors -Autolysis, mouthfeel is improved through the release of polysaccharides --sparkling can bring lightness, whites with some dissolved CO2 ...EX...An increase of 1 per cent in alcoholic strength increases viscosity relative to water by about 0.04 units, while an increase of 10 g/l in residual sugar increases viscosity by about 0.03 units.

Monoterpenes (2008) *

- terpenoids -contributes to characteristic flavor of Muscat and non muscat wines like Riesling -Individual monoterpenes that are found in grapes and contribute to the attractive flavour properties of wines include the alcohols geraniol, nerol, linalool, and citronellol, although more than 40 have now been reported -some of the first flavor compounds to be discovered, first in glycosylated form (glycosides are flavor precursors)

bacteria during winemaking (2006)*

-Acetic and Lactic are prime -No known human pathogenic bacteria can survive in wine, however, which is one of the reasons why it has been such a safe drink *Acetic* -See Acetic Acid *Lactic* -See MLF

Blending (2013) (2007) (2004)*

-All wines are blends -Vintage, variety, plots, winemaking styles (oak MLF), dosage, lots -Aseemblage, selection of bbls -Pre blending -Champ, Bd, Sherry, Port - In the case of ordinary table wines, blending is an important ingredient in smoothing out the difference between one vintage and its successor -inter grape/vintage blending oft not allowed, if allowed generally 15% tops -Blending was not possible before the days of large blending vats. Single cask bottling were much less consistent -Perhaps the most enthusiastic blenders are the australians, who regularly blend the produce of two or more different wine regions, possibly many hundreds of miles apart. -conditions of expense, the complication of volume, tradition vs. innovation, and the inherent style of the wine *Style Goals* -Rosé ...EX...Pol Roger 2008 Vintage Rosé's 60 per cent Pinot includes 13% red wine to achieve color ...EX...Piper-Heidsieck Régis Camus created Rosé Sauvage in 2003 by adding a greater proportion of Pinot noir red wine than in the average Champagne - 25% of the pink fizz comprises red wine compared to a more common 7-10% -Oak ...EX...Jean-Baptiste Lécaillon at Louis Roederer, by the way, distinguishes between the desirable sweetness of sessile oak (Quercus petraea) aka Tronçais for Champagne, and the less desirable bitterness of pedunculate oak aka Limousin (Quercus robur). 'French oak' could mean either. He is experimenting with blending from different casks. ...EX..Taittinger's Comtes de Champagne, Chardonnay heavy which is typically stainless, their Grand Cru blend has five per cent oak maturation (often said to be all new oak) *COMPLEXITY* -oak with non oak ...EX...in 2007 Veuve Clicquot bought 30 55hl and 75hl wood tanks for vintage champ production to be blended with tank for - 5% of vintage oak, 1-2% of yellow label wood according to cellar master Demarville. Oak gives cream. will be 10% for 2012 and 2015, plans to double tanks. -MLF with non MLF ...EX...2008 Veuve Clicquot all went through MLF but now typically pulled back to 50% by Dermarville, cellarmaster -Different regions (Australia) -High price point / quality ...EX...the Pol Roger 2006 Brut Vintage contains 60 per cent Pinot Noir; and the 2005 Cuvée Winston Churchill is also thought to be mainly Pinot to reach desired fruit concentration and body *CONSISTENCY* -reduce vintage variation -Volume -Solera ...EX...Guy Charlemagne, for example, ferments a portion of base wines in barriques without MLF. ...EX...at least 20 percent of each vintage must be "reserved" for non-vintage Champagne ...EX... reserve wines averaging up to 10 years of age at Charles Heidsieck ...EX...Veuve Clicquot NV (25-40% reserve wines) - 50%Pn, 20% menier, 30% Chard ....EX...Chartogne Taillet NV (60% 2012; rest from two vintages) ...Ex... Krug keeps 6 vintages on hand for blending tool of NV, 200 for grand cuvee, 400 tasted yearly in the cellar, 2007 vintage that had aged for seven years in the cellar with a total of 183 ingredients from 12 vintages dating back to the exceptional 1990. ...EX... No place called 'Grange' blend over large area ...EX...Maurice O'Shea was known to travel across Aussie to find wines suitable for his blends for Mount Pleasant Winery

trace minerals in wine (mine)

-Each glass of red wine gives on average the following of your daily, nutritional needs: 1% Vitamin K, 1% Thiamin, 2% Niacin, 3% Riboflavin and 4% Vitamin K. Trace amounts of minerals are also found in wine. Each glass of wine gives close to the following percentages of your daily adult requirement of minerals: 1% Calcium, 1% Copper, 1% Zinc, 3% Phosphorus, 4% Iron, 4% Magnesium, 5% Potassium and 10% Manganese.

acids present in must and wine. (2005)*

-Cooler climates in general favour higher concentrations of acids and lower levels of potassium in the grape skins. -Soils deficient in potassium, or potash, may result in grapes of high acid concentration and low ph because low potassium levels allow greater concentrations of acid tartrate ion to stay in solution. ...EX...Ridge adds calcium carbonate 1.5 g/l in cool 2010 to Montbello Cab to remove acidity *Tartaric* -relatively rare, found in grapes -tartaric acid exists in wine partially as the intact acid and partially as the acid tartrate, or bitartrate ion, it is the principal component of the mixture of acids and salts that constitutes wine's all-important buffer system and maintains the stability of its acidity and colour. -Tartaric acid is of further interest because its potassium acid salt, potassium tartrate or cream of tartar, while being moderately soluble in grape juice, is only partially soluble in alcoholic solutions such as wine. Most winemakers therefore try to ensure that no excess tartrates remain in the wine (stabilize) -Palomino, the sherry grape, for example, is particularly high in tartaric acid, while the Pinot Noir of Burgundy and Malbec, or Côt, are relatively low in tartaric. -Precipitation of potassium acid tartrate limits total tartaric acid concentration -Tartaric acid is not respired during ripening, meaning that its amount per berry stays relatively constant during berry ripening -More than half of the tartrate in ripe berries can be present as a salt. -The proportion of free to salt form varies with variety and the concentration of metal cations in the juice; potassium is by far the most abundant. -Wines that have not MLF generally have slightly more tartaric acid than malic acid, while those which have undergone MLF process usually have many more times tartaric than malic acid; they are also more stable. *Buffering Capacity* -the measure of resistance to change in ph by the addition of either acids or bases. -Buffer capacity is the resistance of a solution to pH change, in this case a wine sample. This is determined by measuring the amount of a basic solution needed to raise the pH by 1 unit. Buffer capacity is useful when making calculations for acid adjustments to achieve a target pH value. *Malic* -Malic acid is much more effectively decomposed by excessive heat during the grape ripening period than is tartaric acid. -known to be one of the compounds involved in the complicated cycles of reactions by which plants and animals obtain the energy necessary for life -during the final stages of ripening in many fruits, including grapes, causes the decomposition of malic acid -The malic acid decomposing reaction is much more rapid in hot summer temperatures, probably because of the more rapid respiration of malate in the berry -It accumulates in young grape berries reaching high levels at about veraison—sometimes as high as 20 g/l—but, as ripening progresses, the level of malate declines to concentrations of between 1 and 9 g/l when the grapes are ripe. This large range in ripe grapes is an important source of variation in quality and style -Malic acid's different chemical structure allows it to participate in many more of the enzymatic reactions involved in living systems than tartaric acid because it can be pumped across plant membranes serving as a transportable energy source -tartrate/malate (T/M) ratio, which varies from about 1 to 6 and is characteristic for each grape variety. High malate varieties, with a low ratio, are desirable for hot districts and examples are sylvaner, colombard, barbera, and carignan. -Malic may be retained by inhibiting MLF with sulfur or racking off of lees *Citric* -very little naturally occurs -In the eu it is not permitted for acidification but it can be used to prevent iron casse if blue fining is not possible -citric can be metabolized by yeast into VA, decided by trial -It is always added after rather than before fermentation

aging potential (2008)*

-Dr Valérie Lavigne of Bd says that as grapes are picked later wine is less age-able, She is researching Premox (premature Oxidation) *General* -fruit free of infection: oxidase and VA -Clean wine ...EX...It is estimated that 70-90% of all wines are consumed within 24 hours, depending on the region *Fermentation* -ideal ferm temps creates ideal esters for aging and aroma precursors (12-17C white, 25-30 reds) -controlled ferm retains aromatics on whites -some oxygen important for phenolics extracted from skin contact in reds (their role discussed below) -MLF may make wine easier to drink in youth and require less aging ...EX... *Acidity* -Inhibits the growth of bugs that spoil wine -Low acidity would cause a wine to become spread and flabby with age -Acid-catalyzed reactions march on alongside oxygen-related reactions, affecting flavor and aroma compounds. A wine's pH sets the framework in which all of these dynamics unfold -the seemingly small difference between a pH of 3.6 and a pH of 3.7 marks a tenfold difference in ageability -Acidity part of hydrolysis: Sue Ebeler of UC Davis, is hydrolysis: the capacity of ethanol (and acidity) to break down compounds and release volatiles, making new compounds in the process. Besides needing alcohol as the active agent, wines need to have the right precursors available. -Vital for aging whites like German Riesling and Burgundy Chardonnay -The famed long age Bordeauxs had moderate alcohol and low pH ...EX...Martin Kaiser, chief agronomist at Doña Paula estate believes acid most important for aging "tannins absorb oxygen and transform a wine's structure. The higher the acidity in the wine, the slower the rate of the oxygenation process" ...EX..Geoffrey chef de caves at Dom Perignon says acidity IS NOT key to aging a wine. pH is important and most importantly lees contact as it gives structure and is antioxidant. Gladly lets grapes hang longer and feels late disgorgement wines do not have shorter life 'can keep 100 years in lees'. *High Alcohol* -Difference between holding and evolving (Port v Aussie Shiraz) -Port, Sherry, and other fortified wines -Allow for extended elévage creating more complexity to unfold with age (40 year Tawny and Madeira can age for a long time) ...EX...Aussie Semillion obvious conundrum *Sweetness* -highly stable, if clean and concentrated -Concentration of sugar so high it inhibits growth of infections -If less concentrated sterile treatment and handling is required -sugar is a natural perservative ...EX...Mönchhof has rieslings from Napoleon era still drinking well in cellar. *Phenolics* -phenolic compounds, particularly tannins and anthocyanins. -phenolics develop, maybe, in the first few years of wine aging and play a critical anti-oxidant role for the years after that. ...EX...Emile Peynaud in the mid-20th century was to argue for the centrality of tannins, rather than acid, in wine aging ...EX...Andy Waterhouse of the University of California, Davis, calls these compounds "a sink for oxygen," giving color, aromas and flavors an extended lease on life. -It's not so much that pigmented polymers prevent oxidation; rather, they promote and are in part a result of "good" oxidation, a particular, beneficial form of oxidative reaction. -Helps to affix color, though degradation os inevitable -phenolic content does play a key role in distinguishing long-lived vintages from those that quickly fade ...EX...rule of thumb, Jim Kennedy, a tannin specialist at Oregon State, suggest that a total phenolics measurement of 2.5 grams per liter or higher likely wine as a prospective ager. ...EX....Grange, which can undoubtedly age, is taken off the skins very early in the winemaking process to give it a more approachable texture while young. But the consistently deep concentration of the wine - mainly due to the idea that it is a blend from top vineyards, according to Peter Gago - helps it to positively evolve. ...EX...Jean-Hervé Chiquet of Jacquesson approvingly quotes Henri Krug to the effect that controlled oxidation is in fact a vaccine against oxidation. ...EX...Wine microbiologist Ken Fugelsang of California State University, Fresno, says, "People have been trying to reduce ageability to a number for 20 years, but since that is a dynamic system, that's not achievable."

Sulfur (2008) (2007) (2005)*

-History indicates that the compound was first used by Roman winemakers over 2000 years ago, who recognized that if sulphur candles were first burnt inside empty wine containers, then the wine they held would last longer, keep their colour and not take on a sour vinegar-like taste SO2 -A molecular SO2 level of 0.4 ppm (equivalent to a free SO2 level of 20 ppm @ 3.50 pH) will kill wild yeast without adversely affecting Saccharomyces. -sulphur will also bind to acetaldehyde and turn it into an odourless compound -acids help hide -detected at 100 g/l red 200 g/l white -monitoring and care in dosage -once it interacts it become bound, only free sulfur works, can cause issues with total sulfur limit -pH determines SO2 needed -Good winemaking looks to max free over bound S or 1:1 ratio -Free S hard to measure in red LEGAL LIMITS: EU dry red 150 mg/l (100 for organic) dry white, dry rosé, sweet red 200 mg/l (150 for organic) sweet rose and white 260 mg/l very sweet 400 g/l Aussie: standard 250 mg/l sweet (>35g/l sugar) 300mg/l PROS: -inactivates enzyme reactions causing preservation -Reacts with O2 stopping oxidation -Inhibits bacteria ...EX Truchard Winery in Carneros AVA adds total SO2 around 50 mg/L after fermentation. In 2011 during its cool and wet vintage, it faced even higher SO2 requirement as grapes/must contained rot and botrytis of which antibiotic properties interfered with antifungal/antibacterial properties -Inhibits wild yeast -Encourages rapid and clean ferm -S. cerevisiae relative tolerance to SO2 so gets a head start on natural yeast outcompeting them. -A simple solution of water, citric acid and sulphur dioxide is the popular cleaning agent of winemaking apparatus. While compounds of ozone are also extensively used in the sanitation process, other cleaning agents such as detergents or bleach cannot be used for fear that they might lead to defects in the wine or damage expensive wine-making equipment. CONS: -Compulsory labeling -Allergies -Health Confusion -Smell -Oxidation -carefull handeling Alternatives and reduction of use: -lees are reductive and work as an antioxidant -DMDC deactivates enzymes in microorganisms, added at bottling, inhibit yeast metabolism to prevent re-fermentation in bottle as well as spoilage yeasts such as Brettanomyces -Phytic acid binds with iron, preventing oxidation and the formation of acetaldehyde -low electrical current, impairs cell membranes and inhibits yeast and bacteria (not anti O2) -pressure change technology ruptures cell walls by rapidly increasing and then removing pressure with an inert gas (not anti O2) -ultraviolet radiation has been used to inactivate microorganisms. (not anti O2) -Screw caps -high phenolic or acidic dry wine -Steril filtration -Pasteurization -Fortified wine at bottling more stable -retained CO2 ...EX Ernst Strom of Strom Wines in Santa Barbara AVA prefers lower SO2 for his fresh white wines. He traps some CO2 in wine to protect wine instead of high dosage of SO2 -GSE -Yarrow ...EX. Yarrow can be used post ferm for antiseptic, but carefully Maysara, OR -Sorbic Acid: geranium smell risk -Vitamin C :150 mg/L is permitted in the EEC, may convert to hydrogen peroxide oxidizing the wine and turning it brown ...Germany and New Zealand for Riesling Sauvignon Blanc -Demeter Levels: 140 mg/L for dry white, 110 mg/L for dry red and 250 mg/L for sweet wine without botrytis and 360 mg/L for botrytised wine -Stephen Skelton says modern skilled winemaker uses 100mg/l of total SO2 in wine (viticulture) Sulfur bound: ...EX Shelby Perkins: Generally two-thirds of a sulfur addition remains free when added to a wine, 1:1 ratio is ideal. The free sulfur dioxide will decline by about 10 mg/L per month in a 60-gallon barrel. Smaller barrels will lose more. When stored in large-capacity tanks, the reduction in sulfur dioxide is two to three times less that a barrel. In the bottle, it does not amount to more than a few milligrams per year. ...EX in SA, The Audacia winery on the Western Cape, replaces the traditional oak wood with indigenous rooibos and honeybush wood. rooibos is not only rich in antioxidants, but also significantly increases our blood's capacity to absorb the nutrient. The higher antioxidant levels also help preserve the wine naturally. This means the rooibos-and-honeybush vino is free of a preservative by-product, sufites, which is found in most wines. ...EX...Drappier makes a no sulfur added Champagne *Explain recent changes in the uses of Sulphur and Sulphur Dioxide in the vineyard and cellar prior to the completion of the malolactic conversion.* Sulfur and Sulfur Dioxide: Sulfur acts as an antioxidant, antifungal (including yeast, mold, and mildew), pesticide, Recent: Invent of modern winemaking post Pasteur Sulfur In the Vineyard: cheap, effective, increases yields-utilizes inputs through minimal waste, kills bugs ...EX...Noval uses backpack bell dusting sprayers for application of sulfur 1-3 times a year (3 wet year). Odium can thrive in dry environment if there is a moisture release (by plants or sudden rain). ...EX...Organic alternatives, mineral oil: detroys fungus cells and kills mites and spiders ...EX...Belle Pente experimenting with whey spray for antifungal as natural wine becomes more popular ...EX...Ponte-Canet m. Comme says many growers of biodynamics rely on sulphur because it is natural. Sulfur at Harvest and reception ...EX...Potassium Metabisulfite dusting at 2004 harvest by Louis Latour in Burgundy, combines with any crushed grapes H2O or exposed juice to create sulfur ...EX...Sulfur application must be stopped weeks before harvest to avoid Hydrogen sulfide in the winery (Fetzer 30 days). ...EX...Cuvaison uses dry ice to protect to avoid sulfur and to reduce chances of hydrogen sulfides Sulfur in primary: Total vs Free Sulfur, pH and efficency, minimal sulfur desired to allow yeast to thrive. ...EX..Innovation: Wyeast recommends 50ppm of free sulfur for red- if not intended for MLF 80 ppm- at crush, allowing wine to sit overnight inoculating in the morning ...EX...Return to tradition: Jean Trimbach says minimal sulfur is added at the onset of primary to allow natural innoculation-as ferm slows they will add sulfur. If mold present will use sulfur immediatly and inncoulate ...EX...EC1118 resistant to high sulfur levels Reduced sulfur: use of yarrow, inert gas, Sorbic acid (risk of geranium flaw), Vitamin C (risk of VA reduction by yeast must have trial) -Sulfur is added at first racking post primary when wine fermentation has finished (ppm depends on MLF desires) Sulfur and MLF: levels above 0.8 molecular SO2 (pH dependent but roughly 35-50 ppm) will inhibit the bacteria. Monitoring vital to avoid spoilage, health of fruit may dictate capacity for full MLF. Little aeration during MLF. lees function as antioxidant. Do not add sulfur at this point if MLF is desired ...EX..Innovation: Chr. Hansen yeast supplier developing MLF inoculation for higher sulfur as MLF style grows in mold prone Bordeaux, ...EX...important choice for champagne houses as some block MLF, Veuve cliquot 2008 100% MLF Sulfur and elevage: Brett is inhibited but not killed so it is important to monitor ...EX...Leopold at Durfort Vivens says keeping 50ppm free in barrel in necessary for their clean style ...EX...80 ppm addition at end of MLF- modern factors might include plastic tanks, warm cellars, a pH above 3.5, or late-harvest wines, all of which might call for 10-20 ppm more SO2. -Chris Stamp, Lakewood Vineyards ...EX...Ch. Coutet says intensity of lacsaae and noble rot may lead to higher additions of sulfur including up to 100ppm if it is binding fast in poor years ...EX...David Bruce Fonseca says long elevage ports need little SO2 due to fortification- acetobacter cannot live, etc, oxidation welcome Sulfur and bottling ...EX...Gallo barefoot moscato juice shipped at 50ppm to protect in shipping ...EX...Yellow Tail Uses sterile filtering, Bentonite fining (to reduce nutrients for any bottle refermentation with RS, malic acid present) and 25 ppm free Sulfur

*MLF Conditions* Sulphur and Sulphur Dioxide in relation to malolactic conversion. and acidity. (2011)*

