My Sciences- branch2- Natty Sciences

Genetics and Intelligence

- Behavioral genetics: examines genetic & environmental bases of differences of individuals on psychological traits - Study twins who differ in their degree of relatedness (probability of sharing a gene with others) - Monozygotic, identical twins: develop from the union of the same sperm & egg, 1.0 - Dizygotic, fraternal twins: develop from the union of two sperm with two separate eggs, .5 Heritability of IQ Language Download PDF Watch Edit Learn more This lead section may be too technical for most readers to understand. Please help improve it to make it understandable to non-experts, without removing the technical details. Research on the heritability of IQ inquires into the proportion of variance in IQ that is attributable to genetic variation within a population. "Heritability", in this sense, is a mathematical estimate that indicates an upper bound on how much of a trait's variation within a population can be attributed to genes.[1] There has been significant controversy in the academic community about the heritability of IQ since research on the issue began in the late nineteenth century.[2] Intelligence in the normal range is a polygenic trait, meaning that it is influenced by more than one gene,[3][4] and in the case of intelligence at least 500 genes.[5] Further, explaining the similarity in IQ of closely related persons requires careful study because environmental factors may be correlated with genetic factors. Twin studies of adult individuals have found a heritability of IQ between 57% and 73%[6] with the most recent studies showing heritability for IQ as high as 80%[7] IQ goes from being weakly correlated with genetics, for children, to being strongly correlated with genetics for late teens and adults. The heritability of IQ increases with age and reaches an asymptote at 18-20 years of age and continues at that level well into adulthood. This phenomenon is known as the Wilson Effect.[8] However, poor prenatal environment, malnutrition and disease are known to have lifelong deleterious effects.[9][10]

astronomy

This discipline is the science of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere. It is concerned with the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects, as well as the formation and development of the universe. Astronomy includes the examination, study and modeling of stars, planets, comets, galaxies and the cosmos. Most of the information used by astronomers is gathered by remote observation, although some laboratory reproduction of celestial phenomena has been performed (such as the molecular chemistry of the interstellar medium). While the origins of the study of celestial features and phenomena can be traced back to antiquity, the scientific methodology of this field began to develop in the middle of the 17th century. A key factor was Galileo's introduction of the telescope to examine the night sky in more detail. The mathematical treatment of astronomy began with Newton's development of celestial mechanics and the laws of gravitation, although it was triggered by earlier work of astronomers such as Kepler. By the 19th century, astronomy had developed into a formal science, with the introduction of instruments such as the spectroscope and photography, along with much-improved telescopes and the creation of professional observatories.

cryogenic physics

To produce cold Any material which by its nature or as a result of its reaction with other elements produces a rapid drop in temperature of the immediate surrounding. Cryogenics - cryogenics is the study of the production of very low temperature (below −150 °C, −238 °F or 123K) and the behavior of materials at those temperatures.

zoology-biology

Zoology - study of animals, including classification, physiology, development, and behavior. Subbranches include: Arthropodology - biological discipline concerned with the study of arthropods, a phylum of animals that include the insects, arachnids, crustaceans and others that are characterized by the possession of jointed limbs. Acarology - study of the taxon of arachnids that contains mites and ticks. Arachnology - scientific study of spiders and related animals such as scorpions, pseudoscorpions, harvestmen, collectively called arachnids. Entomology - study of insects. Coleopterology - study of beetles. Lepidopterology - study of a large order of insects that includes moths and butterflies (called lepidopterans). Myrmecology - scientific study of ants. Carcinology - study of crustaceans. Myriapodology - study of centipedes, millipedes, and other myriapods. Ethology - scientific and objective study of animal behaviour, usually with a focus on behaviour under natural conditions. Helminthology - study of worms, especially parasitic worms. Herpetology - study of amphibians (including frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, and gymnophiona) and reptiles (including snakes, lizards, amphisbaenids, turtles, terrapins, tortoises, crocodilians, and the tuataras). Batrachology - subdiscipline of herpetology concerned with the study of amphibians alone. Ichthyology - study of fishes. This includes bony fishes (Osteichthyes), cartilaginous fishes (Chondrichthyes), and jawless fishes (Agnatha). Malacology - branch of invertebrate zoology which deals with the study of the Mollusca (mollusks or molluscs), the second-largest phylum of animals in terms of described species after the arthropods. Teuthology - branch of Malacology which deals with the study of cephalopods. Mammalogy - study of mammals, a class of vertebrates with characteristics such as homeothermic metabolism, fur, four-chambered hearts, and complex nervous systems. Mammalogy has also been known as "mastology," "theriology," and "therology." There are about 4,200 different species of animals which are considered mammals. Cetology - branch of marine mammal science that studies the approximately eighty species of whales, dolphins, and porpoise in the scientific order Cetacea. Primatology - scientific study of primates Human biology — interdisciplinary field studying the range of humans and human populations via biology/life sciences, anthropology/social sciences, applied/medical sciences Biological anthropology - subfield of anthropology that studies the physical morphology, genetics and behavior of the human genus, other hominins and hominids across their evolutionary development Evolutionary psychology - the study of psychological structures from a modern evolutionary perspective. It seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations - that is, the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection in human evolution. Human behavioral ecology - the study of behavioral adaptations (foraging, reproduction, ontogeny) from the evolutionary and ecologic perspectives (see behavioral ecology). It focuses on human adaptive responses (physiological, developmental, genetic) to environmental stresses. Nematology - scientific discipline concerned with the study of