-MLF creates better biological stability because MLF means consumption of nutrients so that conditions are not permissive for other microbes, but it may also be a consequence of the production of bacteriocins, compounds that are toxic to members of other species. -Prevents MLF in bottle *Before* -mold makes toxins that can inhibit both yeast and ML bacteria, clean grapes needed -Make sure that the initial SO2 addition is around 50ppm "total", or so (ideally you want to finish the fermentation with a maximum of 25-30ppm "total", and 0-10ppm "free". Less is better). -Healthy ferm means limited HS2 and VA which can antagonize MLF -recommend treating any form of ML bacteria you may be working with as if it required a 15-minute hydration before inoculation. Use chlorine free water! -For every 1 gram of bacteria being added to the wine, you will be adding 20g of Acti-ML to 100mL of distilled water at 77°F (25°C). After sitting for 15 minutes gently, yet, thoroughly stir this solution into your wine -Inoculation and handling should take care to limit any oxygen exposure as the bacteria are anaerobic and depending on the strain may react negatively to various amounts of oxygen that may be introduced into the wine *Alcohol* -Is toxic to coverting bacteria *Temperature* -higher temperatures aggravate alcohol toxicity, and even ML bacteria adapted to the wine will start to feel the effects of alcohol toxicity if the wine's temperatures become too elevated - temperature becomes too cool, then the ML bacteria stop reproducing and the secondary fermenta- tion will slow and potentially shut-down altogether (until the wine warms-up again) -Red wines: have an optimum temperature for a favour- able MLF of around 70o F (20o C), which is cool enough to limit alcohol toxicity and yet warm enough to maintain full activity. -White wines: are often fermented at the same tempera- tures as the reds, but some strains will allow the winemaker to work at the even cooler temperatures of around 58o F (15o C). This might make it easier to maintain the cooler handling conditions often desired for white winemaking, but it will cause the process to work at a slower pace and therefore the fermentation will take longer to complete. -having one or two weeks at 70F and then having the temperature slowly drop is better than trying to get the MLF under way at 57-60F right from the start. *Sulfur* ● Sulfur dioxide is inhibitory ● All genera/species/strains appear to be equally sensitive ● Even if SO2 is not added, it may be produced by yeast at an inhibitory concentration -there are no SO2 tolerant strains of Oenococcus -"bound" SO2 is 5 to 10 times less active than "free" SO2, at high enough levels it too can hinder bacterial growth. -Yeast produce on the order of 20 mg/L sulfite, which, if the pH conditions are appropriately low, may be high enough to inhibit some malolactic strains. -As sulphur dioxide is an antibacterial agent, the level of sulphur dioxide is another important issue with MLF. Again the recommendation by different suppliers varies, but a typical guideline is for a maximum of 50 ppm total sulphur dioxide, 30ppm preffered. Of course it is important that this is measured accurately and it should be measured just prior to inoculation. Results of testing performed much earlier in the wine's life should not be relied upon as the yeast in the primary fermentation can also produce sulphur dioxide thus adding to the total amount present. ...EX... Lallemand recommends as being favourable MLF conditions: 0-10ppm "free", and 0-30ppm "total". -lowest lactic bacterial count was observed in the presence of low pH and high SO2 (1983 by the American Society for Enology and Viticulture) -as pH increases, free SO2 loses effectiveness, and therefore you need to add more sulfite to protect the wine. *Acidity* -if the wine has a pH that is too low, it will exacerbate the already harsh conditions of the wine and it will inhibit the bacteria's survival. However, if the pH of the wine is too high, then while the bacteria have an easier time thriving, the wine also becomes more susceptible to a greater number of spoil- age bacteria. -range of between 3.1 pH* and 3.6 pH. -MLF Decrease titratable acidity by 0.01 to 0.03 g/L because of H+ fixation (The fixation of hydrogen ions on lactate) -MLF Increase pH by 0.1 to 0.3 units -the metabolic activity of the lactic acid bacteria can raise the pH to a level supporting the growth of many more species. *Nutrition* - need a nice, rounded set of nutrients in order to remain healthy throughout the entire fermentation process. -adding nutrients to the hydration water, and then by maintaining a small amount of leftover yeast ("light lees") in the wine for the bacteria to feed off during the fermentation. -Acti-ML id MLF nutrient ...EX.. Lallemand recommends adding MLF nutrient just like yeast nutrient -over time, both the lees and the bacteria can settle-out and compact on the bottom of the vessel, ef- fectively burying the bacteria alive and lowering the ratio of working bacteria to wine volume. Hence stirring. -If MLF stalls or were forced to rack off of lees add another dose of Acti-ML to the wine at a rate of: .75 - 1.0 grams per gallon (possibly along with some yeast hulls as well). -goal is to have enough nutrients for the ML bacteria to comfortably finish their fermentation, the wine- maker ideally wants the wine to be as nutrient depleted as possible once they're done. Any nutrient source left over after the ML bacteria have finished is available to any spoilage organism that may possi- bly find its way into the wine. -MLF does not require DAP, DAP will only be available to potential spoilage organisms, as well as give the wine a salty taste at high enough concentrations! *After* -As soon as the MLF has completed, it is also a good idea to add SO2 immediately in order to stabilize and protect the wine. At this time, the wine should also be re-checked and the pH/TA% adjusted, if needed. If you are working with a red wine, then it is important to rack the wine at this point to counteract any of the reduc- tion that may be remaining from the secondary fermentation. If you are doing a white, however, then you may choose to re- main on the lees for more depth and complexity but continue to stir the lees once every 1-2 months.

oxygen management (2014) (2013)(2008) (2004) (2000)*

-Oxidation. A flaw once beyond desired limits, otherwise 'aeration'. *Grape Reception* -mold/ rot on grapes can cause -grapes are dusted with antioxidant powder (Potassium metabisulphite- liberates SO2 when wet) protects liberated juice -when grapes are received and crushed potassium metabilsuphite from vineyard will protect juice, sometimes Ascorbic acid is used instead ...EX...Cuvaison adds dry ice to keep SO2 low for MLF *Must/Pre Ferm* -4-6 mg/L desired at onset of ferm Red: dose 5-10 mg/L day 1 and 2 maybe more White: dose 5 mg/l day 1 -once juice is liberated oxidation is immediate, causes browsing due to enzyme aka enzymatic oxidation SO2 used at crush to inactivate enzyme and counter oxidation of phenolics -principal defense is SO2 (every molecule of o destroyed 4x it's weight of SO2) -DO (dissolved Ox) is destroyed by SO2 but not immediately, air must be prevented from wine contact -copper accelerated as a catalyst oxidase for oxidation of O2 dissolved in wine, banished from winery -all measures of O2 have to be made acerbically to be accurate and at every point of process, any rise needs to be investigated -flush all lines and pumps with inert gas (CO2, nitrogen, argon) -Too much O2 at this point browns juice, oxidizes phenolics -small amount of O2 required by yeast to start fermentation achieved by pump over, natural movement, or even micro ox -durring clarification must hit with blasts of O2 to remove fragile components to increase shelf life -saturate must with O2, kick starts yeast, prompt ferm ...EX... Symington's Grahams Port uses large open lagares means high O2 for color fixing *Bridge Concepts* -Micro-oxygenation seems to favour polymerization of tannins and the retention of pigmented tannins resulting respectively in a softer taste and more stable colour. Some Bordeaux producers use micro-oxygenation on new wine during maceration before pressing as a way to begin this process while the must has all its constituents available. Proponents claim that it is also an effective remedy for green or vegetal characters due to slightly underripe fruit. *Primary Ferm* -CO2 produced by ferm naturally blankets wine -If too little O2 one can kickstart slowing yeast, pump over cascade to oxygenate or blast of micro ox (also keeps wine from stalling if O2 falls) -Micro Ox can aid in yeast viability avoiding reduction from dead lees -Vessel ullage is important, smaller ullage smaller risk, inert gas may fill ullage ...EX.. Letina in Italy makes variable capacity tanks with inflatable gasket -Wooden vats, casks, and barrels are not sufficiently impervious for this blanketing technique, may be managed with small and well times SO2 additions -ascorbic acid has also been used to a certain extent as an antioxidant, but it must be employed in conjunction with sulfur dioxide -When active primary ferm slows or ceases oxygen must be actively managed to protect from O2 - délestage, and pumping over can also be positively beneficial to a wine's development by causing O2 contact *Secondary Ferm* -Red wine: small doses of O2 which the wine receives during the inevitable operations of filling, racking, and topping up deepen and stabilize colour, soften and intensify flavour, and assist natural stabilization and clarification by encouraging the precipitation of the less stable phenolics. -aeration can often cure wines suffering from reduction and can usually remove malodorous and volatile hydrogen sulfide, mercaptans, and some other sulfide from young wines. -MLF gives off CO2 protecting from O2 *Post Ferm* -Micro Ox aid rapid and complete clarification and stabilization, thus reducing the need for filtration -oxidizes hard polyphenols which drop out in barrel as it cask ages -Protection vital to discourage acetobacter development that will show in bottle aging -Potential for lost aromatics and premature browing ...EX...Martin Kaiser, chief agronomist at Doña Paula estate, said:"Acidity is the most important element to ageing but the wine also needs to have a good tannic structure to perform well during the micro-oxygenation process. Tannins absorb oxygen and transform a wine's structure. The higher the acidity in the wine, the slower the rate of the micro-oxygenation process" ...EX...Jean-Hervé Chiquet of Jacquesson approvingly quotes Henri Krug to the effect that controlled oxidation is in fact a vaccine against oxidation. *Pre Bottling* -VA production -Temp affects rate of O2 interaction -some O2 present to avoid reduction in bottle (screw caps) -final dose of SO2 Pre bottling: total D.O. should be below 1.25 mg/L Bottling can increase the levels of D.O. by 0.5 - 2.0 mg/L ...EX...Best protection from Oxidative damage is controlled oxygen ...EX...Jamie Goode says micro ox for mid priced wine Clark Smith claims best to add depth and soul-fullness to high end wines ...."Micro-oxygenation enables you to master élevage, (part of which is) giving the wine the appropriate amount of O2 for its particular stage along its life." Randall Graham. Tannat and Cab suited to micro ox

oxidative winemaking (2000)*

-Oxidative Winemaking — contrasts with protective and reductive winemaking in that the winemaker deliberately exposes the wine to oxygen at various stages in the winemaking process in order to encourage certain reactions and achieve a particular style of wine -It is not possible to understand why winemakers deliberately try to develop oxidative notes in their wines unless you also understand umami. -Exposing grape juice to oxygen increases the level of glutamates and hence the umami qualities ...EX...Tyler Colman, Ph.D aka Dr Vino Oxidative wines are an essential wine tasting reference point. Too much oxygen during winemaking (or bottle aging) and a wine becomes oxidized, a flaw; just enough and it is oxidative, a sort of nutty character that people generally love or hate. -The normal reaction is to reject any wine that exhibits any oxidative characteristics - unless, of course, it is sherry! This reaction seems to stem from the clean, antiseptic, technology-driven approach to wine making that characterises the so-called New World. -These wines have not become oxidative because of bad corks or poor storage - they are deliberately exposed to oxygen during maturation in barrels or large conical wooden fûts. -Very stable - The addictive oxidative tones that some people crave in wine are on a continuum that ends in vinegar -Oxidation will change the colour of wine - it will lose its vibrant tones and the aromas rising from the wine will change as well. The wine also becomes more complex, more interesting and certainly, to those who are open to umami qualities, definitely more compelling. ...EX...many Italian wines especially the well-known 'orange' wines in the Collio region of Friuli (such as the gorgeous Stanko Radikon offerings) are quite oxidative as are Spanish wines such as the famous Fondillón or the old-style white Vina Tondonias produced by the Heredia winery; many Slovenian and Croatian wines and even some Burgundian wines are deliberately oxidative as well. ...EX...Things are progressing Aussie, Si Vitners use natural yeast, biodynamics, and minimal sulfur allow wines a lift *Basic Winemaking with O2* -small amount of O2 required by yeast to start fermentation achieved by pump over, natural movement, or even micro ox -...EX... Symington's Grahams Port uses large open lagares means high O2 for color fixing -Micro-oxygenation seems to favour polymerization of tannins and the retention of pigmented tannins resulting respectively in a softer taste and more stable colour. Some Bordeaux producers use micro-oxygenation on new wine during maceration before pressing as a way to begin this process while the must has all its constituents available. Proponents claim that it is also an effective remedy for green or vegetal characters due to slightly underripe fruit. -Micro Ox can aid in yeast viability avoiding reduction from dead lees - délestage, and pumping over can also be positively beneficial to a wine's development by causing O2 contact -Red wine: small doses of O2 which the wine receives during the inevitable operations of filling, racking, and topping up deepen and stabilize colour, soften and intensify flavour, and assist natural stabilization and clarification by encouraging the precipitation of the less stable phenolics. -Micro Ox aid rapid and complete clarification and stabilization, thus reducing the need for filtration -oxidizes hard polyphenols which drop out in barrel as it cask ages ...EX...Jean-Hervé Chiquet of Jacquesson approvingly quotes Henri Krug to the effect that controlled oxidation is in fact a vaccine against oxidation. *Oxidative styles* -Tawny -Vin Santo ...EX...Although Vin Santo winemakers are moving away from the more traditional porous chestnut caratelli (barrels) where oxygen played its role over the sometimes five year maturation, it is still the oxidative notes in this wine that is one of its great appeals. -stickies -Olorosso, Palo Cortado Sherry -Jura wines that are deliberately oxidative ranging from the Vin Jaunes that are exposed to oxygen for many years (where the barrels are neither initially filled nor topped up) through to the table wines made from Savagnin and Chardonnay that have slight oxidative qualities. ...EX...Spanish wines such as the famous Fondillón or the old-style white Vina Tondonias produced by the Heredia winery ...EX...Anfora, wine bar in NYC specializing in oxidative natural wines ...EX... Jura Vin Jaunes: As the wine ages in the airy rooms where the temperature can range from 30+ degrees Centigrade in summer to below zero in winter, evaporation occurs and the level of wine in the barrel becomes lower. But the dead yeasts float to the top and forms a veil on the surface of the wine thus creating a natural barrier to the oxygen in the gap above. Thus this method of aging wine is known as sous-voile (beneath the veil). Aged 6 years before bottling. Gahier is a producer. ...EX...bright orange Sauvignon Blanc from Domaine du Pech from Buzet in south west France. This had not only been oxidised but it had also spent an entire summer in glass demijohns outside in the sun. ...EX...In Gaillac, talented winemaker Patrice Lescarret ages wine made from the Mauzac under the veil for up to ten years and then produces a solera (currently from the 97, 98, 99 and 2000 vintages) called Mysterre ...EX...many Italian wines especially the well-known 'orange' wines in the Collio region of Friuli (such as the gorgeous Stanko Radikon offerings) are quite oxidative as are many Slovenian and Croatian wines and even some Burgundian wines are deliberately oxidative as well. ...EX...In Champagne, Anselme Selosse has learned valuable lessons from Jura winemakers and exposes his wines to oxygen early in the winemaking process as he believes that this makes them more resistant to harmful oxidation in maturity. ...EX...Patrick Javillier who wine writer Clive Coates calls "the King of Meursault" He presses his grapes in open tank presses where the juice and the must both make contact with the air and hence with oxygen. Once the wine is in barrels Javillier uses bâttonage (stirring of the lees) to produce a richer, fuller, more complex wine. However this requires the barrel to be opened and more air to come in contact with the wine. Stirring the lees also allows sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide to escape, thus reducing their role in retarding the effects of oxygen on the wine. He is willing to sacrifice some of the up-front fruit aromas to make his wines more complex and sturdier for the long haul. After almost twelve months in wooden barrels he transfers the wine to cement tanks which allow oxygen to seep through into the wine for up to another five months. ...EX... Imbibe Magazine article 'Deep Breathing' quoted the multi-talented Joe Campanale, co-owner of the New York restaurant L'Artusi and Anfora "Oxidized flavours can be difficult if you're not familiar with them. All the fresh fruit aromas and tastes diminish, making way for cooked or candied fruit; nutty, yeasty flavours; and a ton of complexity. Fans of these wines find their individuality and character is unsurpassed and, because of that, they are some of the most fascinating and compelling wines in the world." -Lovers of wine in the New World have become comfortable with clean, technologically-driven, highly filtered, highly fined wines where some of the predictability comes from the use of a specific commercial yeast which stamp their indelible flavour on the wines. *HYPEROXIDATION* -belief that too reductive winemaking makes wine too fragile to oxygen, controlled O2 contact may make more stable wine -O2 exposure destoyes fragile components in wine making it more stable -No SO2 -clarification followed by ox, turn wine black like coffee, skill is needed to know when to stop! -durring ferm yeast consume ox and color goes back via reduction -can virtually double shelf life of rose

Ferm temp (2014)*

-Temperature has direct effects on the rates of the biochemical reactions involved in fermentation, and on the slower reactions involved in clarification and stabilization of wine -most chemical reactions happen about twice as fast if the temperature is raised by 10 °C/18 °F—and it is for this reason that refrigeration slows down the reactions of harmful bacteria, as well as the reactions involved in aging. - Oxidation and loss of fruitiness in white wines can be discouraged by low temperatures, while the bacterial activity that stimulates malolactic fermentation can be positively encouraged by storing the newly fermented wine between 25 and 30 °C (77-86 °F) until this secondary fermentation is completed. -Fermentation temperatures govern the types of esters that are formed and accumulate in the wine. Lower temperatures (10 to 15 °C/50-59 °F) favour both the production and retention of the fruity esters, which have lower molecular weights. Tropical fruit -Higher fermentation temperatures (20 to 25 °C/68-77 °F) favour heady, heavier esters and, at the same time, destroy more of the varietal character of the grape. Temperatures of 30 °C and higher result in the loss of much of the fruity ester complex through hydrolysis and volatilization and its replacement by substances which smell 'cooked'. *Cold Temp* -temperatures below 10 °C/50 °F most yeasts will act prohibitively slowly or not at all -There are yeast strains which grow and ferment very slowly at very low temperatures, only just above freezing. Such strains are particularly useful in cool wine regions such as Switzerland and parts of Germany but fermentation rates are so slow that a single fermentation vessel can be used only once after each harvest. -Too cold temps may result in undesired banana and pear drop aromas *Cool Temp* WHITE WINES 10-15C 50-59F to preserve frshness and CO2 and primary fruit -no maceration during ferm on white wines allowing cooler temp for retained primary fruit -Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, and Muscat tend to be fermented at the lower end of this temperature range, whereas more neutral varieties, with a less complex blend of grape flavours to be conserved, may be fermented at the upper end and rely on the accumulation of secondary fermentation aromas. -barrel fermentation and lees contact, such as are often applied to Chardonnay grapes, often involve slightly higher fermentation temperatures too, although the small size of the barrel (in comparison with the normal stainless steel tank) helps to control temperature. ...EX... Trimbach Alsace ferments at ambient temps being mild-cool. This gives them characterful aromas and broader texture then German wines *Warm Temp* RED and Orange WINES 25-30C warmer for richer styles -extraction of sufficient tannins, anthocyanins, and flavour compounds from the grape skins. Temp and agitation control this extraction -Temperatures higher than this threaten the yeast activity while temperatures below it inhibit extraction. ...EX... Palamino in Sherry white fermented warm, little varietal character desired. *Hot Temp* -at temperatures above 45 °C/113 °F they are damaged and finally killed -higher fermentation temperatures speed up some reactions so that undesirable flavour compounds become apparent. -Higher temperatures, some of the desirable flavour compounds are volatilized in the rapidly evolving stream of carbon dioxide, literally 'boiled off'. The result of this is a wine low in fruit and marked by 'hot' fermentation characteristics. -In the extreme case of temperatures nearing the range at which yeasts are killed, the yeast cells secrete compounds which inhibit future yeast growth, thereby making it difficult or impossible to restart this stuck fermentation even after cooling.

TCA (2010) (2005) (2002)*

-The formation of TCA begins when chlorine reacts with organic phenols to form chlorophenols such as trichlorophenol (TCP). hese in turn react with mould in the presence of moisture to form TCA. -The enzyme methylase acts as a catalyst. -possible vectors: corks, barrels, wooden pallets and in wood used in the structure of the building such as beams - intensifies with aeration - infected materials, chlorine cleaner - Cork handling much improved, no longer left out to mold, no chlorine cleaning -aroma threshold in wine of 2-5 ng/l in red and white wines, reduced to 1-1.5 ng/l in sparkling wine because the carbon dioxide volatilizes taint compounds. -around 5 per cent of all wines sealed under cork display a musty taint -originally blamed on cork chlorine cleaners, since replaced with peroxide, but still has taint. Now believed to be due to fungi in cork. It's fine pores (lenticels) allow oxygen to keep it alive. -It suppresses fruit and shortens the length of finish of the wine. ...EX... Mendocino no longer use Chlorine cleaners. Only Caustic and citric acid for cleaning ...EX...Sabaté's Diamant procedure, using supercritical carbon dioxide, has been almost 100% successful in stripping TCA from the cork flour used to make its popular Altec closure; however, it has yet to prove suitable for treating whole natural corks. ...EX...Amorim's steam-based ROSA cleaning process removes most, but not all, of the TCA. -ozone used but outcome is uncertain still -GCM (gas chromatography-mass spectrometry) used to detect TCA -Many believe full solution is impossible ...EX... Australian Wine Research Institute study has shown that cork may sometimes actually absorb TCA and other chloroanisoles from contaminated wine. ...EX... Michael Broadbent's son will soak cling wrap in a tainted wine to attract out the taint. -TBA (tribromoanisole), MDMP (methoxy-dimethylpyrazine), PCA (pentachloroanisole), and TeCA (tetrachoroanisole) also cause must taint -All infected materials removed -TCA is water soluble and can spread through water contact. -May switch to all plastic palates and metal/plastic building materials -evaluation of barrels before marriage important ...EX...Goats do Roam wine producers will always risk cork taint on higher priced bottles though a bigger expense and inconvenience to customer. Fewer bottle, so less recall. ...EX...Beaulieu Vineyard claimed for years TCA was terroir showing the risks an emerging wine region takes when they don't learn global lessons. ...EX...Symington Family unwilling to change closures - no need anymore.

Botrytis*

-The risks and costs involved in making naturally botrytized wine make it necessarily expensive. It has therefore been an economical proposition only when sweet wines are highly valued. *Positive* -obtaining juice is challenging, stresses machines, lots of wear and tear -late pressings supply some of the best juice (richer in sugar and Bt induced chemical compounds -driest grapes may be presser 2-3 times before any juice comes out (Tokaji avoids by maceration) -inhibit yeasts, being so high in sugar and antibiotics such as botryticine -special yeast to perform ferm ...EX... Ch. Coutet inoculates with hearty yeast made especially for Sauternes -Botrytized musts tend to lack nutrients such as thiamine and ammonia, adding to stuck ferm issues -ferm may stop naturally or SO2 added (allowed up to 350ppm??? ) -2 winters in new barrique common in Sauternes -Bottled following spring in Germany and Loire for bottling -often have a residual sugar level equivalent to about 6 per cent alcoholic strength -Much SO2 needed as lacasse will cause excessive browning in bottle -chemical composition of botrytized wines means they have significant power to bind SO2 -Highest allowable sulfur additions in all of EU -Botrytis cinerea also results in the production of two polysaccharides. One has antifungal properties and inhibits fermentation. The other, a β-glucan, can make filtration much more difficult, especially if crushing, pumping, and pressing are carried out harshly. *Negative* -lessened skin contact, reduced color in reds -Laccase — a powerful oxidative enzyme particularly associated with botrytis bunch rot which turns grape must brown. ...EX...Dufort-Vivens head winemaker Leopold adds tannin powder to fix color on reds with Botrytis -VA can become high, SO2 needed -smells of mold taint *What are the challenges involved in the vinification of botrytis affected grapes?* Botrytis affected grapes can be a blessing of nature in the form of Noble Rot or a curse in the case of non noble styled dry wines. In either scenario many steps need to be taken during vinification due to the special challenges noble rot introduces. In the case of sweet wines the winemaker must be aware of slowed and stuck fermentation, challenges to clarity, creation of volatile acidity, and the increased need for stability to avoid stuck fermentation. In the production of dry wines affected with undesired botrytis a winemaker must address stuck fermentations as well, loss of color in pigmented rose and reds, and potential mouldy taint. Botrytis grapes may be a welcomed gift at the cellar door or it may be met with disdain, either way it takes a skilled hand to make wine from any style of wine affected with Botrytis. Sweet Slow fermentation (Muller-Catoir cascade) (Coutet special yeast innculation), VA increased sulfur dosing (Ch Guiraud up to 50 ppm free at all times) bottle stability (trimback believes the wine has reached equilibrium and is stable) Dry wines: Stuck fermentation: Trimbach will only innoculate in years there is mold. loss of color (leopold D-V add tannin powder to aid in color fixing) fish fining, charcoal filtering Mouldy taint (potential for filtering RO proving more effective than charcoal)

reductive winemaking (2000)*

-Wine made with the intention to strictly limit exposure to oxygen to achieve style of fresh fruit, bright (non-brown) color. -Includes wines that are increasingly working with the fine lees; both white and red. They rack less often or not at all and when they do, it's often with limited or no exposure to oxygen. Indeed, more and more vignerons rack only in preparation for the bottling, which means when tasting in bbls there may be reduction -used to avoid premature oxidation -minimizing or eliminating practices such as racking, lees stirring, and the use of new oak barrels ...EX...One reason for this significant fashion in winemaking (it is a man-made not a natural phenomenon) is as a reaction to what The Wine Society's experienced burgundy buyer Toby Morrhall calls 'the pox'. This was the mysterious premature oxidation that afflicted far too many late-20th- and early-21st-century white burgundies and turned them into something not unlike flat sherry. ...EX...Michael Hill Smith MW of Shaw & Smith recalls how a reductive character used to be viewed as a technical fault by judges such as him in Australia's all-important wine shows. As such it was actively discouraged as potentially 'masking the purity of fruit expression which was so all-important in our whites in the past'. 'Over the last 3-5 years or longer we have seen winemakers of high-end Chardonnay actively seeking to emulate the reductive "struck match" characters found in so many Burgundian whites including Domaines Leflaive and Coche Dury.' *process* -Put potassium metabisulfite dust on grapes, and liquid that liberates turns into SO2 -Tank press, like pneumatic press but in closed tank flushed with nitrogen, complex and expensive -Sparging: injecting fine bubbles of gas into liquid to remove DO, nitrogen removed dissolved CO2 can taste flat, CO2 may make prickly, usually a blend of both gases, easily over used, has potential to remove anything volatile including flavor components, monitor levels -SO2 can help extract anthocyanin in skin extraction (lack of O2 may inhibit color fixing) -To maximise the struck-match character, which some Burgundians call le matchstick, a winemaker minimises the amount of new-oak influence, eschews the once-fashionable technique of stirring the lees in barrels as this encourages exposure to oxygen, for the same reason minimises the movement of wine from one barrel to another, or at least does it in the absence of oxygen ... EX... like Domaine Leflaive and Roulot, complete the ageing of the wine in tank rather than in barrel. -Because there can be considerable variation between barrels as to how much struck-match character each has, some winemakers deliberately top up the space left by evaporation at the top of barrels with the contents of a particularly reductive one. -In Australia other distinctive winemaking choices include ensuring ambient and not cultured yeasts are employed and suppressing the acid-reducing process known as malolactic fermentation. And wherever they are, those seeking reductive wines tend to add a bit more sulphur dioxide prior to bottling than was recently customary. *Pros* -The point of reductive winemaking is to preserve fresh, fruity, vibrant notes -reductive character thought to disperse after a year in bottle (Clark Smith PoMo Winemaking) -Can often show evolution in bottle from ullage ...EX... Ch Au Bon Climant does not rack any barrels, instead spinning them in place, great intensity of fruit and reductive character is removed pre bottling <notes!> ...EX...SC Pannell's wines different from the Australian norm, with real energy and harmony to them. He has been deliberately picking earlier, thinning out unripe grapes, and in the winery (he still doesn't have his own, but makes his wines at wine tycoon Warren Randall's Tinlins winery) his preoccupation is with 'shutting the wine down rather than building it'. This means lots of whole-bunch fermentation and reductive winemaking, ageing the wine on the lees in large oak and being no fan of early racking. What he does do earlier than most is bottle the wine, 'before it's drinkable'. Adelaid 2015 Pinot Grigio a bit reduced ...EX...It could be said that Coche, JayRo surmises, instigated the worldwide trend towards the reductive 'struck match' flavours in white wines. They are famously long-lived, but less open then examples from Lafon. ...EX... Rall White 2013 fresh, racy nature of this wine and its mere hint of struck match reductive character drinking easily until 2020 ...EX...Toby Morrhall comments, 'having lived through a huge loss in replacing poxed bottles, I am very reassured by a whiff of the sulphur which was prevalent 20 years ago when I first started in the trade. In fact the over-use of sulphur then partly explained the longevity of some wines. One had to wait four years for them to shake off the sulphur. One may have to do so again, but that is better than the whiff of oxidation!' *Cons* -Believed to make fragile wines, developed hyper-ox to address -Some SO2 reduces to H2S (hydrogen sulfide) with absence of O2 -Too perfect can make wine clean and youthful, but can also be boring and factory like. -The tiniest use of O2 can add complexity -risky for reductive varietals like Syrah ...EX...Penfolds Gago pointed out that they feel they have gone perhaps even further than necessary with the fashionable matchstick style and are now 'trying to row back from the reductive style'. ...EX...JayRo "I'm all for wines tasting fresh rather than flat, but wines in which the reductive character completely obliterates the natural fruit can be both wearying and boring to taste - and if overdone, it can lead to bitterness. It is not enough for a wine simply to smell of struck matches; there has to be something interesting underneath." ...EX...Dominique Lafon of Domaine Comtes Lafon, is actively against le matchstick wines. 'Why should I start making reductive wines just to avoid the premox problem?' he asks rhetorically. Like a handful of quality-conscious producers, he takes pains to measure the dissolved oxygen in his wines, which helps calculate how much sulphur dioxide to use pre-bottling and, using a special new technique, he can even calculate the oxidation risk in bottled wines without pulling the cork. -If the lees are stirred (allowing OX), they act as an even more effective buffer between the wine and the wood, limiting the extent to which wood tannins and pigments are extracted into the wine. Wines subjected to lees stirring therefore tend to be much paler and less tannic than those whose lees are not stirred- reductive wines. ...EX...Jean-Hervé Chiquet of Jacquesson approvingly quotes Henri Krug to the effect that controlled oxidation is in fact a vaccine against oxidation.

MLF (2007)*

-mid 20th century first understood -15C stops MLF, best 20+C -all reda to add smoothness, no unpleasant active ferm flavor, no prickle from bottle ferm -turns malic into lactic and CO2 -reduces dissolved CO2 - may be used in cooler climates when grapes are overly acidic at harvest time -requires sufficient initial acidity to keep wines from becoming flabby -may be cultured or naturally occurring -use to occur naturally when temps rose in spring -Diacetyl is produced and must be kept to pleasing limit -acidification may take place after MLF -pH is less than 3.1, it is practically impossible, if more than 4.5, considerably retarded, de-acidification or acidification used -poisoned by SO2 and by ethanol -need nutrients -ideal to be introduced just after the start of ferm when it is warm, lees give nutrients, alch is low and pre ferm sulfur has volatilized -wine may also be transferred to old wood vat with previous mlf experience to be inoculated post ferm -oak cubes, chips, new casks, can be inoculated or purchased impregnated -If NOT desired must be racked off the lees quickly, SO2 can be used, and low temps in cellar, -avoid post bottle: sterile filtration, sterile bottling, and pasteurization (causes fizz) -creates more stable wine as it consumes bacterial nutrients (important in reds that must use less SO2 and SO2 becomes bound to anthocyanins-pigments) -can be a loss of fruit, reduction of fruity esters ...EX... Chr. Hansen NoVA yeast allows winemakers to induce malolactic fermentation in grape juice before the alcoholic fermentation, reducing the time taken by the process to one to three days, compared to the customary three to twelve weeks. ...EX...Chr. Hansen 60% to 70% of the world's wine is inoculated with fermentation yeasts from companies like Chr. Hansen, while only around 10% to 15% are inoculated with bacteria. "But we think the development [of bacteria use] will be the same as for yeast," The trend is already clear in markets like Germany, Austria, the US and Australia, where the rate of inoculation with bacteria now represents 25% to 35% of the wines produced. *MLF during Primary* The benefits of inoculating for MLF during alcoholic fermentation include: -More potential nutrients from the grape must (though the bacteria will be competing with the yeast for these) -Lower sulfur dioxide and ethanol levels which can otherwise inhibit the LAB -Higher fermentation temperatures which are more conducive to LAB growth and an earlier completion of MLF: The optimal temperatures for malolactic fermentation are between 20 and 37 °C (68 and 98.6 °F), while the process is significantly inhibited at temperatures below 15 °C (59 °F). Wine stored in the barrels in the cellar during the winter following fermentation will often have a very prolonged malolactic fermentation due to the cool cellar temperatures. -Early completion of malolactic fermentation means the winemaker can make a postfermentation SO2 earlier to protect the wine from oxidation and spoilage microbes (such as Acetobacter). Since sulfur dioxide can inhibit MLF, delaying LAB inoculation till after alcoholic fermentation may mean a delay in sulfur addition till early spring when cellar temperatures warm up enough to encourage the completion of MLF. -Less diacetyl production The disadvantages for early inoculation include -Wine yeast and LAB competing for resources (including glucose) and potential antagonism between the microbes -Heterofermenters such as O. oeni metabolizing the glucose still present in the must and potentially creating undesirable byproducts such as acetic acid Many of the advantages for postalcoholic fermentation answer the disadvantages of early inoculation (namely less antagonism and potential for undesirable byproducts). Also, the advantage is seen of the lees being a nutrient source through the autolysis of the dead yeast cells, though that nutrient source may not always be enough to ensure MLF runs successfully to completion. Conversely, many of the disadvantages of late inoculation are the absence of the advantages that come from early inoculation (higher temperatures, potentially quicker completion, etc.).[5] *Inhibiting MLF* For some wine styles, such as light, fruity wines or for low-acid wines from warm climates, malolactic fermentation is not desired. Winemakers can take several steps to prevent MLF from taking place, including: -Limited maceration, early pressing, and early racking to limit contact time of the LAB (lactic acid bacteria) with potential nutrient sources -Maintain sulfur dioxide levels to at least 25 ppm of "free" (unbound) SO2, depending on the pH of the wine, this may mean an addition of 50-100 mg/l of SO2 -Maintain pH levels below 3.3 -Keep the wine cool at temperatures between 10 and 14 °C (50. 0 to 57.2 °F) -Filter the wine at bottling with at least a 0.45-micron membrane filter to prevent any bacteria from making it into the bottle -In addition, winemakers can use chemical and biological inhibitors such as lysozyme, nisin, dimethyl dicarbonate (Velcorin), and fumaric acid, though some (like Verlcorin) are restricted in winemaking countries outside the United States. -Fining agents, such as bentonite, and putting the wine through cold stabilization will also remove potential nutrients for LAB, thus inhibiting malolactic fermentation. Some experimentation with the use of bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) has been conducted to limit malolactic fermentations, but disappointing results in the cheesemaking industry have led to skepticism about the practical use of bacteriophages in winemaking

filtering & unfiltered (2011) (1999)*

-originally began as natural settling, now saves time and more consistent ...EX...The industry standard for sherry filtering is to use a 0,4 - 0,45 micron filter. This will reduce the amount of micro-organisms as yeast cells will not be able to pass through. For most en rama bottlings, typically a coarser 1 micron filter will be used. -Sherry Notes FILTERS *Depth filtration* involves the use of a relatively thick layer of a finely divided material such as diatomaceous earth, or pads made of cellulose fibres. Cloudy wine passes through layer, small particles are trapped in torturous channels and clear liquid passes through -Surface filtration, on the other hand, depends upon a thin film of plastic polymer material having uniformly sized holes which are smaller than the particles being removed from the solution ...EX...Affordable and easy to find and order cartridges. In US many small wineries order from GW Kent *tangential or cross-flow filtration*, the liquid flows parallel to the filter surface, and thus keeps the filter membrane clear, avoiding clogging, the chief problem of surface filtration -Most common *membrane filter*, membranes are usually made of spiral-wound, hollow-fibre, or tubular media but ceramic membranes, which last longer and are easier to clean, may also be used ...EX...used often at Port houses for ruby and ruby reserve that do not have long enough élevage to settle out completely and style does not desire a sediment to form. Cold filtered by holding at 0C for 4 days then processing. -post racking *rough filtration* may be start of the clarification and stabilization process; depth filtration, with diatomaceous earth (DE) forming the layer through which the cloudy wine is passed, is commonly used for this (although there is growing concern about the health and safety issues related to working with DE). Subsequent depth filtrations use a finer grade of DE, or a tighter grade of cellulose pads to catch ever smaller particles. -Only mastery of *sterile filtration* and sterile bottling has permitted the modern phenomenon of stable young white wines containing significant fermentable sugars (although added sorbic acid and sulfur dioxide can assist in controlling micro-organisms). ...EX...South Africa Howard Booysen Riesling 2010 Swartberg RS 20 g/l fermentation was deliberately stopped by sterile filtration. ...EX...Pigini winemaker from Moscato d'Asti uses sterile filtration on verdiccio to avoid pasteurization - holds in more flavor. *Reverse Osmosis* -very tight filter used for removal of alcohol, water for must concentration, VA, or Brett character. -VA removal by reverse osmosis. Blending may also help a wine with high V.A. can be filtered (to remove the microbe responsible) and blended with a low V.A. wine, so that the acetic acid level is below threshold. -high pressure on stronger side of solution forcing desired compound out -no aroma loss ...Ex... Michel Chapoutier found his own 2014 trials that RO removed too much flavor for his taste and in fact adding water was the best choice. ...EX...Alcohol too high stuck ferm at Culmina in Okanagan RO'ed alcohol out, restarted. *Rotart Drum Vacuum Filter* -pecialized form of earth filtration designed to cope with very 'dirty' liquids—those which contain a high concentration of solids or particles that would rapidly block other filters -lees, although still liquid, are frequently very thick and require mechanical sieving to separate the valuable liquid from the solid particles suspended in it. -RDV filtration relies on the constant regeneration of the filter medium. This is achieved by shaving off a fine layer of the diatomaceous earth (DE) through which the liquid is passed. -1st filter trough is filled with DE and water. DE is sucked onto filter cylinder by vacuum pump inside rotating cylinder. -2nd wine is introduced to the trough and pulled in the same way -3rd a scraper cuts away build up on outside of filter constantly exposing fresh layer of DE -4th once scraped down to the cylinder it is repeated -normally used to clarify the products of settled grape juice or wine, such as lees after crushing, pressing, and settling, and the residue of finings such as bentonite. If used carefully, they can recover good-quality wine that is otherwise impossible to separate from such solids and would therefore be either discarded or sent as pomace for distillation ...EX...Fetzer finds it too time consuming and expensive for their value brand wines and instead sends wine to distillation -Increasing concerns about the health risks of working with DE as well as its disposal have led many wineries to use alternative technologies such as cross-flow filtration or modern centrifuges, as well as other proprietary filtration media, such as self-cleaning ceramic filter discs, to recover juice and wine from heavy lees. Further technological developments will almost certainly make RDV filters much less commonly used in future. *Ultrafiltration* a form of cross-flow filtration which can be used for alcohol reduction and, more controversially, for tannin removal or concentration. It is looser than reverse osmosis but tighter than sterile filtration. It can also be used to separate colloids from their solution. It is used as an alternative to fining. Proponents suggest it is useful for removal of browning and for reducing tannins in press wines but it is subject to strict regulation and is not permitted in the eu. -barrel aged wines need less filtration, After months in wood a wine should be stable against any problems caused by proteins, tartrates, and malates (malic acid salts) -common belief that wine should not be filtered pre barreling as particulates give character (lees racking imp) -filtering may affect color, important to lightly colored wines like burg -filtering believed to rob aging capacity -centrifuge decanter, a pressure leaf filter, and a rotary drum vacuum filter, which is an earth filter designed specifically for liquids with a very high proportion of solids such as lees. *UNFILTERED* -unfiltered risk of contamination, customer complain in visual aspect -microb assay may be necessary to ensure wine quality -Ultrafiltration: a form of cross-flow filtration which can be used for alcohol reduction and, more controversially, for tannin removal or concentration. It is looser than reverse osmosis but tighter than sterile filtration. It can also be used to separate colloids from their solution. It is used as an alternative to fining. Proponents suggest it is useful for removal of browning and for reducing tannins in press wines but it is subject to strict regulation and is not permitted in the eu. ...EX...Trimbach leaves their sweet wines VTs and SGNs unfiltered as they feel fermentation halted naturally when the wine stabilized itself and they want to leave full harmony intact. ...EX...MORE INFO Fetzer does heavy filter, hot protein haze filter, cold stabilize filter, and steril filter pre bottling for all wines *Examine the risks and rewards of bottling wine unfiltered.* Once tied to a style cannot meet individual wine's needs Risks: -Visual Appearance: sediment, protien haze, chill haze oils -Stability: non sterile ...EX...Fetzer uses 4 filters to ensure true to style -Reduction from suspended lees ...EX..Trimbach does not filter any sweet wines, considers them stable - risk of referm -Release wine without final polish Potential Contaminant -Lost product (lees wine rotary drum filter) ...EX...Bugs in bottle of rose Dr. Vinny from Wine Spectator reports -No opportunity to use RO to remove alch or VA Rewards: -all filters remove character with 'impurity' -Textural richness ...EX... En Rama Sherry -Natural Harmony -Character ...EX...Crusted Port ...EX...Lunar by Movia throws opaque color from yeast but does not want to remove character ...EX...Potentially the claimed difference between tank and bottle fermented sparkling wines *What filtration techniques are available to the winemaker after malolactic conversion and before bottling? When and how might each of them be employed?* Rough filtration Selective Filtration Polish Filtration Unfiltered Rough: Surface: a standard size that it is pushed through Depth: layers of material Tangential Crossflow: across the filter to avoid cloggin Selective: Hot Filtering...EX...Fetzer uses to remove protein haze potential, heat wine to 100 degrees F hold and then filter Cold Filtering: ...EX...used often at Port houses for ruby and ruby reserve that do not have long enough élevage to settle out completely and style does not desire a sediment to form. Cold filtered by holding at 0C for 4 days then processing. Tartrates fall out and are removed RO Filtration: May be used to remove VA, Brett, Water, Alcohol etc to bring wine to legal or styles spec Polish: Sterile Filtering .45Micron ...EX...South Africa Howard Booysen Riesling 2010 Swartberg RS 20 g/l fermentation was deliberately stopped by sterile filtration. ...EX...Pigini winemaker from Moscato d'Asti uses sterile filtration on verdiccio to avoid pasteurization - holds in more flavor. Finer Surface filters ...EX...When Fetzer described Surface, hot, cold, surface, and steril with distiller and they shared they used 10 micron he joked (you must get a lot of nuts and bolts out with that!) Unfiltered ...EX...Tio Pepe En Rama Sherry

Volatile Acidity (2013) (2002) (2010) * Acetic Acid

-acidity separated by boiling (volatile) -if acetic bacteria are active VA content will always be changing -absence of sulfur, presence of Ox ripe conditions -all wines contain some, character and complexity in measure -major component is acetic acid, ethyl acetate, (primarily acetic acid but also lactic, formic, butyric, and propionic acids.) -excess due to careless wine handling (bacteria rampant, shortage of free sulfur, and dissolved O2 present) -filteres used for removing bacteria and gas blanket (nitrogen, CO2 or both) -acetobacter sensitive to SO2 -EU limit is 1.2 g/l white 1.4 g/l red 1.5g/l Sweet -white and rose at 1.08 g/l (normally 0.4-0.5) -observable at 0.8 g/l -older wines VA rises with time and in hot climates -less skin contact less exposure to VA -smells of nail polish, paint, tastes of vinegar -Detection threshold: 0.6 g/L and 0.9 g/L -U.S. legal limits of Volatile Acidity: Red 1.2 g/L White 1.1 g/L -concomitant formation of unpleasant aroma compounds: ethyl acetate and acetaldehyde 0.2 g/l threshold -Sound grapes have negligible VA -Yeast found in the vineyard—Kloeckera, Hansenula, and Metschnikowia can generate high VA but are controlled by sulfur -lactic acid bacteria will produce acetic acid from glucose if they are present when there is still significant amounts of sugar. -Brettanomyces is a strong producer of acetic acid. -removal by reverse osmosis. Blending may also help—a wine with high V.A. can be filtered (to remove the microbe responsible) and blended with a low V.A. wine, so that the acetic acid level is below threshold. -BT wines will have VA from exposure in the vineyard -Commonly measured by Cash Still, though now able to use GC, HPLC or enzymatic methods. The average level of acetic acid in a new dry table wine is less than 0.4 g/L, though levels may range from undetectable up to 3g/L. ...EX...Chr. Hansen creating NoVA - for no volatile acidity (VA) yeast ...EX...Vinovation (RO removal of VA) claims they have treated wine that appear in the WS Top100 every year. ...EX...VA filtration company in Australia and Wine Secrets both in Napa - does mobile treatment including TCA filtering, alcohol reduction, etc. ...EX...Table Wines: Technology and their production highlights how vital it is for sparkling wine to be low VA. May affect choice of stainless fermentation tank over oak. -Considered lifted in small amounts. -naturally occurred in primary -needs oxygen, acetaldehyde>acetic -Ex. Port, Grange, Vega Sicilia are highly volatile -detected at 600 mg/l -thrives 86-104 F and ph 3.5-4 -avoided with O2 management, cool temps, SO2, acidity, proper ullage -Ethyl Acetate, most common ester -product of acetic acid and ethanol without O2 -dominate in young wines -120 g/l threshold -Many fine German winemakers at one time deliberately used relatively high concentrations of sulfur dioxide to preserve some of their best wines for a long life in bottle.

potasium metabisulfite (1999)*

-anti oxidant powder -stabile when dry -when wet by water-acid liquid becomes SO2 (releases 57% of its weight as SO2) -at harvest berries that get crushed are immediately protected -used during wine making process to release SO2

DAP (Diammonium Phosphate) (2008)*

-common yeast nutrient added during fermentation. -avoids stuck fermentation -avoids hydrogen sulfide (from lack of nitrogen and pantothenic acid.) -The current European Union limit is 1 g/l. -DAP (Diammonium Phosphate) - Contains fermentable nitrogen (N) at 25g/HL = 50mg/L N and phosphorus. The chemical formula for DAP is (NH4)2HPO4. For instance, a DAP addition of 1 g/L (8.3 lb/1,000 gal) provides about 258 mg/L fermentable N. -The rules allow an addition of 8 lbs of DAP per 1000 gallons of wine -often combined with Fermaid or Fermax ...EX...Use a yeast that stays active at low temperatures = yeast that is nitrogen-hungry = stuck fermentation = add more nitrogen. Too much DAP = brett = more sulphur dioxide, an addition of DMDC, or dimethyl dicarbamate filtration, or sterile filtration.

post ferm procedures (2001)*

-counter physical and chemical changes -counter microbiological changes. -prevents hazes, clouds, or unwanted deposits; becoming gassy; or undergo rapid deterioration of flavour after bottling -Less stabilizing in fine wine as it is believed that the less stable constituents contribute to the ageing process. -Barrel maturation has the effect of stabilizing a wine naturally. *Physical & Chemical* TARTRATE STABILIZATION -Potassium bi-tartrate precipitates (potassium present, Ca involved) Cold Stabilization - Chilled just above freezing (-4C for 12%abv wine -8C for fortified), then stored in insulated tanks for 8 days -expensive capital, and space, energy for chilling -not totally reliable -particles must be present to act as nuclei to cause crystals to form, then further crystallization occurs -inefficient because crystals lay on bottom of the tank, convection currents only way to bring wine in contact with crystals -chilling to 0C can precipitate unstable crystals Contact Process -quick, cheap, and effective -brings wine in contact with micro crystals of potassium bitartrate (act as nuclei) -Wine is chilled, 0C, crystals added at 4 g/l and wine is stirred vigorously (suspension) for 2 hours, draws out excess tartrate by crystalizing, wine is cold filtered, left over crystals are ground down and used again -Now continuous option: tank with cone of crystalizing material in tank. Wine is pumped up through bed of crystals and drawn off at top. Ion Exchanger -Carboxy Methyl Cellulose was authorized 2008/2009. precipitates color. possible allergines. cellulous gum prevent deposits of tataric crystals. coats potential sites if crystallization interfering with formation. lasts longer than metatartaric acid. EU limit 100 mg/l. can be made from wood or cotton. effective 4 years -Mannoprotiens, released durring yeast autolysis, covers surface of crystal. Can be bought in white powder that is odorless and tasteless. added 1 day pre bottling (200-250 g/l) protien is relatively stable and long lasting. -Electrodialysis, high capital costs, 80% less energy then cold process, fast, 40% more cost effective, RO reduces water needs to extract tartrate salts, no filtering to remove potassium bitartrate salts also. Wine must be filtered before process to not clog machine. Control over how much is removed from the wine. Permitted widely. -Metatarteric Acid. Cheap and effective, unstable and reverts to tartaric creating more crystals, 6-18 months depending on temp, good for fast consumed wines (BIB) -Minimum Intervention FINING -Isinglass to keep bright white and remove browning phenolics -Heat unstable protein haze removed by bentonite fining -Young reds may have tannin removed via fining HEAT FILTERING -heat unstable proteins (Muscat) *microbiological* STERIL FILTER AND BOTTLE SO2 -inhibits acetobacter -anti ox -anti bacterial SORBIC ACID (Potassium Sorbate) potential geranium scent, caused by Sorbic acid, SO2 treats -used to inhibit yeast and mold - common in RS and low alch wines - does not work on lactic - some tasters very sensitive 50 g/l, average is 135 g/l -limit is 200 g/l -when lactic metabolizes sorbic creates geranium so SO2 must be paired -mouldy scent, bacterial spoilage, scents from vessel O2 PROTECTION -to avoid acetobacter development LACTIC ACID CONTROL - sulfur, removing all RS and malic acid necessary for conversion

clarity and stability controlled in wine (2013) (2015)*

-counter physical and chemical changes -counter microbiological changes. -prevents hazes, clouds, or unwanted deposits; becoming gassy; or undergo rapid deterioration of flavour after bottling -Less stabilizing in fine wine as it is believed that the less stable constituents contribute to the ageing process. -Barrel maturation has the effect of stabilizing a wine naturally. ...EX...Trimbach does nothing to stabilize or filter sweet wines feeling they resolved fermentation when naturally stable. *Physical & Chemical* PROTIEN -Proteins synthesized during berry development account for 1/2 of total wine protein, a small portion is derived from yeast protein synthesis during fermentation, and the remainder from yeast autolysis. -Higher protein levels are typical in more mature grapes, grapes sourced from warmer regions, grapes grown at low crop levels, and grapes harvest mechanically-due to busted skins. -Skin contact with white varietals prior to pressing will typically increase protein concentration (in turn, fining and solids-separation pre-fermentation reduces protein concentration). -Fortification typically results in significant lees precipitation, including a large quantity of proteinaceous lees depending on the wine's polyphenolic concentration. -Protein precipitation in bottled wines (whites and reds with low amounts of polyphenols) causes 'protein haze' or crystalline deposits; these are likely a combination of soluble proteins, polysaccharides, insoluble protein-polyphenol complexes, and metal-protein complexes (protein act as nuclei for soluble iron, copper, etc.). -The solubility of wine proteins is highly dependent on temperature, alcohol concentration, and pH -Proteins have a negative charge when pH is above the isoelectric point, and vice versa. This plays a major role in protein stability and determining what fining agents to use on particular wines. -Wines with high polyphenol concentrations will often remove a sufficient amount of proteins to make the wine stable; thus, white wines and lower phenol red varietals have more issues with protein instability (color loss and instability in red varietals such as Pinot Noir are highly correlated to protein concentration) -Wood aged participate proteins out, less stability issues -Evaluation of protein stability should only be conducted after all other winemaking procedures have been completed, just prior to bottling -Protein stability evaluation is not an exact science, and thus involves predictive techniques. These can include heat testing, heat-and-cold testing, and bentonite testing. Tendency to over fine to be extra sure. TESTING PROTIEN: Filter sample through a sterile filter (0.45 µm). If the sample is still cloudy (i.e. from tank sitting on lees), you may need to centrifuge it prior to filtering. Fill one test tube with filtered sample as a control. Fill a second test tube and heat to 80° C (180° F) for two hours (many wineries like to do so for six hours instead, while others heat at lower temperature for up to 24 hours; I believe two hours at this temperature sufficiently precipitate proteins). This induces haze. After sample is heated, allow it to return to room temperature. Giving the sample several hours or overnight is advisable to allow precipitation; if this is to be done, refrigerate both the control and heated sample but make sure to allow both to return to room temperature prior to reading. Compare the two samples. Ideally, this should be completed with a turbidity meter (nephelometer); protein stable samples are deemed those with an NTU <1.0. Visual comparison with a bright light can be completed in lieu of a turbidity meter but may not adequately assess stability. If haze reappears then bentonite should be used in trials to determine the proper dose to remove protein. Then wine treated and retested. ...EX...Mike Horton, a traveling winemaker in CA recommends doing the dose just below the sample confirmed to avoid over fining. ...EX...Jay Ro recommended Tesco Finest Darling Sauvignon 2006 (12%) at £6.99 which happened to be pulled for protein haze and causes small dust up but educational opportunity TARTRATE STABILIZATION -Potassium bi-tartrate precipitates (potassium present, Ca involved) Cold Stabilization - Chilled just above freezing (-4C for 12%abv wine -8C for fortified), then stored in insulated tanks for 8 days -expensive capital, and space, energy for chilling -not totally reliable -particles must be present to act as nuclei to cause crystals to form, then further crystallization occurs -inefficient because crystals lay on bottom of the tank, convection currents only way to bring wine in contact with crystals -chilling to 0C can precipitate unstable crystals Contact Process -quick, cheap, and effective -brings wine in contact with micro crystals of potassium bitartrate (act as nuclei) -Wine is chilled, 0C, crystals added at 4 g/l and wine is stirred vigorously (suspension) for 2 hours, draws out excess tartrate by crystalizing, wine is cold filtered, left over crystals are ground down and used again -Now continuous option: tank with cone of crystalizing material in tank. Wine is pumped up through bed of crystals and drawn off at top. Ion Exchanger -Carboxy Methyl Cellulose was authorized 2008/2009. precipitates color. possible allergines. cellulous gum prevent deposits of tataric crystals. coats potential sites if crystallization interfering with formation. lasts longer than metatartaric acid. EU limit 100 mg/l. can be made from wood or cotton. effective 4 years -Mannoprotiens, released durring yeast autolysis, covers surface of crystal. Can be bought in white powder that is odorless and tasteless. added 1 day pre bottling (200-250 g/l) protien is relatively stable and long lasting. -Electrodialysis, high capital costs, 80% less energy then cold process, fast, 40% more cost effective, RO reduces water needs to extract tartrate salts, no filtering to remove potassium bitartrate salts also. Wine must be filtered before process to not clog machine. Control over how much is removed from the wine. Permitted widely. -Metatarteric Acid. Cheap and effective, unstable and reverts to tartaric creating more crystals, 6-18 months depending on temp, good for fast consumed wines (BIB), good for small domaine without many tanks/equipment and limited electricity -Minimum Intervention ...EX... Waipara the vine leaves are yellow by the time the fruit is ready for harvest and as the foliage dies off, potassium is 'dumped' and sinks to the fruit. The soils themselves, if both volcanic and young, may be high in potassium. During fermentation, potassium combines with the tartaric acid in the juice to form potassium bitartrate, which then drops out of the wine. - CP Lin ...EX...Saintsbury supplier specs don't allow metatartaric acid to be used but will over ride it if vintage calls for it. FINING -Isinglass to keep bright white and remove browning phenolics -Heat unstable protein haze removed by bentonite fining -Young reds may have tannin removed via fining ...EX...Large push by Animal Aid and PETA to label all animal additives globally OAK AGING -barrels can be stabilizing and clarifying, needs regular racking. - oaked wines are quite stabilized *microbiological* STERIL FILTER AND BOTTLE ...EX...Pigini winemaker from Moscato d'Asti uses sterile filtration on verdiccio to avoid pasteurization - holds in more flavor. SO2 -inhibits acetobacter -anti ox -anti bacterial SORBIC ACID (Potassium Sorbate) potential geranium scent, caused by Sorbic acid, SO2 treats ...EX...Jay Ro says it is the most offensive fault -when lactic metabolizes sorbic creates geranium so SO2 must be paired -used to inhibit yeast and mold - common in RS and low alch wines - does not work on lactic - some tasters very sensitive 50 g/l, average is 135 g/l -limit is 200 g/l -mouldy scent, bacterial spoilage, scents from vessel O2 PROTECTION -to avoid acetobacter development LACTIC ACID CONTROL - sulfur, removing all RS and malic acid necessary for conversion

Controls of acidity *

-effects color, yeast, bacteria, aging ...EX...Michael Schmidt of JancisRobinson.com says that affordable wine from Germany in particular can be hard to assess by vintage as chapitalization, acidification, and de acidification can create standard product especially in his review of the 2014 vintage. *Acidification* -In warm conditions a large amount of the grape's natural malic acid is degraded during the ripening process. A good level of acids (and therefore low ph) not only increases the apparent freshness and fruitiness of many wines, it also protects the wine against attack from bacteria, enhances the effectiveness of sulfur dioxide, and can improve color -High sugar means more pot alch and volume (more profitable to dilute and acidify then limit potential wine) -acid pre ferm limits bacterial infection potential, better flavor and aroma (esterfication) -fine tuning of acid at blending -Tartaric before fermentation because, unlike both citric and malic acid, which can be attacked by lactic acid bacteria, tartaric acid is rarely degraded. Tartaric most expensive and can precipitate out -Malic acid is used infrequently because of its microbiological instability and its cost -Citric cheap, can degrade creating VA, late additions as it does not precipitate. May be regulated or banned (EU) -Acidification hard to calculate due to differing buffering capacity ...EX...Saintsbury supplier specs allow acid adjustments based on what the vintage demands ...EX... In Central Otago Davies also pointed out that including whole bunches tends to increase the potassium level in the wine, thus leading to a reduction in acidity, so some people refer to acidification as 'potassium fining'. ...EX...Jay Ro called out clunky poorly integrated acidity as an issue for Argentine wines as all but coolest sites are routinely acidified. ...EX...2009 California reds struggled with high pH (4) *Deacidification* -dilution and enrichment combo common (dilutes acid, adds alcohol, increases yield) -MLF -adding chemicals to must or wine will precipitate significant amounts of acidity as insoluble solids that can be filtered or settle out. Calcium carbonate, or chalk, is best since its addition results in insoluble calcium tartrates and the liberation of harmless carbon dioxide. -cool regions, where grapes have higher malic acid levels, the addition of calcium tartrate can lead to an imbalance in the proportion of malic to tartaric acid. Double salt deacidification resolves this by reducing the acidity in the juice and yet maintaining similar proportions of tartaric to malic acid. Expensive and its use is generally limited to England, parts of Germany, and the eastern US. -Deacidifications are most effective after fermentation, partly because alcohol decreases the solubility of cream of tartar, thereby reducing some of the must acidity, and fermentation itself produces a better mix of flavour by-products in the more acid solution. ...EX...Clair Lurton very sensitive to tartaric acidification, harvests before physio ripeness to avoid addition of acid later. ...EX...Dujac in 2013 did deacidifying trials to balance the wine, but often samples showed the opposite - that the wines tasted meaner and harder ...EX...Fortification material is often 6.8pH changing the wines pH but less of a concern as they are stable and alcohol highlights acid

Spinning cone (2005)*

-gas-liquid counter-current device -an advance on the processes operating in a one- or two-stage vacuum evaporator, far less losses -de-alcoholized wine -grape concentrate -removing sulfur dioxide from juice -reducing wines' alcoholic strength -ConeTech may be used to remove Pyrazines (expensive and difficult) -In California may extract flavor from pomace and add back to finished wine to add flavor to plunk. Illegal elsewhere. -electively remove unwanted flavours from a finished wine such as those from hydrogen sulfide, mercaptans, and even excess herbaceous notes *How the cone works* -The device consists of a vertical stainless steel column containing two internal and alternating series of inverted cones; one series is fixed and attached to the column wall, the second series is parallel to the first and attached to a central rotating shaft. -Liquid flows down the upper surfaces of the stationary cones under gravity, and moves up the upper surfaces of the rotating cones in a thin film due to the centrifugal force from the spinning action. -Vapor that is evaporated from the thin film of liquid (under vacuum at low temperature, and with the aid of an inert stripping gas) flows up the column in the spaces between the successive fixed and rotating cones. -Through a process of repeated evaporation and condensation on the cones, the volatiles are enriched in the up-flowing vapour stream. -The volatiles, after passing through a condenser, are finally captured in liquid form at the top of the column while the stripped liquid is pumped out the bottom of the column. -Spinning cone technology offers extremely high separation efficiency, with a low pressure drop across the column and low liquid hold up, hence the juice or wine has a short residence time in the column. *STEPS FOR ALCH REMOVAL* 1. ship wine to ConeTech site 2. separate all aroma compounds 3. remove alcohol from de-aromatized portion 4. recombine flavor with what is left 5. mix this back into final wine -RO is popular alternative for removing alch ...EX...2008 the EU legalized dealcoholization with a 2% adjustment limit in its Code of Winemaking Practices, stipulating that the dealcoholization must be accomplished by "physical separation techniques" which would embrace the spinning cone method. ...EX...Foster's Group does have one at Lindemans Karadoc winery. Apparently it is not used much these days though in its time it was used to remove volatile aroma compounds from cask wines (bag in box) and coolers. ...EX...Foster's winemaker Jones 'Our recent trials have shown a winemaker preference for spinning cone over RO. This does indicate that spinning cone is more effective at retaining aromas as the initial low temperature volatilisation of aromas acts to separate the aromas from the wine prior to the second pass, which removes alcohol at higher temperatures. However, we need to be mindful that spinning cone is not selective for volatile removal; as such, if RO is applied properly then it can be used to selectively remove unwanted flavours thus resulting in a higher quality of wine at the end of the day. From a by-product management perspective, we are able to sell the waste / by-product stream from spinning cone, thus making it more attractive from a financial perspective at present. ...EX...Sovio sparkling White Zin. In 2007 Sovio wines were banned from sale in the UK being under the legal alcohol limit (8%abv) uses cone tech. Now called 'reduced alcohol wine-based drink' at 5.5%abv ...EX...Windsong in CA uses conetech for their 11%abv low alch wines

lees management (2011) (2008) (2004)*

-made up of dead yeast cells, grape seeds, pulp, stem and skin fragments, and insoluble tartrates -Act as antioxidant keeping wine pale and fresh -stirring can protect wine from wood tannin and wood color to some extent -lees may be removed asap to avoid autolysis and begin clarification of simple commercial wines, especially certain whites -Fine wines left on lees for a considerable time usually require much less drastic processing than more ordinary wines that were separated early from the lees, because the semi-stable colloidal phenolics and tartrates gradually precipitate during this ageing period. -bottles and oak barrels common vessels for contact - It may take place for anything between a few weeks and, in the special case of some sparkling wines, several years. Most commonly, however, lees contact is prolonged for less than a year after the completion of fermentation. -Lees contact encourages the second, softening malolactic fermentation because the lactic acid bacteria necessary for malolactic fermentation feed on micro-nutrients in the lees -enhance the structure and mouthfeel of a wine since the polysaccharides released from the dead yeast cells can significantly reduce astringency and increase body -Wines left in contact with a layer of lees more than 10 cm/4 in thick for more than a week or so, however, are very likely to develop hydrogen sulfide, disulfide, or mercaptan odours. This is because, as the yeasts start to autolyse, or digest themselves, they produce strongly reducing conditions. Any fungicide residues of sulfur, sulfur dioxide, or even the sulfur-containing amino acids of the yeasts, are likely to be reduced to the foul-smelling sulfide. -Lees stirring is done partly to avoid the development of malodorous hydrogen sulfide. -If the lees are stirred, they act as an even more effective buffer between the wine and the wood, limiting the extent to which wood tannins and pigments are extracted into the wine. Wines subjected to lees stirring therefore tend to be much paler and less tannic than those whose lees are not stirred. -Regular lees stirring also stimulates the release of mannoproteins, thereby improving the mouthfeel and stability of the wine. -Autolysis, SPARKLING— the destruction of cells by their own enzymes, effects are greatest if wine is left in contact with the lees of a second fermentation in bottle for at least five years, and minimal if lees contact lasts for less than 18 months. - Autolysis, mouthfeel is improved through the release of polysaccharides; oxidation is inhibited through the release of reducing enzymes; and the production of certain mannoproteins reduces tartrate precipitation and improves protein stability. -Autolysis, there is an increase in amino acids, which are the precursors of those flavour characteristics typically associated with champagne such as acacia, biscuity or bready notes, and other complex aromas from bottle ageing. -Mannoproteins release is generally considered beneficial and is encouraged by slightly higher fermentation temperatures. -Mannoproteins can interact with aroma compounds and thus potentially change the sensory properties of a wine. -Mannoproteins, they have the potential to protect white and rosé wine from protein haze. -Mannoproteins, can improve tartrate stability. -Mannoproteins, it is thought that they can bind with tannins to reduce astringency and improve mouthfeel. -Deposits of fining agents used in clarification such as bentonite, silicic acid, and casein are also referred to as lees. They are usually simply settled to permit the recovery of as much wine as possible, - In some large wineries are processed by rotary drum vacuum filtration to salvage a bit more wine with a strong lees flavour. -once removed small amounts of alcohol and potassium acid tartrate (cream of tartar) may be recovered from them (only value in them) -after this lees may be returned to VY to add nitrogen back to soil -disposing of lees, they contain organic matter which may rot and cause environmental pollution. ...EX...Lees contact even in bulk storage is increasingly used as a way of increasing flavour in everyday white wines—South Africa's Chenin Blanc, for example. ...EX... Fetzer sells lees wine to local cognac style distillery, makes money makes good distillate ...EX... Macro-trends defining the new natural wine movement in Aussie is extended lees contact of reds and semi/non aromatic whites- Jay Ro ...EX... Champagne: lees management very important for autolytic character and body. Krug's Grand Cuvee rests 6-7 years on lees (had to darken cellar to keep it under wraps before release).

extraction methods (2010) (2007) (2002)*

-refers to the extraction of desirable phenolics from grape solids before, during and after fermentation -over-extraction is an increasingly common fault in an era when colour is associated with quality. Such wines lack fruit and balance -extraction of the phenolics (tannins, colouring materials, or anthocyanins, other glycosides, including flavour precursors, and non-glycosylated flavour compounds) from the grape skins, seeds, and stem fragments into the juice or new wine -governed by temperature, ratio of solids to liquids, degree of agitation, time, and by the composition of the extracting liquid, in this case the grape juice as it becomes wine *Mechanics* -The diffusion of anthocyanins from the single cell under the grape skin's membranes is slow, and maceration process is further complicated by the fact that reactions progressively occur among the compounds newly released from their confining cells leading to the formation of pigmented tannins. -Maceration trials to get just right may take years. -Rapid laboratory analyses can help to estimate colour and tannins -heat and alch help, produced by ferm -more extraction = longer lived (with some exceptions) care to avoid harsh phenolics -Care to avoid VA -extraction of the desirable compounds slows down considerably after the new wine approaches 10 per cent alcohol and is at its height during the earlier phases of fermentation ...EX...Grahams, warm ambient temp and active maceration of foot trod grapes. Will include some stems. ...EX...Perkins Harter pump over in closed CO2 filled tank to avoid VA. Controlled oxygen for color fixing. *Methods* -Cap mgmt vital: Finer wine: pump over, delestage, screen netting, punch down Ordinary wines: Flash détente, thermovin, rotoferm, autovinifier -naturally low in tannins, may be heated after the completion of fermentation to encourage the extraction of phenolics -Cold Soak: the maceration of grape skins with juice while the mass is held at a low temperature (2-3 days at 5-10C) each of the extractable compounds in the skins has its own temperature coefficient governing the extraction rate, and the theory of cold maceration is that a more favourable combination of phenolics is extracted by water and added sulfur dioxide than is obtained with an alcoholic solution ...EX...Guy Accad was an influential proponent of this technique in Burgundy in the 1970s and 1980s - very high levels of sulfur dioxide to maximize colour and tannin extraction prior to the onset of fermentation. -Minimal Extraction: separating the juice from the skins as soon as possible in order to avoid extraction of tannins, since no colouring matter is required and the resultant astringency is viewed as a fault in white wines. Some winemakers do certain period of skin contact for whites before they are crushed. In the late 1980s this technique (macération pelliculaire) encouraged by Denis dubourdieu for more flavourful dry white bordeaux. ...EX...Sauvignon and, particularly, Sémillon grapes are held for between four and eight hours at about 18 °C/64 °F, resulting in juice higher in flavour compounds, tannins, potassium salts, and polysaccharides, and wines with more body and a slightly higher ph. -Michel Flanzy (1936) and other French researchers have observed that ordinary grapes held intact for several days under a carbon dioxide atmosphere, then crushed and allowed to ferment, produce a wine which is much brighter-coloured, less tannic, and more distinctively perfumed than one made normally. ...EX...Veuve-Clicquot Burgundy style soft red 14 days skin contact cool temp to avoid tannin extraction *Timing* -Vin d'une nuit rose, direct press rose, 12 hour rose -everyday red wines are made simply by a rapid fermentation lasting just two or three days, many winemakers encourage an additional maceration period after fermentation has been completed, particularly for long-lived wines such as red bordeaux. -(Ferré has shown in his Traité d'œnologie bourguignonne that extraction reaches a maximum of 80 per cent of the grapes' available colouring matter on the sixth day of maceration) -maceration time dependent on phenolic content of skin (weather and varietal dependent) and style of wine -time of contact, a factor over which winemakers can have total control ...EX...Brunello top wines 20 days skin contact 20 days post ferm skin contact ...EX.......Ex. Ripasso post ferm 10-12 days Tommasi -winemaker's eye and palate know best -Carbonic Maceration - maceration period in anaerobic environment depends on temperature, and can be from one to three weeks. ...EX...Grange, which can undoubtedly age, is taken off the skins very early in the winemaking process to give it a more approachable texture while young. But the consistently deep concentration of the wine - mainly due to the idea that it is a blend from top vineyards, according to Peter Gago - helps it to positively evolve.

Racking (2012) (2002)1999 *

-removes yeast, grape solids, bacteria, tartrate crystals, settled finings, metal, protein -rate of falling depends on size, specific gravity between particle and the liquid, elec charge, temp gradient in vessel, and viscosity of the liquid -grape flesh, bentonite clay, and isinglass are harder to settle -hydrostatic head of liquid in tall tank can keep CO2 in solution causing CO2 to escape when racked and disturbing settled particulate -due to size and charge being similar to that of wine MLF bacteria stay in suspension, bacteria need fining to settle out (creates cloudy/haze) -racking plate on the end of racking wand causes hose to suck in material horizontal while pointed down -1st racking is at end of primary, removal off gross lees to avoid 'yeast bitten' bitter taste -Wine rests one or two days to clarify (or is speed clarified with reductive protection), then racked off - barrels need to be racked off of lees regularly as part of clarifying and avoiding mercaptans. -Natural way to introduce oxygen ...EX Ch Clinet in Pomerol will clean every barrel when wine is racked *When and how should racking be carried out? Assess the risks and benefits of the different procedures in racking wines.* Racking: moving juice or wine from one vessel to the other with express reason to remove a component that has settles to the bottom. When: -removes yeast, grape solids, bacteria, tartrate crystals, settled finings, metal, protein How: Appropriate to the wine but always 'gently' After settling ...EX...Pinot Grigio by Kris wine cold settled, important to remove grape material for clarity and texture ...EX...Very important for Champagne that requires fine neutral juice to show secondary aromas After Primary ...EX...Ch Clinet in Pomerol will rack of gross lees in 2 weeks to avoid reduction. Then bbl. ...EX... Le Bon Climant will not rack at all. Instead gets heavy reduction but reduces sulfur needs from oxygen contact. Spins barrels to make up for lack of O2 for color fixing. ...EX...Free running juice from lagare is form of racking - must be done pre fortification to avoid extraction of bitter compounds. Grahams automated floor. During aging ...EX...Dufort Vivens will wash each barrel after racking to be sure lees are removed. Takes 2 weeks to do barrels one at a time. ...EX...due to size and charge being similar to that of wine MLF bacteria stay in suspension, bacteria need fining to settle out (creates cloudy/haze) Pre bottling ...EX...Extended aged Ports will leave a larged deposite in barrels. Must be racked and moved over its potential long age. ...EX...After fining to remove fining agent and material Muga uses 2-3 eggs per 100 liters makes for quite the cake batter at bottom of the tank ...EX...rack off of tartrate crystals Rackings goal is to imporve character of the wine Best to use racking canes in bbl and racking arms on tank for easy and low disturbance All racking introduces oxygen, a benefit but also chemical reaction accounted for. Potential for contamination as liquid changes vessel

micro-oxygenation (2005, 2008, 2014)*

-used end of primary pre onset of MLF: 10-60 mg/liter/month "structuring phase", stabilizes color ...EX Dufort Vivens to combat grey rot -Post MLF: "harmonizing phase" wine takes on softness 0.1-10 mg/liter/month -Can be used for hyperoxidation during clarification -Can be used to saturate must to kick off ferm -Can revitalize the yeast if they are slow or population is down (easier and cheaper as pump over) -gives large inert vessels dimension during reductive winemaking -can be used before pressing (in Bordeaux) to create soft tannin and stabilize color while on skin. -can be used at the start of ferm to help yeast -can be used mid ferm to aid a stuck ferm, and yeast viability avoiding reductive quality -post fermentation it aids clarity and stability lessening the need for filtration. -during elevage it relieves reduction -believed to mimic ox in barrel -when used with oak alternative (or during skin contact) polymerization is seen and retention of pigmented tannin gives deep color and soft texture -affected by phenolic structure of wine, sulfur content, temp, and timing -wine high in tannin and anthocyanin are best for this -Introduced through porous pot, so bubble are so fine they are not seen by the eye. Rate of introduction should be at the molecular level, rather than gas -can resolve green notes -O2 cylinders calibrated for wine volume and small dose is delivered through stone in timed intervals. Done over 4-8 months -typical dosage rate is between 0.75 and 3 cc of oxygen per litre of wine per month -Micro Ox seen in barrel for higher quality -Popular in Bordeaux and Chilie ...EX...Jean-Hervé Chiquet of Jacquesson approvingly quotes Henri Krug to the effect that controlled oxidation is in fact a vaccine against oxidation. ...EX...Jamie Goode says micro ox for mid priced wine Clark Smith claims best to add depth and soul-fullness to high end wines ...."Micro-oxygenation enables you to master élevage, (part of which is) giving the wine the appropriate amount of O2 for its particular stage along its life." Randall Graham. Tannat and Cab suited to micro ox ...EX...Martin Kaiser, chief agronomist at Doña Paula estate, said:"Acidity is the most important element to ageing but the wine also needs to have a good tannic structure to perform well during the micro-oxygenation process. Tannins absorb oxygen and transform a wine's structure. The higher the acidity in the wine, the slower the rate of the micro-oxygenation process"

faults (2013)(2010) (2006) *

-wine faults are specific departures from an acceptable norm, the least quantifiable of which may be a lack of typicality. *VISIBLE* -CLOUDINESS, stabilization avoids this caused by bacteria, unstable protein or yeast growth -Clouds from heat-unstable proteins and from heavy metal contamination do occur but they are much less frequent than they were in the era of copper and brass pipes and taps -colloids are large proteins that give yeast nutrients, become unstable and and are not given time to drop out in todays quick winemaking, can drop out in bottle weeks to months later, fixed by fining -Mycoderma is a yeast-related fault which forms a film on the wine's surface -PRECIPITATES, tartrates (calcium or potassium), tartrate stabilization -red wine, tartrate crystals are usually dyed red or brown from the adsorbed phenol -BUBBLES in still wine, refermentation -color change, oxidation (debated) -Grey Rot, causes discoloration ...EX...Fetzer does hot and cold filtration to avoid ...EX...Lunar by Movia opaque sense of pride *PALATE AND NOSE* -A wine may not smell clean because of the influence of one or several contaminants such as agrochemical residues -If it smells of geranium leaves, there has probably been some bacterial degradation of sorbic acid, although this can easily be controlled by adding sulfur dioxide at the same time. TCA -intensifies with aeration -infected materials, chlorine cleaner -Cork handling much improved ...EX...OPus One uses cork from Amorin that is TCA 'proof' acording to ETS labs OXIDATION -Oxidized wines (see above) smell flat and aldehydic -A flaw once beyond desired limits, otherwise 'aeration'. -Can happen as soon as grape is crushed- avoided by quick transport in shallow bins. -once juice is liberated oxidation is immediate, causes browsing due to enzyme aka enzymatic oxidation SO2 used at crush to inactivate enzyme and counter oxidation of phenolics -protective juice handling and winemaking needs to be followed -mold/ rot on grapes can cause -ethanol to acetaldehyde to acetic acid -EU VA levels 1.2g/l White, 1.4 Red 1.5 Sweet -NADH production = flat smelling ACETIC ACID -Considered lifted in small amounts. -naturally occurred in primary -needs oxygen, acetaldehyde>acetic -Ex. Port, Grange, Vega Sicilia are highly volatile -detected at 600 mg/l -thrives 86-104 F and ph 3.5-4 -avoided with O2 management, cool temps, SO2, acidity, proper ullage -Ethyl Acetate, most common ester -product of acetic acid and ethanol without O2 -dominate in young wines -120 g/l threshold -Many fine German winemakers at one time deliberately used relatively high concentrations of sulfur dioxide to preserve some of their best wines for a long life in bottle. HYDROGEN SULFIDE -water in sulfured barrels -highly volatile, low detection threshold -rapid yeast growth with lack of Nitrogen -adding DAP suppresses during ferm -some yeast affected by SO2 in must prior to ferm -Ries, Chard, Syrah may be low in Nitrogen, or other grapes depending on growing cond -yeast deprived of Nitrogen can cause -reds that ferment fast in higher temp use nitrogen quickly -Nitrogen allows yeast to make amino acid precursors that react with H2S -sulfur in the vineyard can turn to H2S in reductive ferm- avoid Sulfur near harvest -long juice storage causes loss of nutrients -zinc, manganese, on surface of stainless steel can cause -iron and aluminum are catalysts -if remains in wine can create Mercaptans and disulfides -avoided by low H2S yeast and nitro addition to must. CO2 from ferm strips but slows as ferm ends - fixed by copper sulfite addition or aeration/racking -Risk for spirits aged in wine bbls ...EX... Hansen Yeast trying to make yeast that are low HydroSulf producing *MERCAPTANS* -yeast reacting with sulfur in lees -Aeration and racking can fix post primary SO2 -acids help hide - detected at 100 g/l red 200 g/l white -monitoring and care in dosage AG RESIDUE GERANIUM SCENT, caused by Sorbic acid, SO2 treats -used to inhibit yeast and mold - common in RS and low alch wines - does not work on lactic - some tasters very sensitive 50 g/l, average is 135 g/l -limit is 200 g/l -when lactic metabolizes sorbic creates geranium so SO2 must be paired -mouldy scent, bacterial spoilage, scents from vessel BRETT -hidden by high ph, often detected on finish -introduced from air, sanitization, Hygiene and inoculation needed in ferm -can live in hoses, crush equipment, barrels, tanks, and possibly carried by fruit flies -sulfur at 0.5 mg/l molecular controls - eliminate at bottling by steril filtration and dimethyl dicarbonate ...Lapierre in Beaujolais has Brett but does not consider it a flaw ...EX...Rauzan Segla huge investment as Argentine winemaker does not have fondness for Brett. MUSTY TAINT -A wine may smell mouldy either because of bacterial spoilage, or because it has taken on the smell of a less-than-clean container. - Grey Rot: -Mold off taste -can be treated with charcoal fining but does not make quality wine MOUSEY FLAVOR -mousy off-flavour in wine have indicated that lactic acid bacteria, including particular strains of Lactobacillus, and to a lesser extent Oenococcus and Pediococcus, are capable of producing the off-flavour compounds responsible for this most unpleasant fault. It cannot normally be smelled in wine unless it is alkalinized or rubbed in the palm of the hand (an action which neutralizes wine acidity). This mousy flavour is volatile only at neutral or high ph, which explains why it is not immediately apparent but builds up in the back of the mouth once a wine has been swallowed or expectorated, as the palate slowly returns to neutral pH through the buffering action of saliva.

Must adjustments (2009) (2001) (2000)*

Must = pre fermentation -Needs to be done with care, little can help, too much can make matters worse *Sulfur/O2 protection* -White Wine: Wine is typically preserved with SO2 during fresh juice liberation and settling (protects from O2, stuns weak natural yeast, infecting bacteria) -Red Wine: skins have auto that binds with SO2 reducing free SO2 levels, it will also combine with anthocyanines, but improves extraction of polyphenols so is often used -EU Wine Growing Zones (Climate Rating) -Potasium metabisulphite or ascorbic acid to protect liberated juice from 02 -Termovinification can help with color and inhibit oxidase from lacasse ...EX...Caves de Rauzan Co-op Thermovinification is crucial to the process. The machine pictured below is the latest incarnation of that technique. Called the Gulf Stream, grapes are passed through a trough of must heated to 90 ºC. This extracts colour and flavour, without extracting any crude flavours from the pips. It also claims to evaporate pyrazines - that is, green, unripe flavours - as well as destroying oxidative enzymes. *CLARIFICATION* -don't go overboard, some solid particles are nutrition for yeast, may have absorbed amino acids, minerals and vitamins on it's surface -Settling: 12-24 hours, SO2 protect, oft cooled to 5-10C, cool wine dissolves O2 for good yeast start. Pectolytic enzyme may be added. Racked off ...EX...Geoffrey Moss of Culmina warms that too much cold settling can deprive wine of nutrients needed for fermentation. -Centrifuging: much faster then settling, very expensive machine, can be used before or after, can be seen as too harsh, flush with gas to avoid O2 -Flotation: small nitrogen bubbles are blown up through must, particles brought to surface, skimmed of by rotary suction, if done with O2 can be hyperox technique. Avoids loss of tartaric acid, low cost, quick, can remove any mold particulate as well. Requires man hours *HYPEROXIDATION* -belief that too reductive winemaking makes wine too fragile to oxygen, controlled O2 contact may make more stable wine -O2 exposure destoyes fragile components in wine making it more stable -No SO2 -clarification followed by ox, turn wine black like coffee, skill is needed to know when to stop! -durring ferm yeast consume ox and color goes back via reduction -can virtually double shelf life of rosé when oxidized and brown wine is removed by racking ...EX...Browning problems of Fino make it an excellent candidate and Garcia-Barroso is exploring it with trials (pre bio aging) *Potential Alch* -17g/l yields 1% abv -Captalization recognized in 1815 -as sugar added flavor is reduced -beet and cane (sucrose- converted to glucose and fructose by acids in must) -RCGM is colorless, odorless, flavorless liquid sugar made from grapes for chaptalization (glucose and fructose) -Concentration: done to a portion and added back, -under vacuum distillation (water distilled out at 25-30C, some aroma lost, chilled aroma traps now used, expensive) -cryoextraction (ice removed via filter, simple, little equipment) -reverse osmosis (no aroma lost, higher pressure to concentrate on stronger side as oppose to equalize, expensive) -Concentrated all aspects of a must, seen as preferred to capitalization because it concentrated character and color. -Spinning cone ...EU... in 2008 approved 2% reduction in abv *NUTRIENTS* -Nitrogen (combined nitrogen created ammonium NH4 necessary to form amino acids and proteins w/i yeast cells) if lacking can produce hydrogen sulfide. Dose: may add DAP or ammonium sulphate up to 1 g/l -thiamine up to 0.6 mg/l, imp for yeast pop growth -2# at a time additions of yeast nutrient ...EX...Geoffrey Moss of Culmina says he always takes a pre ferm reading lab analysis and generate Fermaid K nutrient addition from there. *ACID* ...EX...PN high in TA but can have unstable pH that can rise. If grown on gravel soils may come in high and rise during soak (broken berries increase pH due to potassium released) Cold soak causes potassium bitartrate to drop out lowering pH. -Lynnette Hudson, Lynnette Hudson Wine Consulting (Auckland, New Zealand). It is the only variety she acidifies. Potassium from leaves can travel to grapes at end of hang Acidity is one of the most important factors in wine. It affects its microbial, protein tartrate stability, malolactic fermentation, its color, flavor and aging potential of the wine. However, it is important to measure the malic acid level so that final total acidity can be estimated. It's a fine line between pH fining and producing a finished pinot with a high TA. ...EX...Louis Barruol, Château de Saint Cosme (Gigondas, France). I don't acidify anymore. It doesn't improve the wines much and it damages their purity. A wine that lacks freshness . . . you don't make it fresh by adding tartaric acid. We just need to deal well with what we harvest. ...EX...Also, at d'Arenberg older vines, no fertilizers and little or no irrigation help to keep the pHs good. I like our reds to end up around 3.4 to 3.5 but this is certainly not set in stone. Often grenache is picked at pH 3.0-3.1 due to its later ripening and very low yields, among other factors. ...EX...Olivier Humbrecht, Domaine Zind-Humbrecht (Alsace, France). Categorically no! Adding acid will modify the pH, which is probably a good thing for wines that need it and will help to avoid some vinification accidents. However, most of the acid will precipitate before bottling. I did a few experiments in 2003, a vintage in which the acids in gewurztraminer were extremely low. Whatever the dose I added, at the end it was always the untouched lot that tasted better. We also notice that increasing the amount of acid, especially above one gram per liter of tartaric addition, also increased the bitterness of the wine, to the point that we needed to fine the wine to remove some of its tannic content. These wines ended up completely stripped of the only element that was able to protect them. I also firmly believe that acidity is a vineyard problem: things can be done in the vineyard in order for the vine to produce more acidity and not burn it/dilute it. -Acidification: often for bacterial stability as much as balance. -tartaric used, citric can be metabolized by yeast into VA, decided by trial -EU levels:_____ -plastering in Jerez, outdated, add CA sulfate (plaster or gypsum) to precipitate out CA tartrate leaving more potassium bisulfate, more effective to just add tartaric -best ore ferm, regs allow before and after, but after has tighter regs -DeAcidification, allowed most parts of EU, less common with warming -acid not removed, but neutralized -Acid removal, chem precipitated with Carbonate like Cal Carbonate or potassium bicarbonate -chalk additions remove tartaric creating calcium tartrate, but tartrate crystals become issue (it's crystals form very slowly, hard to stabilize), little effect on malic because soluble salts mean it does precipitate out -sometimes portion of wine is removed, treated with carbonate to fully neutralize then blended back to dilute -Acidex: double salt deacidification, Ca Carbonate with small amount finely powdered calcium-tartrate-malate forms crystals that are highly insoluable, requires wines with equal magic and tartaric levels, expensive, only high malic wines typically, like Germany (tartaric oft added to bring level up even before using) -Adjusting to low pH will make SO2 more effective against oxidation and bacterial infections, will increase the color intensity and ageing potential of the wine. *1.0 g/L addition of Tartaric acid will increase the TA by about 1.0 g/L and will decrease the pH by 0.1 pH units. *1.0 g/L addition of Malic acid will increase the TA by about 1.12 g/L and will decrease the pH by 0.08 pH units. *1.0 g/L addition of Citric acid will increase the TA by about 1.17 g/L and will decrease the pH by 0.08 pH units. *OTHERS* -Betonite clay to remove some proteins to reduce viscosity, also removes most powerful oxidizing enzyme polyphenoloxidase, risk losing too many nutrients -Activated charcoal can reduce color in a wine, up to 110 g/l but risk in removing too much flavor -Tannin, can be added, needs care

Port styles (2001)*

Ways to organize the paper: -At what point are they sorted -Oxidative vs non-overt oxidative -Cask vs Bottle Aging: Difference in ready to drink -House Styles of Port *Sorting* -Vintage, Colheita, Single Quinta Vintage, LBV(?), if not complete on own then blended, 40/30 year Tawny, 20/10 Tawny, basic ...EX...David Bruce Fonseca says this sorting is very important. May hold wine in tank for months for it to show itself. Is revisited often and redirected. *Ruby* -Simplest and affordable -aged in bulk 2-3 years -vibrant ruby color -fiery youthful -Multi vintage aged in variety of casks )wood, stainless, cement) -Blended fined,filtered, bottled, and often pasteurized -Oft aged up river, Duero Bake, to mature faster but can kill fresher fruit *Ruby Reserve* -More color and depth -Growing in quality and reputation ...EX...Warre's Warrior lead the charge in improving quality of Ruby Reserve along with sister winery 6 grapes. *Tawny* -Simple tawny, often same age and price as basic ruby -Often made from lighter, less ripe grapes from cooler Baixo Corgo -Often blended with white port to give pale pink hue as opposed to oxidized brown of older tawny -Oft aged up river, Duero Bake, to mature faster but can kill fresher fruit *Tawny Reserva* -At least 7 years in bbl *Aged Tawny* -after 6-7 years tawny color, silky mouthfeel, phenolics polymerize -Age statement 'confirms character' of age approved by IVDP, an issue with dwindling Tawny stocks -often derived from wines that did not become vintage ports -Bottling date listed as it may get tired and overage if left in bottle too long -Younger Tawny will oxidize once bottle is open but older are more robust ...EX...Stock management is critical. Taylor-Fladgate buying out barrel stock to fortify their position as Tawny grows. ...EX...As Tawny gets more popular the hue is getting redder as wines are younger. *Colheitas* -Vintage Tawny -minimum 7 years, often much longer *Extended Age Tawny* -Scion 1855 vintage Tawny port 3,000Euro, still vibrant and fresh -halo effect on tawny *White Port* -made with no or minimal maceration of skins -oft sweet to very sweet (even if labeled dry) -17% as opposed to 19% -aged typically less tan 18 months *Rosé Port* -Croft launched 2008 now 1.2% of all port sales ...EX...Chris Forbes was happy when others decided to copy as it meant it was viable. *LBV* -bottled 4-6 years after harvest -1st style traditional, unfiltered good to drink 4-6 years after bottling and good quality in undeclared years -2nd style fined, possibly filtered, cold stabilized, less character and richness, ease of drinking with no decanting ...EX...TONG #17 LBV popular by connection to vintage but not seen as 'poor man's vintage' instead more fruit driven style *Crusted Port* -relatively newer style -exported 3 years after bottling -good for vintage substitute, continues to develop in bottle, needs decanting ...EX...Most popular in the UK market *Single Quinta Vintage* -similar to vintage but... -good but not outstanding years, undeclared -often held and sold ready to drink (8-10 years or so) ...EX...Grahams Malvedos outstanding example *Garrafeira* -single year, aged in glass min 7 years -Niepoort made popular now IVDP official -aged in 5-10 liter demijohns -extended aging may go to 40 years *Vintage* -1% of all port sold -May need to age 30+ years in bottle (thick, dark, bottles) -best grapes from best sites, often Cima Corgo -Vintage declared after IVDP has tried samples and they propose quantities released (in the second year after harvest) -phenolic in youth, throw heavy deposite ...EX...2011 came out at excellent time in market, few exciting vintages released.

Alcohol management (2012) (2009)*

UP Fortification: Pearson's Square to end up at final abv ENRICHMENT Chapitalization: ...EX...2011 Burgundy Chaptalization to get up to AOC laws -1815 Nepolianic wars beet sugar (cane) -Not allowed in warm Italy or Spain, parts of France, common in Oregon -Up to 3.5% of alch added in Northern most Europe -Illegal in France if also acidifying -sugar added flavor reduced -practiced being reduced because of wine glut RCGM during or pre ferm: sugar syrup with grape sugars MUST CONCENTRATION -Great for bad years, risk of over use Vacuum Distillation: lower pressure, cooler temp (25-30C) water evap. -some loss of aromas -new ones capture aromas and return to the wine Cryo-extraction Reverse Osmosis -high pressure on stronger side of solution forcing water out -no aroma loss DOWN Dilution: Spain 'Jesus unit' and 'very dilute tartrate adition Halt Fermentation -chill and filter Reverse Osmosis -Can be used to dilute wines and take alcohol out Dilution -very reliable and consistent, leaves all flavor intact -Legal in CA Viticulture Management -pick earlier -later ripening grapes (California) -higher yields -lower alch varities Spinning Cone -ConeTech says 25% of wine from CA sees alcohol reduction because healthy plants and better practices lead to very ripe fruit. Ripe fruit is preferred to agree flavors of early harvest. -send part of wine, alch removed, pour back in with rest of wine

champagne stocks (2000)*

*History* -Pre 1863, when dosage science became understood, many bottles lost to varying CO2 - mixing years/strengths made bottles less likely to pop off ...EX...Blending less ripe wines which fermented more slowly but stayed fizzy, from the Côtes des Blancs for instance, with ferments higher in sugar which had lost much of their sparkle such as from Aÿ, was a useful method of producing a gentler even pressure less likely to blow up bottles. Blending different districts was a method of balancing pressure as much as style. -Holding back a fraction of still wine (blocage) so as to create aged rotating stocks of bottles on their second lees, became a hallmark of champagne. -Plundering of existing wine stocks is another common feature of European war. Russian soldiers occupied the region in 1814 they helped themselves. Russians became their wines' most loyal peacetime consumers until 1917. In general, however, terrible hardship was the result of forced requisitioning and outright plunder. Civil conflicts, such as the French Wars of Religion in the 16th century, were at least as destructive. *Figures* -85%-90% of Champ in NV -at least 20 percent of each vintage must be "reserved" for non-vintage Champagne -NV must be a blend of at least 2 years *Consistency* -Growers will have less stock to pull from and more vintage variation - not inherently bad. -Consistency brought by stocks valuable in Champagne gift giving ...EX..."If you blend a bunch of stuff together to get the signature style of a particular house, you do so at the expense of the character of the individual lots." says winex -Season is short and climate marginal, creates smoothness between years and even out supply -blend greener years with riper years ...EX...A year like 2003 which turned out hot was still over 40% short because of late frost in the spring. ...EX... the Aube house Drappier is reporting 75% of its crop lost in 2012 to hail. If anything, climate change and earlier budding has made Champagne weather even more of a lottery. ...EX...Vueve Clicquot's urbane Chef de Cave, Dominique Demarville, uses a main vintage and adjusts it with large variety or reserve stock (more variety, less volume) -...EX....Jacquesson, Jean-Hervé Chiquet, embraces vintage variation. In 2000 renaming their NV cuvee every year (originally fanciful names, then names after chronological cuvée # (728 was 2000, 729 was 2001)) to reflect that the base wine will have it's own personality that they celebrate by blending instead of wash away. *Complexity* -using aged stocks have the effect of making Champagne easier to drink at a younger age. ...EX... Tom Stevenson, (World of Fine Wine, Issue 37): 'The primary reason why reserve wines are added is to make intrinsically young champagnes eminently drinkable ahead of their time.' ...EX...Piper-Heidsieck's Chef de Cave, Régis Camus, made wines more generous in youth (was known before the 1990s as an unyielding Champagne wine that had to be aged 2 to 3 years after purchase to receive pleasure from it.) They were able to develop a friendlier style with blending (as well as allowing their base wines to go through full malolatic fermentation). -aged stocks add tertiary development to an immediate release (convenient for Champagne's seasonality-discourged on demand - evolve until put out in the market for immediate consumption w/i year) -Stocks also add richness, fullness and complexity to the final blend. -Reserve wine help to balance acidity to a large degree *Managing Stock* -This practice of blending forces many Champagne houses to constantly weigh actions that pit short term quality against long term quality. -Need support of finance manager for large stocks -Vins Claire are base blending wines (already primary ferm) -Stocks necessary for making up volume on short vintages -A top vintage like 2012 can elevate the NV blend. -Successive difficult vintages can tax the back stocks. -Stocks of vintage, variety, and plot ....Ex... Krug keeps 6 vintages on hand for blending tool of NV ...EX...Jean-Baptiste Lecaillon, chef de cave and deputy managing director at Cristal owner Champagne Louis Roederer 2011 was harvested during the summer, 2015 at the end of August and beginning of September and 2013 was harvested in October showing vast climatic variation ...EX...Piper-Heidsieck Régis Camus has constant struggle with reserve wines for him and his team. They always need to look at their inventory and, even in a great vintage year, a year in which they would love to sell a lot of vintage wine, they end up holding a lot for their reserve because they know they will need it for consistency in the future. They had to use a lot of reserve wines for the 2001 vintage because it was very austere - making them hold a large portion of the following great 2002 vintage to replenish their reserve wine stock. ...EX...Régis Camus of Piper-Heidsieck said it takes generally around 8-10 years for reserve wines to get caramel, honey notes, and in some cases up to 12 years ...EX...Vueve Clicquot's urbane Chef de Cave, Dominique Demarville, uses a main vintage and adjusts it with large variety or reserve stock (more variety, less volume) ...EX... Veuv Clicquot Yellow Label Brut Non Vintage based on the 2007 vintage (+5 other vintages) on the market in 2012. 52% Pinot Noir, 19% Pinot Meunier, 29% Chardonnay - 71% from 2007 together with 29% reserve wines from the 2006, 2005, 2004, 2001 & 1990 vintages. ...EX...Veuve Clicquot Yellow Label Brut Non Vintage based on the 2006 vintage (+6 other vintages) 55% Pinot Noir, 18% Pinot Meunier, 27% Chardonnay - 72% from 2006 together with 28% reserve wines from the 2005, 2004, 2003, 2002, 2001 & 2000 vintages. 2006 was a great vintage, 2001 was there to tame the flamboyance. ...EX...Drappier beginning new Pinot Gris 'extreme' champagne with demi sec dosage and fermented from natural yeast. Will have to build stock from 0 starting with 2015 harvest

pH (2015) (2011? other years?)*

...EX...Ch Palmer pH in 2015 (Palmer and Alter Ego were 3.85 and 3.78 respectively) higher than in super ripe 2009 meaning 2009 was fresher. So he ramped up extraction to IPT of 80 for balancing texture. ...EX....Gundog Estate Hunter Valley Semillon 3.14 2015 ...EX...Purdue Uni: Even small changes in pH can significantly alter the protein solubility and thus the wine's bentonite requirements. Protein stability must be reassessed after any treatment that changes the acidity of the wine in question. Especially high pH values likely will lead to increased bentonite demand. Calcium bentonites are not recommended for wines with a pH above 3.4. -...EX...pH can inhibit or accelerate the effectiveness on a fining agent. AWRI says Because the positive charge on proteins is stronger at lower pH values, the effectiveness of bentonite is greater in wines with lower pH values. If it is intended to adjust the pH and titratable acidity of the wine, then this should be carried out prior to bentonite fining, since stability might be different under the new pH conditions. ...EX...Consider the average red wine in California (finished pH value of 3.6) requires 50% more free sulfur than average finished red wine at Alysian (3.4 pH) to offer equal protection ...EX...pH levels were significantly higher in California Malbec wines than Malbec wines from Mendoza (4.02 versus 3.76, respectively). -pH affects color purple higher pH and red lower pH - pH range of most wines is between 2.9 and 4.2 -White wines with a pH of 3-3.2 and reds with a pH of 3.4-3.7 not only tend to taste refreshingly rather than piercingly acid, they are also more resistant to harmful bacteria, age better, and have a clearer, brighter color - In the last twenty years, average pH levels have risen considerably as a result of longer hang time and a fashion for riper wines -While it is possible to manipulate pH values, with grapes and wines it is difficult because of the wine's high 'buffer capacity', which roughly correlates with total acidity -The pH can be increased by decreasing the concentration of hydrogen ions, however, and vice versa -What one tastes in wines as the tart or sour sensation is influenced both by the total amount of acids present and by the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution. -Different yeasts and bacteria have varying tolerances for hydrogen ion concentration and for the nature and concentration of the acid. -Maceration/pressing: These operations may result in an expected pH increase of 0.05-0.2 units. This is due to the leaching of potassium in the grape (/fruit) skins. -Following fermentation of tartaric-dominant grape wines, an increase in pH of 0.1 unit may be expected -Following MLF an increase in pH of 0.1-0.3 units may be expected. -pH point around 3.6, above which tartrate precipitation causes a pH increase and below which tartrate precipitation causes a pH decrease. The point varies from wine to wine but generally occurs between pH 3.5 and 3.7. *Total Acidity* -TA measures the acid concentration in musts and wines, while pH measures the relative strength of those acids -measure of the total acidity, both fixed acids and volatile acids, present in grape juice or wine -The total acidity of wines expressed as tartaric acid normally varies between about 4 g/l and 9 g/l, and primarily depends on the grape variety and the climate. -The total acidity of ripe grape juice or must should ideally be in the general range of 7 to 10 g/l expressed as tartaric acid, although it may in practice be between 3 and 16 g/l -Some acid is usually lost during winemaking, as a result of malolactic conversion and cold stabilization, so one may need to start with a higher acidity than the final one desired. *oxidative stability* - less sulfur is required to preserve and protect low pH wines from oxidation and spoilage organisms *microbial* -Yeast can thrive, but bacteria cannot 3-4ph -bacterial wine spoilage include mousy taint, bitterness, geranium notes, volatile acidity, oily and slimy-texture, and overt buttery characters. Management of wine spoilage bacteria can be as simple as manipulating wine acidity or adding sulfur dioxide. -The optimum pH for bacterial multiplication is 4.2-4.5 wines 4+ should be avoided -Many winemakers keep wine pH below 3.65 *color stability* -At low pH values, the high concentration of hydrogen ions forces the pigment molecule into a form with a positive charge and a bright red colour. As pH increases (and hydrogen ion concentration decreases), the pigment molecules tend more and more to change through dull purple to blue, and ultimately greyish forms. The net result in the several pigments of red wine is a passage from bright to purplish red and finally to a dull brownish red as pH increases. *fining agents* -Casein is nearly insoluble and must be dissolved at pH 11 -Proteins must have a positive charge at juice or wine pH in order to interact with bentonite -Bench tests of fining important to measure effect on pH -pH can inhibit or accelerate the effectiveness on a fining agent -...EX...AWRI says Because the positive charge on proteins is stronger at lower pH values, the effectiveness of bentonite is greater in wines with lower pH values. If it is intended to adjust the pH and titratable acidity of the wine, then this should be carried out prior to bentonite fining, since stability might be different under the new pH conditions. *with SO2* -Keeping wine pH values low is of further importance because the hydrogen ion concentration of the wine controls the effectiveness of sulfur dioxide -Higher pH SO2 less effective -Sulfur dioxide gas, when dissolved in wine, reacts with the water in the wine to form sulfurous acid, the form of the compound that is best at inhibiting bacteria and wild yeasts and countering oxidation -Sulfurous acid breaks down partially into hydrogen ions and bisulfite ions, a form having little effect on micro-organisms such as bacteria and wild yeasts. High hydrogen ion concentrations (low pH values) in the wine tend to combine with the bisulfite ions and thus keep more of the sulfur dioxide in the effective, anti-microbial form. Free SO2 needed for 0.8 ppm molecular SO2: PH - Free SO2 3 - 14 3.5 - 44 3.9 - 109 ...EX...Consider the average red wine in California (finished pH value of 3.6) requires 50% more free sulfur than average finished red wine at Alysian (3.4 pH) to offer equal protection *MLF* -pH is less than 3.1, it is practically impossible, if more than 4.5, considerably retarded, de-acidification or acidification used -Following MLF an increase in pH of 0.1-0.3 units may be expected. low pH Hungary, Tokaji, Hungary (2.9, 3.1) *TA, Total Acidity, pH* Titratable Acidity (TA) is a measure of the amount of acid present in a solution. It is expressed as grams/liter (g/L) and is obtained by multiplying to percent TA by 10. So, a TA of 0.60% is expressed as 6g/L. pH is defined as the measure of the strength of acid in a solution. On a pH scale, 7 is considered neutral. The lower the number on the pH scale, the more acidic. Conversely, the higher the reading on the pH scale, the more alkaline. pH is a logarithmic scale. So, for each increment there is a factor of 10. So, a reading of 5 is 10 times more acid than a reading of 6. Total Acidity (TA) is a measure of the complete acid content in a wine. While it is more accurate, this measure is not easy to ascertain. So, Total Acidity is often measured using the next best thing, which is the measure of titratable acid. Hence, the terms, while used interchangeably, mean different things, but in practice are based upon the results of acid titration. ** Note - while TA and pH are related in that they are associated to acidity, amount of acid and strength of acid are very different. For example, two solutions with the same g/L of acid may have very different pH readings if one solution's acid is weaker than the other's.

Sparkling and Quality (2014) (2000) (2007) (2002)*

*Grape Selection* -low must weights ...EX...In California, for example, harvest begins in mid, or sometimes early, August for Pinot Noir and Chardonnay destined for sparkling wines. In Australia, the aim is to pick such varieties just as herbaceous characters have been lost when ripe fruit flavour compounds are beginning to develop (in practice at about 17 to 20 °brix in Australia's cooler areas. -high acid -yields slightly higher than reg wine (little grape flavor so quantity important over quality) -gentle pressing to avoid color and astringency -first press juice is highest quality even though it shows most vintage character, and hence variation, ...EX...Feuillatte uses high Munier because it gives red fruit people crave in Rose *Primary and MLF* -low ester ferm -yeast selection EC1008 -oxidative versus protective methods of juice handling; juice clarification; choice of yeast strain and fermentation rate; protein stabilization; and malolactic fermentation (sparkling wines made from wines which have not undergone malolactic fermentation may be simpler and fruitier in youth). ...EX...Dantan, who took over at Lanson says he is looking for balance and richness by no longer compulsively blocking MLF Black Label wouldn't contain more than 25% of wines that had completed the malolactic fermentation, noting that his approach would be similar to Jean-Baptiste Lecaillon, cellar master for Champagne Louis Roederer, who allows a varying proportion of MLF in the wines for Roederer's Brut Premier depending on the character of the base vintage. With MLF we can achieve greater consistency, because, for example, we can use more in a very fresh year -Champagne houses block the conversion, notably Gosset, Lanson, Alfred Gratien, Krug and Louis Roederer (although the last may allow a proportion to go through MLF, depending on vintage conditions). *Aging* -Pol Roger stainless steel sterile clean, lazer style heavy stainless influence -Bollinger old casks stacked up, dark earthy cellar ...EX..Taittinger's Comtes de Champagne, Chardonnay heavy which is typically stainless, their Grand Cru blend has five per cent oak maturation (often said to be all new oak ...EX Segura Viudas leave wines on the lees for 15 months. ...EX Gosset 15, 15 years cellar age ...EX...Le Colture Cartizze short elevage, minimal lees, no secondary notes *Reserve wines* -Krug uses 6 vintage range of reserve wines -Large supply allows for more complexity and breadth of tools to pull from *Blending* -large house may pull from several hundred base wines for NV expression -Small houses may have less options creating a challenge in a bad vintage -done in large tanks (stainless sharper fruit flavor, oak softer rounder fruit) ...EX... Jean-Baptiste Lécaillon at Louis Roederer, by the way, distinguishes between the desirable sweetness of sessile oak (Quercus petraea) aka Tronçais for Champagne, and the less desirable bitterness of pedunculate oak aka Limousin (Quercus robur). 'French oak' could mean either. ...EX..Taittinger's Comtes de Champagne, Chardonnay heavy which is typically stainless, their Grand Cru blend has five per cent oak maturation (often said to be all new oak * Tirage* -high flocculating yeast -Only 4-6 weeks to create pressure, extended time is quality issue -Lees act as antioxidant through release of reducing enzymes, keeping wine pale and fresh -Fine wines left on lees for a considerable time usually require much less drastic processing than more ordinary wines that were separated early from the lees, because the semi-stable colloidal phenolics and tartrates gradually precipitate during this ageing period. -enhance the structure and mouthfeel of a wine since the polysaccharides released from the dead yeast cells can significantly reduce astringency and increase body -Regular lees stirring also stimulates the release of mannoproteins, thereby improving the mouthfeel and stability of the wine. -Autolysis, SPARKLING— the destruction of cells by their own enzymes, effects are greatest if wine is left in contact with the lees of a second fermentation in bottle for at least five years, and minimal if lees contact lasts for less than 18 months. -Autolysis, there is an increase in amino acids, which are the precursors of those flavour characteristics typically associated with champagne such as acacia, biscuity or bready notes, and other complex aromas from bottle ageing. -Mannoproteins can interact with aroma compounds and thus potentially change the sensory properties of a wine. -color drops out of blanc de noir wines. ...EX Jean-Baptiste Lecaillon, chef de cave and deputy managing director at Cristal owner Champagne Louis Roederer min 3 mo post-disgorgement cellar period before release allows it to "recover" from the disgorgement. makes the wine more balanced and harmonious.' *Disgorgement* ...EX...The 2008 vintage has been launched in rosé and rich styles, the latter with a dosage of 30g/l, compared to 8 g/l for former (and blanc vintage) at Veuve Cliquot. The 2008 blanc was disgorged in March 2015, meaning it has had six years maturing on its lees and one year ageing in Clicquot's cellars post-disgorgement to integrate. Demarville is cellar master. http://www.wsetglobal.com/documents/the_moet__chandon_scholarship_2013__chris_van_aeken.pdf ...EX... Recaredo Cava does not freeze their disgorgement as it requires no glycol chilling, more sustainable.

fortification methods, procedures and styles (2011) (2008) (2000) (1999) * fortified

*Grape selection* -Palamino, neutral = showcases élévage -PX and Vin Santo Liquoroso (3-6 mo) dried on straw in fields =sweet (Harvey's Bristol) -Rutherglen and Argentina raisin on vine = sweet and dark -Muscat Beaume de Venise= highly aromatic lots of skin to flesh and kept fresh -Rivesaltes Muscat Alexandria= slightly less elegant, looser bigger grapes meaning *Skin management* -Port- lagares all color extraction in 3 days accounting for dilution of spirit -CA port cold soak for aromatics and color (Portworks in Sonoma) -Madeira - skin contact by grape Sercial and Verdelho vs Bual and Malmsy -Palimno pressed off quickly grape character unimportant *Fortification timing* -Port - Dows 80g/l Grahams 100 g/l -Maderia Bual 80 (phenolic) verdelho 60 (not phenolic) -Marsala secco 40 and sweet 100 g/l both end up at 17-18% abv *Spirit used* -Aldehyde presence for color fixing (David Bruce at Taylor-Fladgate) -Brandy in California (Cognac style spirits of Germain Robin) -South Africa, copper stills to remove sulfur and oak aging seen for nicer wines -James Godfrey in Australia uses low proof spirits from Tarac in the Barossa -Sherry 95% abv neutral *Élévage* -Port Vintage (in bottle) LBV (cask) Colheita (Barrel) Tawny (art of blend), Ruby (reductive) -Flor Fino vs Ox Olorosso -Rancio style Maury large glass demijohn -Madeira Estufagem -Rutherglen hot and baked -Rivesalts and Baumes de Venise fresh and young release *Oxygen exposure* -Oxidative aromas ...EX...Lustau Olorosso 'Pata de Gallina' 20 year old solera of Palo Cortado (gentle pressing accentuating) -Accelerated exposure ...EX...Madeira, Vin Santo, Banyules.... ...EX...Domaine La Tour Vieille Banyules aged 1 year minimum in glass jars outdoors. Blend of 5-13 year old wines -Oxidative protection ...Muscat Beumes de Venise.....DOMAINE DE DURBAN ages in stainless and concrete to keep fresh fruit flavors ...EX...At Grahams 6 Grapes reserva kept in large upright tanks for some O2, but truly very little. ...EX....Taylor Fladgates Vintage port also stored in large uprights for 18 months, oxygen development happens later -Feeding of Flor Yeast ....En Rama Fino...Gonzalas Byass Una Palma 7-8 years under flor giving depth but no oxygen development *Blending*

Hygiene, Sterilization, sanitization, cleaning (2003) (2000)*

*Hygiene* -From moldy cellars to clean palaces -Louis Pasteur began first studies microbiology and O2 damage -1950s and 60s Davis pushed for hygiene -Australian Wine Research Institute pushing in modern times fro hygiene -greater hygiene has enabled the adverse effects of acetobacter and other spoilage micro-organisms such as Brettanomcyes to be avoided. -Stainless, floor drains, well situated equipment -large water use issues -caustic, non foaming cleaners -Hygiene is important where the grapes are received, as overripe and damaged fruit can easily attract insects, particularly fruit flies Drosophila melanogaster. -Piles of pomace and stems should also be distanced from the winery as these can also become a breeding ground for insects. -Mice are to be dealt with immediately ...EX...Fetzer uses reclaimed water for cleaning ...EX...Lalou Bize-Leroy kills mice and blends them up and chars them to scare off other mice. ...EX...Hubert Germain-Robin will not allow food to be eaten outside the 'food enclosure' ...EX...Paul Symington jokes that white stone in the cellar makes every worker extremely aware of their clenliness- everyone can see their spills! *Sterilization* -Acetobacter, Lactic infection -Sulfur is key for sterilizing barrels and safe storage -In many wineries, all places where finished wine is exposed to the atmosphere are in separate, essentially sterile rooms ...EX...Perkins Harter cleans batonnage in Star San (phosphoric sanitizer) each barrel to avoid spreading potential contamination ...EX...Fetzer tanks cleaned with 125ml to 65 gallons of PAA ...EX...David Bruce claims port is first natural wine. Little sterilization due to high stability of fortification Clean bottling STERIL BOTTLING -pasteurized -Very light, off-dry wines such as German QbA need high standards of sterility for machinery and packaging materials. -equipment is also considerably more expensive -justified primarily for high-volume, relatively low alcohol wines containing some residual sugar which could suffer secondary fermentation if yeast cells are allowed into the bottle, typically liebfraumilch and other mass-market German blends -easily sterilized equipment -steril closed room with slight positive pressure of sterilized air and entry, through a double door system, is restricted to the few specially trained and clothed personnel required. -Micro-organisms are removed from the wine by depth membrane sterile filtration and the corks or other closures are sterilized by gaseous sulfur dioxide or other chemical sterilizing agents such as paracetic acid. -The bottling and corking machines are usually sterilized by steam, or by chemical sterilants. -Frequent sample bottles are removed at random for microbiological analysis, and each bottling run is held in storage until it is certain that no organisms are growing.

sweet wine (2009) (2000) (1999)(2015)*

*In The Vineyard* -Nobel, Eis, or drying -Hard harvested: Sauternes, Tokaji Aszu, Beerenauslesen- vineyard tries or at winery triage table -Yeast prefer glucose, fructose the principal sugar left in sweet wine. High abv and sugar inhibit yeast -Press juice of Noble rot grapes, best juice -ice wein -5 to -10C -cryoextraction -If botrytis bunch rot fails to materialize, the grapes simply start to raisin or shrivel, a condition known in French as passerillé (typically less complex and less long-lived) ....EX...Ch Guiraud if no Bt develops will use cryo ...EX...Robert Mondavi will spray vineyard with innoculating bacteria and water to create noble rot *In The Winery* -Increase CO2 pressure is temporary unless sterile filtered (Moscato d'Asti) -Fortification ...EX...4:1 (20% volume) with spirit at Craft -pasteurisation 80C few sec -centrifuge or filter removal of yeast -cooling / so2 / racking / steril filtering / steril bottling -Tokaji wine to berries 1:1 for 6 putt, putt =25kg, 136l Gonc cask, -ferment a must relatively high in sugars, between 200 and 250 g/l, until the alcohol level has reached about 11 or 12 per cent, and then add a substantial dose of sulfur dioxide. (Sweet French Wine) *added sugar* -The most common method of sweetening basic wine is the addition of some form of sweet grape juice, followed by stabilization (sweet reserve, grape concentrate or rectified grape must ), They are best drunk within a year of bottling and within a day or two of opening the bottle -sussreserve steril filtered, cold, under pressure to use for back sweetening ...EX...Liqueur d'Expedition in Champagne ...EX...RCGM to 25 g/l at Gallo for Apothic

homogenizing of wine styles through modern techniques (2009)*

*NO IT IS NOT HOMOGENIZING* -Susan Hulme MW says it is hard to imagine modern technology being anything but good for wine ...EX...David Bruce Fonseca-Guimaraens studies at Adelaide and brought more diversity to stuck in the mud port *Cold Fermenting, Reductive Winemaking* -Keeps the unique and inherent quality of the fruit -If terroir is real should expose it -Allowed more wines then ever to travel distances ...Rueda Verdejo never seen outside before *Bottle Stability* -Allows more wine to be exported and enjoyed globally than ever before -Larger variety of wines in cellars, and on lists *Reactions to modern techniques* -In their own way homogenizing factors have breed whole new categories of natural and expressive wines *YES IT IS* -If everything is dialed in you could take any grapes and make them taste like anything else through different treatments. All the tech gives rise to wines that taste the same. *Wine Consultant* -The ultimate prescriptive winemaker installing copy cat systems all over the globe. -Since the growth of these global consultants it is harder to differentiate wines by NW and OW -Although the wines may be better it does not mean they are not more homogenized -...EX...2004 documentary Mondo Vino: Michel Rolland learned from Professor [Émile] Peynaud and they have been 2 big voices coming from same culture and background. -...EX...Crush Pad *Proliferation on French and American Oak* -This is replacing unique characters that were staples ...EX...Inama is still using Acacia for their Soave and it is undoubtedly eponymous adding terroir in elevage ...EX..Vicard states that single forest bbls rarely exist and most are blends due to the high demand. *Clinical* -Total control can taste sterile, devoid of unique micro-biome and character -Lab yeast lacks the character and unique reflection of the local micro-biome of the winery ...EX...Chateau Rauzan-Ségla moving away from their optical sorter because it gives one dimensional fruit -Large bulk purchasing, funneling, and wholesaling of generic grapes for generic off-dry wines covering large area ...EX...Apothic, Menage a trois, yellow tail ...EX..."Think of it like a Roquefort blue cheese," Jared Brandt from natural winery Donkey & Goat says. "A Roquefort may develop in your fridge over time," he explains, while a generic blue is more stable and has less personality.

Ethyl Acetate (mine)*

*Pro* -most common ester -product of acetic acid and ethanol without O2 -dominate in young wines -120 g/l threshold *Con* -At higher concentrations, however, it can become unacceptably dominant and increasingly impart the character described as volatile and, eventually, vinegary. -Wines exposed to O2 first lose their fresh fruitiness and become vapid in smell and taste because of the acetaldehyde resulting from the oxidation of ethanol. The oxidation goes further to yield acetic acid from the acetaldehyde intermediate and then, when some of this acetic acid reacts with ethanol, ethyl acetate is produced. By the time this stage is reached, the wine is no longer wine but wine vinegar, which combines the sharp, acid taste of acetic acid with the odour of ethyl acetate.

alternatives to sulphur dioxide (mine)*

*Reasons for alternatives* -Some individuals exhibit strong allergic reactions when exposed to it. Scientists believe that the sulphites present in wine react with stomach acids to release sulphur dioxide gas, which causes the airways to become irritated and constricted. -Smell and taint *Alternatives and reduction of use* -Ozone to clean winery equipment -lees are reductive and work as an antioxidant -DMDC deactivates enzymes in microorganisms, added at bottling, inhibit yeast metabolism to prevent re-fermentation in bottle as well as spoilage yeasts such as Brettanomyces -Phytic acid binds with iron, preventing oxidation and the formation of acetaldehyde -low electrical current, impairs cell membranes and inhibits yeast and bacteria (not anti O2) -pressure change technology ruptures cell walls by rapidly increasing and then removing pressure with an inert gas (not anti O2) -ultraviolet radiation has been used to inactivate microorganisms. (not anti O2) -Screw caps -high phenolic or acidic dry wine -Steril filtration -Pasteurization -Fortified wine at bottling more stable -retained CO2 ...EX Ernst Strom of Strom Wines in Santa Barbara AVA prefers lower SO2 for his fresh white wines. He traps some CO2 in wine to protect wine instead of high dosage of SO2 -GSE -Yarrow ...EX. Yarrow can be used post ferm for antiseptic, but carefully Maysara, OR -Sorbic Acid: geranium smell risk -Vitamin C :150 mg/L is permitted in the EEC, may convert to hydrogen peroxide oxidizing the wine and turning it brown. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) can effectively supplement the antioxidant role of SO2, but this cannot replace SO2 completely, as it has no antiseptic effect. ...EX... vitamin C use popular Germany and New Zealand for Riesling Sauvignon Blanc ...EX... Chr. Hansen trying to produce yeast that would need less sulfur protection -To control the more recalcitrant bacteria, several other technologies can be used: pulsed tion, and natural electric fields, ultrahigh pressure, ultrasound or UV irradia- products, including bacteriocins and lysozyme.

Carbon Dioxide post ferm (2006)*

*Red/Still Wines* -In most still wines, this carbon dioxide is encouraged to dissipate leaving only very small amounts in the finished wine -more protective the wine-making, the more substantial these traces may be, -Winemakers may, however, choose to remove carbon dioxide from such wines by sparging them with nitrogen just before bottling. -some Italian red wines contain a perceptible level of carbon dioxide, sometimes as a result of the governo practice of adding dried grapes to provoke a second fermentation. -Frothy chilled barbera in bistros *White/Rosé wine* -Since the 1960s number of winemakers in hotter, particularly New World, regions pursued a deliberate policy of bottling wine, particularly white wine, with up to 1 atmosphere of carbon dioxide dissolved in it. 1200 mg/l -1800 mg/l (Vinho Verde) -Retained CO2 because carbon dioxide, as it vaporizes from the wine, carries with it many esters and thus tends to increase a wine's freshness and fruitiness, attributes which the winemaker may well wish to enhance. -Retained CO2 done by processing the wine at very low temperatures where carbon dioxide is much more soluble in wine, and bottling it early in order to preserve some of the gas given off during fermentation. -must calibrate filling machine for cold bottling, as wine warms it will expand -The warmer the wine is served, the more obvious is the carbon dioxide to the taster. -Portugal's vinho verde provides many examples of this deliberate wine style, as do many young whites from the mosel ..EX... Less need for Sulfur *Sparkling Wines* -substantial quantities of dissolved carbon dioxide, 2-6 atmospheres, are encouraged to remain in the bottle -Lesser quantities of carbon dioxide, between1-2 atmospheres, may be encouraged in wines such as those labelled perlant, pétillant, or frizzante by inducing a second but less violent fermentation and preserving the carbon dioxide produced. ...EX...6,000- 8,000 mg/l

Juice clarity and turbidity (2015) Wine clarification*

*Settling* -most common example of settling, to begin the clarification of freshly drained and pressed white musts before fermentation. Fermentation is delayed by adding sulfur dioxide and by cooling before pumping to the settling vessel. -Red wines, whose skins are included in the fermentation vessel, are settled after fermentation and maceration when the purpose is to remove not just grape debris but also dead yeast cells, or lees. -Settling is governed by such factors as the size of the solid particles, the difference in their density from that of the liquid, and the extent to which the liquid moves within the settling vessel -Because must and cloudy grape juice are so much denser than wine, they are much more difficult to settle. -Seeds and stems settle first ...EX...Germany Co-op mesh strainer for PN tanks that catch seeds during whole berry and are lifted out (like a net) to avoid phenolic and harsh tannin as alcohol content rises. - colloids, which have dimensions of large molecular size, are very slow to settle because their movement is influenced by the smallest liquid movement within the vessel. -The settling of colloids can be greatly assisted by the addition of clarifying or fining agents such as bentonite, which adsorbs them and grows them into complexes large enough to settle. -Settling of particularly viscous grape juice can also be encouraged by the addition of enzymes designed to break chains of pectins. *Centrifugation* -relatively expensive and slow -It is more effective when used to clarify new wines because of the greater difference in density between the yeast cells and the liquid than between the grape solids and the liquid -While the force used in natural clarification is gravity, the centrifugal force used in centrifugation is 5,000 to 10,000 times greater and requires large amounts of electrical power and expensive specialist equipment to process only relatively small amounts of wine per hour. -Protective steps to avoid oxidation are necessary *Rotary Drum Vacuum Filter* -pecialized form of earth filtration designed to cope with very 'dirty' liquids—those which contain a high concentration of solids or particles that would rapidly block other filters -lees, although still liquid, are frequently very thick and require mechanical sieving to separate the valuable liquid from the solid particles suspended in it. -RDV filtration relies on the constant regeneration of the filter medium. This is achieved by shaving off a fine layer of the diatomaceous earth (DE) through which the liquid is passed. -1st filter trough is filled with DE and water. DE is sucked onto filter cylinder by vacuum pump inside rotating cylinder. -2nd wine is introduced to the trough and pulled in the same way -3rd a scraper cuts away build up on outside of filter constantly exposing fresh layer of DE -4th once scraped down to the cylinder it is repeated -normally used to clarify the products of settled grape juice or wine, such as lees after crushing, pressing, and settling, and the residue of finings such as bentonite. If used carefully, they can recover good-quality wine that is otherwise impossible to separate from such solids and would therefore be either discarded or sent as pomace for distillation ...EX...Fetzer finds it too time consuming and expensive for their value brand wines and instead sends wine to distillation -Increasing concerns about the health risks of working with DE as well as its disposal have led many wineries to use alternative technologies such as cross-flow filtration or modern centrifuges, as well as other proprietary filtration media, such as self-cleaning ceramic filter discs, to recover juice and wine from heavy lees. Further technological developments will almost certainly make RDV filters much less commonly used in future. *Cross Flow Filtration* tangential or cross-flow filtration, the liquid flows parallel to the filter surface, and thus keeps the filter membrane clear, avoiding clogging, the chief problem of surface filtration *Fining* -Isinglass to keep bright white and remove browning phenolics -Heat unstable protein haze removed by bentonite fining or heat filtering

indigenous and cultured yeasts (2012) (2008) (2001)*

*WILD* - wild yeast can create characterful smells, less direct aromas -Spread around wineries and vineyards by insects, particularly fruit flies (drosophila), and possibly air currents -most common genera are Klöckera/Hanseniaspora and Candida, with Pichia, Lachancea (formerly Kluyveromyces), Metschnikowia, Zygosaccharomyces, and Torulaspora usually representing a low proportion. -Saccharomyces species are rarely isolated from grape berries unless they are damaged by, for example, disease, birds, insects, or hail. -More sensitive to sulfur dioxide, and intolerant of an alcoholic strength much above 5%, these wild yeasts are generally active during the early stages of non-inoculated or 'spontaneous' fermentations, those occurring when insufficient or no sulfur dioxide is added to the grape juice or must -Fortunately, there are usually enough Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells present on the surfaces of harvesting, transportation, and winery processing equipment that enter the grape juice or must, so that these latter yeasts continue the fermentation above the unstable alcoholic strength of 5%, depleting the supply of sugar and producing a stable wine -Inoculation with Saccharomyces yeast does not suppress wild yeasts which are naturally present in juices and musts during the early stages of fermentation. Therefore, wine is commonly the result of a mixed microflora, although the impact of wild yeasts on the wine is usually restricted by the inoculated yeast -The concept of 'château' or resident/indigenous populations of ambient yeast which promote the particular character of an estate wine is controversial among wine scientists -The advantage of a well-adapted population of ambient yeast is that there are many different strains and, because of their different abilities and aptitudes, they may be capable of producing a wine with a better balanced, wider range of flavours and characteristics ...EX...Trimback uses unless rot is present ...EX...Graham's uses on port, slower start means longer skin contact ...EX...Thought to be part of terroir expression at Belle Pente *CULTURED* -Easy, sterile, out populates easily -standardization -Increasing numbers of Old World producers, the majority of New World winemakers, and certainly all of those worried about minimizing risk, use cultured yeast -predictable and the fermentation will proceed smoothly and, of greatest importance, to completion without the risk of a stuck fermentation or formation of off-odours -favour certain strains of cultured yeast for practical winemaking reasons -Strains have been selected and exploited by oenologists and winemakers for characteristics such as fermentation vigour, high alcohol and sulfur dioxide tolerance, tolerance to temperature extremes, ability to referment wine to make sparkling wine, freedom from acetic (volatile acidity) and sulfidic off-flavours, film or flor formation needed for sherry production, enhancement of wine varietal character, fruity ester profile and intensity, low-foaming, sedimentation (flocculant) property, yeasticidal properties, improved red wine colour, better tolerance to nutrient deficiencies, lower potential to form sulfur dioxide, and compatibility with lactic acid bacteria. -Because the selection and characterization of new yeast isolates is a laborious and time-consuming process, a variety of conventional breeding techniques are increasingly being used. These include selecting natural variants from a population or using mutagenesis, such as ultraviolet light, to increase genetic variability, or culturing yeast under specific stressful conditions (often referred to as adaptive or directed evolution) and by hybridization or rare-mating, which exploits the sexual cycle in yeast ...EX... Chr. Hansen producing yeast that can create low alcohol wine with global rising alcohol, also lowered sulfur ...EX...Very reliable and consistent Fetzer ...EX...Low fermentation esters in Fino and Champagne BOTH -captured yeast marry wild and cultured increasing Terroir -There will always be Saccharomyces in wild yeast that will outcompete -There will always be wild yeast in the air that will affect your cultured yeast. -It is about accentuating one over the other *Examine the advantages and disadvantages of using cultured yeasts in wine making.* Advantages: Consistent ...EX...Fetzer likes to inncoulate for controll, apple farms Wild is sensitive to Sulfur and alcohol strength >5%) Cultured less risk of stuck ferm and off odor Value added ...EX... Chr. Hansen producing yeast that can create low alcohol wine with global rising alcohol, also lowered sulfur ...EX...Chr. Hansen "We have launched products and technologies that are landmarks in enology," Hubert says, picking out Prelude, "the first pure non- Saccharomyces yeast for mouthfeel improvement"; Concerto, "acidic balance management in red wines"; and FrootZem, "fruit flavour optimization" Character ...EX...Champagne wants low ester fermentation - about secondary aromas of yeast, then highly flocculating Scott labs EC1118 Style goals: ...EX...Coutet uses innoculation to get through ferm safe and sound when BT present Innoculation of flor for Tokaji and Jerez Disadvantages: Can lack specific character, Can feel clinical ...EX...AWRI reveals genome has little diversity, but key may be in those little differences. Can't always ferment out hard to eat sugar ...EX..Wild fermented beers and wines can have higher abvs from this Expensive Requires fridge, storage, lead time, lab ...EX...Free vs 10$ a pound for V1116 a common white wine yeast for Sauv Blanc to Chardonnay

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Thermovinification (2005)*

- Common to red wine, especially after cool or cloudy growing system -heat 70 °C/158 °F is applied to grape clusters or must before fermentation to liberate anthocyanins, or colour, from the skins -The heat treatment is immediately followed by pressing to liberate coloured juice, which is then fermented much as in traditional white wine-making -everyday wines from grape varieties low in anthocyanins -from better-coloured grape varieties affected by moulds such as botrytis rot, which destroys colour in dark-skinned grapes. Heat inactivates the colour-destroying enzymes secreted by the mould. -The heat also destroys pectoclytic enzymes, making clarification more difficult, -oxidases such as laccase is destroyed reducing the risk of oxidation, especially useful for botrytis-affected grapes ...EX....Ch de Beaucastel in the Rhône, the Perrins have for many years heated the grapes very briefly to 80 °C/176 °F immediately after destemming. The grapes are then cooled to cellar temperature prior to fermentation. This is said to increase the extraction of colour and flavour and avoid the addition of sulfur to the must. *Flash Détente* -applied to wine by researchers at INRA in the early 1990s -A certain proportion of fully ripe and fully destemmed grapes is rapidly heated and then immediately put under vacuum. This very fast method of first heating then cooling has been shown to break up the structure of the skin cells, thereby increasing the extraction of colour, polysaccharides, and phenolics by between 30 and 50 per cent -Flash détente has so far been authorized for use in certain appellations in southern France such as the Côtes du Rhône and units have been installed there, in Bordeaux, and even in Japan. Mobile units have been exported to Australia

Special Considerations for fortified wines *

- Saccharomyces Banyules yeast used (flor) -All colors for Port must be extracted in 2-3 days, deep even with dilution from spirits -stem inclusion depends on style and extraction technique ...EX Grahams no stems, Croft partial stems -foot/ mechanical/ alternate extraction -quality and history of spirit in area ...EX in Portugal 1991 allowed to buy own spirit. Lack of knowledge but learning David Fonseca wrote Thesis at Roseworthy on spirit ...EX aldehydic content of spirit and color fixing ability -Aging effect of spirit, maderization of Banyuls, Madeira estufagem, alch evap in manzanilla -aging potential of base wine and final product (oloroso v fino, vintage v colheita v tawny) -reinforcing of stocks for older releases -biological aging -RS from mutage or back sweetening or timing (Madeira/Vintage) -strength of spirit (higher vdn/madeira, lower port) -press wine ....EX Fonseca will basket press with hand dial and include all press wine. Sherry will use pneumatic press and is limited to not over extract (may not legally exceed 72.5 l/19 gal of juice from 100 kg/220 lb of grapes) . *Oxygen exposure* -Oxidative aromas ...EX...Lustau Olorosso 'Pata de Gallina' 20 year old solera of Palo Cortado (gentle pressing accentuating) -Accelerated exposure ...EX...Madeira, Vin Santo, Banyules.... ...EX...Domaine La Tour Vieille Banyules aged 1 year minimum in glass jars outdoors. Blend of 5-13 year old wines -Oxidative protection ...Muscat Beumes de Venise.....DOMAINE DE DURBAN ages in stainless and concrete to keep fresh fruit flavors ...EX...At Grahams 6 Grapes reserva kept in large upright tanks for some O2, but truly very little. ...EX....Taylor Fladgates Vintage port also stored in large uprights for 18 months, oxygen development happens later -Feeding of Flor Yeast ....En Rama Fino...Gonzalas Byass Una Palma 7-8 years under flor giving depth but no oxygen development

Autolysis (2005)*

- The destruction of cells by their own enzymes -Its effects are greatest if wine is left in contact with the lees of a second fermentation in bottle for at least five years, and minimal if lees contact lasts for less than 18 months -mouthfeel is improved through the release of polysaccharides -oxidation is inhibited through the release of reducing enzymes -production of certain mannoproteins reduces tartrate precipitation and improves protein stability -increase in amino acids, which are the precursors of those flavour characteristics typically associated with champagne such as acacia, biscuity or bready notes, and other complex aromas from bottle age -Autolysis, SPARKLING— the destruction of cells by their own enzymes, effects are greatest if wine is left in contact with the lees of a second fermentation in bottle for at least five years, and minimal if lees contact lasts for less than 18 months. -Autolysis, there is an increase in amino acids, which are the precursors of those flavour characteristics typically associated with champagne such as acacia, biscuity or bready notes, and other complex aromas from bottle ageing. -Mannoproteins can interact with aroma compounds and thus potentially change the sensory properties of a wine. -color drops out of blanc de noir wines. ...EX... Macro-trends defining the new natural wine movement in Aussie is extended lees contact of reds and semi/non aromatic whites- Jay Ro ...EX... Champagne: lees management very important for autolytic character and body. Krug's Grand Cuvee rests 6-7 years on lees (had to darken cellar to keep it under wraps before release). ...EX...Gosset has '15 years' lees ages NV champ released now ...EX...Short lees aging of 2-8 weeks gives character but not flavor. Autolytic flavor thought to show at 18 months. ...EX...Graham Beck, The Rhona Blanc de Blancs 2010 Robertson, Western Cape, South Africa £13 lees 4 years ...EX...Quartz Reef, Méthode Traditionnelle Rosé NV Central Otago 36 months on lees

Bulk Storage*

-Bulk Wine — or wine en vrac, as the French call it, is wine that is ready to drink, but has not been put into smaller containers such as bottles - important in the production and blending of everyday commercial wines -Large storage tanks are usually made of stainless steel and may hold as much as 800,000 l/176,000 gal ...EX...The Caves de Rauzan co-operative cellar has the dubious accolade of being the largest producer of appellation-level wine in the world, churning out nearly 25 million bottles every year. The winery's total storage capacity is 50 million litres - each of the tanks pictured below holds 250,000 litres. ...EX...In Jan 2014 Cape wine academy noted bulk wine prices stayed steady when production costs went up encouraging bulk trade. ...EX...Gaillac estate Ch Bouscaillous which ships bulk juice to Vietnam for bottling. *O2 MGMT* -oxidation major risk -head space must be filled with an inert gas -Large CO2 production in fermentation must be managed for safety ...EX...92,000 gallon oak open top fermentors at Buffalo Trace Bourbon distillery have a vacuum system to capture, package and sell CO2 -...EX...TankNET, New digital temp sensors can report to smart phoneif O2 gets to high to mitigate risks. Used at Jordan wine. *Temperature* -The ideal storage temperature is 12-18 °C (54-64 °F). -Extremes of heat or cold are likely to have a negative effect on quality. -Glycol, or heating jacket may be option ...EX...TankNET, New digital temp sensors can report to smart phone is heating/cooling breaks to mitigate risks. Used at Jordan wine. *Consistency* -Many commercial blends are bottled throughout the year from such tanks, which are kept at relatively low temperatures -If consumers were to become more demanding of individuality in their wines, these large storage containers would become rarer and the wineries of the future might have only small and medium-sized storage containers. ...EX...Canada many small wineries, mobile blending tanks very popular *Tank Condition* -Inert -Rust major concern (make sure all parts are same metal, avoid scratches and pits) -Break risks / Tank cracking (never hit a cold tank with a hot CIP, protect from forklifts) -CLEAN, contamination means total loss *Bulk Shipping* -cleanliness of ship area and container -Quality controls at all designated intersections ...EX...Jacobs Creek and Hardy's require specs over bulk shipping

tracemetals in wine (2001)*?

-Clouds from heavy-metal contamination do occur but they are much less frequent than they were in the era of copper and brass pipes and taps -Casse: historic wine fault involving spoilage either by an excess of iron or copper percipitate *Blue Fining* - largely outmoded though still used winemaking process whereby excess copper and iron are removed from wine by fining with potassium ferrocyanide. -From days before stainless was widely available. -A century ago, before stainless steel was widely available, winery equipment was often made of iron, copper, or bronze, an alloy of copper and tin. -Wines containing more than 10 mg/l of iron or 0.25 mg/l of copper could easily form a haze, so blue fining was needed to remove the excess copper and iron dissolved from the equipment after prolonged contact with the metals. *Lead* -Grapes containing lead may produce wine containing lead. -There are two principal sources of lead: One is from lead-rich automobile exhaust particles settling on both grapes and soil. This is a problem for roadside vineyards in particular, but one which is declining as the use of unleaded fuels increases. The other source is from prior use of the now-banned chemical insecticide lead arsenate, which has contaminated many vineyard soils, especially where soil acidity is high. -Most of the traces of lead from grapes are precipitated out with the lees during winemaking. Microgram quantities per litre are likely to be found in most wines. -Lengthy storage of wines in lead-crystal decanters provides time for the wine acids to leach some lead from the glass, quality of glass making important. Can double in cheap glass. ...EX...early 1990s ranged from 0 to 1.26 mg/l, with the average lead content being 0.13 mg/l

Enzymes in winemaking (2013)*

-Enzymes in yeast cells, which are referred to as endogenous enzymes, are responsible for the changes brought about by fermentation -commercial or exogenous enzymes produced mainly by the fungus Aspergillus niger are used increasingly in modern wine-making to aid and improve the process -Enzymes are very sensitive to their environment, functioning poorly at particularly high and low temperatures -Invertase in yeast cells also converts the non-fermentable sugar sucrose into fermentable sugars during chaptalization -Pectinase: the large size of pectin molecules can affect the amount of juice yielded at pressing, ease of filtration, clarification, as well as extraction of anthocyanins and tannins from the grapes during wine-making. Grapes contain pectolytic enzymes (pectinases) that are responsible for softening the grape berries by changing the pectin structure during ripening. However, these pectinases are not active under wine-making conditions (pH level, SO2, and alcohol). Therefore fungal pectinases are often added to white must to break up pectins, thereby decreasing the viscosity of the juice, and speed up settling. The addition of pectinases to red musts increases colour and tannin extraction. -laccase: Grapes affected by botrytis bunch rot contain high concentrations of the enzyme laccase, which promotes very rapid oxidation and browning of the juice and young wine. At the end of fermentation, the combination of higher alcoholic strength, the tannins, and added sulfur dioxide reduce the laccase activity, thereby making the wine stable to enzymatic oxidation. If, however, the bunch rot is extensive, laccase activity may be so great that only heat treatment of the wine will inactivate the enzyme sufficiently to protect the wine from oxidation. -glycosides: Commercial enzymes with glycosidase activity have been developed for particularly aromatic wines such as those based on Gewürztraminer and Riesling grapes, which, if added after fermentation, are able to free the terpene flavour compounds that are bound as glycosides, thereby substantially increasing the aroma of the resulting wine. -oxidase: During wine ageing, various oxidase enzymes may play a role in hastening the oxidation of phenolics ...EX...gentle crush only wines may have enzymes added to break down pectin and release more juice to be released after settling- Boiling in Slovenia ...EX...Randy Caparoso freely admits Lodi Zin is not made with regards to acid, sweetnesss, or enzymes because it may all be altered chemically ...EX...SEAHORSE WINES in Israel eschews the use of all added enzymes as unnatural ...EX...Alberto Antonini found as he made Argentina wine Altos Las Hormigas that he moved from being taught to use enzymes to no enzymes for better harmony and show there is terroir in the new world

Reverse osmosis (2005)*

-wine-making intervention or manipulation based on the principle of cross-flow or tangential membrane filtration. -Cross-flow filtration is highly promising for many wine-making applications but it is quite slow and expensive compared with traditional filtration techniques. - artificial situation where high pressure is applied to the strong side of the solution forcing water in the reverse direction *alcohol reduction* - a portion of a high alcohol wine is passed through a reverse osmosis installation, which removes a colourless permeate that consists almost entirely of water and alcohol, and returns the retentate (the rest of the wine) to the tank. The alcohol may then be removed from the permeate by distillation and the water returned to the wine, to produce a wine of reduced alcohol content. -This low alcohol wine can then be used as a blending component to produce a final wine of the desired alcohol level. -An advantage of this technique is that only a portion of the wine need be subjected to this potentially intrusive manipulation, typically less than one-quarter. -aromas not lost -In 2005, work was underway to apply similar membrane techniques as a means of removing sugar from grape musts in order to reduce alcohol levels in wine—a possible alternative to humidification. ...EX...Cumina okanagan reduced abv to restart ferm *must concentration* -In the case of must concentration, reverse osmosis is used to remove water from the unfermented grape must, achieving a similar result to vacuum evaporation. It has been widely adopted in Bordeaux, where many producers regard it as an insurance policy against the negative effects of a rainy harvest. -Controversially, some have seen it as a way of producing more concentrated, denser wines of the sort that appeal to influential critics and the modern market place. *both* -In some countries, principally Australia, the main use of reverse osmosis is on finished wines, where the selective removal of water and alcohol concentrates all other components. *VA* -Another important use for reverse osmosis is the reduction of excessive levels of volatile acidity. Stuck fermentations are sometimes coupled with high levels of acetic acid and some commentators have suggested that it is the volatile acidity that is arresting the fermentation. This view is supported by the fact that where volatile acidity is reduced by the use of reverse osmosis and anion exchange (to remove selectively the acetic acid), three-quarters of these fermentations resume. ...EX...Vinovation mobile unit can travel to winery in Napa and remove VA *Brett* -More recently this technique has been proposed as a way of removing negative flavour compounds that result from brettanomyces spoilage in red wines.

Natural Wines

...EX...According to Loire Valley-based winemaker Laurent Saillard, who previously owned a restaurant in Brooklyn, New York, the idea to make natural wine a category "comes from the people outside of the natural wine world. It doesn't come from us. And what the ---- is natural wine anyway? I could not say." Saillard feels that any kind of official label-whether organic, biodynamic, or natural-is restrictive. "I don't want to be kept in a box," he states. "One of the reasons why I'm doing wine now is to be free and do whatever I want to do." Saillard has no organic certification, although he practices biodynamics in his vineyards. He simply does not care to pursue the designation. "The other guys should put on their label, 'poison,'" adds Saillard. "Wine is the only food product where you don't have to list any ingredients. It doesn't make any sense to me. People would be shocked to see the ingredients in a bottle of wine." ...EX...Scott Frank, who makes his Bow & Arrow wines from top biodynamic vineyards in a Portland, Oregon warehouse, says, "That's like saying you're going to make a category for punk rock, and some panel is going to adjudicate whether your band qualifies as punk rock." ...EX...Zind Humbrecht horse takes 5 days to plow what tractor does in 1/2 day. Will use horse for specific plots

Inert gas (2003) (2000)*

...EX...Cuvaison Dry Ice at reception ...EX...Culmina, Canada As you get closer to bottling you don't want to use CO2 or at bottling CO2 will be too high 1,000ppm perceptible CO2 -Red 100-200 ppm CO2 -White 500-1800 ppm *Carbon Dioxide* Pros -cheap and easy to purchase and use -dry ice blocks may be added to wine in bottom of tank, releases CO2 -dense so only require gas to fill volume of tank to remove all O2 -at 800mg/l in white or rose makes wine lively, adjust pre bottling by sparging Cons -dissolves in wine, cooler temp more dissolves, prickle and barrier is lost -invisible and dangerous (5% can kill humans) ...Fetzer collects and packages their exprelled CO2 packages and sells as part of sustainability *Nitrogen* Pros -less soluble in wine -much less toxic, disperses quickly, doesn't collect Cons -same density as air, requires 3 x volume of tank -little bit that is soluble in wine can cause froth on surface -if pure nitrogen exclusively used wine can loose too much dissolved CO2 = flat taste *Nitrogen Process* -Fill tank with gas to flush out all air -fill to tank with wine, using nitrogen pressure to move wine through pipes (CO2 will spill out top) -allow nitrogen to fill the headspace as wine is removed from tank, prevent ingress of air *Argon* Pros -not soluble like CO2, no foam like Nitro -dense like CO2 -removes disolved O2 from wine by sparge Cons -sparging needs to be done carefully to not remove flavor -expensive and harder to find

Stuck Ferm, restarting *

...EX...Old writings refer to sweet Barolo, Federico Scarzello, president of the Enoteca del Barolo and mayor of the town as well as himself a producer feels it described a stuck ferm ...EX...Loosen wines were dry until the 1950s as Erni Loosen says his grandfather hated sweet wines as it was a sign of stuck fermentation ...EX...Federico Giotto, a winemaking consultant who counts several organic and biodynamic producers among his clients watches riper plots for VA production and stuck ferm. ...EX...Coutet uses specific yeast to avoid stuck ferm from noble rot. ...EX...Culmina, Canada 2015 fruit with high sugar levels (Gruner 17% potential) got stuck. ROed it to bring down alcohol restarted ferm to finish ...EC1118 tolerance up to 18%, V1116 restart struck ferm *risks* -If you clear settle your juice too much not enough nutrients and stuck. -High sugar -Fermaid K for N to get going if low nutrient -Test for yeast assimilable Nitrogen to prepare Fremaid K for fermentation ...Culmina 25-50ppm SUlfir at crush, over and ferm issues -picking at higher sugar levels, and higher final abvs leads to more risk of stuck ferm -caused by drop in temp, lack of nutrients -Low temp ferm 15C/60F -Strict protection from air -low grape solids (they contain lipids and are necessary for maintaining sustained high yeast cell viability during critical final stage of ferm) -limited Nitrogen (below) -wild yeast (below) -Lactic Acid bacteria strains may grow in early ferm when sulfites have not been added, inhibit yeast -once stopped can throw off hormores to keep it stopped (?) *limited Nitrogen* -Nitrogen a major cause -vy with low nitrogen can lead to too much sugar to nitrogen ratio. Esp Chard and Riesling -lack of nitrogen limits yeast cell development ferm ends when starverd for Nitrogen -can be compounded by fine clear white styles with highly clarified must (desired by winemaker for appearance and low phenolics *Wild Yeast* -an inoculation may be overwhelmed by wild yeast and the wild yeast may have a lower tolerance to alch Wild yeasts, which produce 'killer toxin' (zymocidal yeasts), can be especially aggressive by actively eliminating the sensitive wine yeast *Fixes* - cascade pump over introduces Ox, lifting them back into aerobic mode -slowly blend into vat of already ferm must -Lysozyme, may be added to reduce chance of volatile acidity from lactic bacteria (produced commercially from egg whites. degrades bacterial cell walls. gram positive bacteria affected, lactobacillus preventing and delaying MLF (does not affect gram negative aceto or yeast). -adding back must settlings to increase grape soilds -yeast starter culture -high alch tolerable yeast -propagating yeast with excess air -yeast nutrient -Nitrogen addition as ammonium salt (most commonly diammonium phosphate) -adding nitrogen and allowing some O2 contact once fermenting again -Wild yeast and bacteria risks may be mitigated by using a highly active starter, selecting yeast resistant to killer toxin, and reducing wild micro-organisms (Cool harvesting and processing conditions, and filtration, centrifugation, or pasteurization)

fining agents (2014) (2000) (2010)*

...EX...Purdue Uni Even small changes in pH can significantly alter the protein solubility and thus the wine's bentonite requirements. Protein stability must be reassessed after any treatment that changes the acidity of the wine in question. Especially high pH values likely will lead to increased bentonite demand. Calcium bentonites are not recommended for wines with a pH above 3.4. -Whites, especially short aged typically fined to remove heat unstable proteins haze -Red wine reduces astringent and bitter tannin -Saves money by speeding up clarity, if left would settle naturally. -added to coagulate or adsorb and precipitate quickly the colloids suspended in it -Fining is most effective in removing molecules of colloidal size, which include polymerized tannins, pigmented tannins, other phenolics, and heat-unstable proteins. -Casein, egg, milk, gelatin, isinglass, bentonite clay (organic and inorganic/mineral sources) *Inorganic/Mineral*: -Bentonite: particularly effective in adsorbing certain proteins and, to a limited extent, bacteria. -Silica is less effective. -Kaolin even less. -Charcoal to remove brown colours and some off-odours. -Potassium Ferrocyanide (blue fining), fining agent for removing copper and iron *Organic* -protien/animal based agents remove unstable pigments and tannins -Casein: Precipitated from milk by the addition of acids, casein is chiefly used in the form of sodium or potassium caseinate. When this salt is added to cloudy wine, it reacts with some of the wine acid forming a curd which adsorbs and precipitates most of the very small particles, including the pigments causing discoloration. -Gelatin: trace amounts stay int he wine, useful for precipitating excess tannins as large insoluble molecules which can be removed by filtration -Isinglass: swim bladder of sturgeon, but now fish waste from canneries. It is a pure form of gelatin. Gentle and good clarity. Common in white wine. browning risk, expensive, not veggie not kosher ...EX...Blossom Hill Pinot Grigio -Aussie and NZ must label any allergens ...EX...Davis shows that very low levels of some of the proteinaceous fining agents such as egg whites may remain, but that when bentonite is used no detectable trace of it remains. ...EX Classic Eggs: 2-6 eggs per 225 liter barrel, well stir and let settle for 1-2 months before racking ...EX. Muga, Rioja Spain uses 2-3 per 100 liter of red wine. Fining is done in large oak vats 17,500 liters, bottled after. Dregs used for fertilizers. ...EX. Bordeaux 3-4 eggs per barrel Razun Segla, in barrel and racked off ...EX Ch Moussas experimenting with kelp to support vegan customers ...EX...4-6 months of settling is fining is to be used but not filtering ...EX...Natasha Hughes MW reports 3 producers 'en rama' sherry fined as gentle as possible with egg whites

Sweetness in Wines (2015)*

wines with noticeable amounts of residual sugar which may vary considerably in alcoholic strength and production techniques. *concentration* (cryo, etc) -Botrytis, Ice wine, cryoextraction, dried grapes, late harvest -Botrytis: +1/2 grape's water content is lost due either directly to the action of the fungus or to loss by evaporation as the skins eventually deteriorate. The fungus typically reduces a grape's sugar content by 1/3 but reduces the total acidity by approximately 70%; most of any balancing acidity is more often due to the concentration of acidity in the shrivelled but non-botrytized berries that are harvested, and then fermented, at the same time. -Ice Wine: Picked and crushed removing solid frozen water. Strong varietal purity and freshness. High RS 270 g/l and eventual 9% alcohol stops fermentation. -Cryoextraction: Ice wine in a fridge. Controversial. Used by Sauternes who do not have an ideal vintage. ...EX...Ch Guiraud is adamantly against this practice, even in desperate years. -Dried Grapes: PX Sherry of top quality, reciotto de Soave 130 g/l RS *arresting ferm* -Natural or active -Inexpensive French wine ferment a must relatively high in sugars, between 200 and 250 g/l, until the alcohol level has reached about 11 or 12%, and then add a substantial dose of sulfur dioxide. -Sterile Filtering, Moscato d'Asti 5.5%abv at 110 g/l RS -Mutage by fortification resulting in higher abv 15%+ and RS typically of 100 g/l *Back Sweetening* -Sweet Reserve, Grape concentrate, Rectified Grape Must -The most common method of sweetening basic wine is the addition of some form of sweet grape juice, followed by stabilization -They are best drunk within a year of bottling and within a day or two of opening the bottle ...EX...Gallo RCGM to 35 g/l sugar with steril filtration and bottling ...EX...Fernlands Sauvignon Blanc Marlborough 4 g/l. Some brands up to 6g/l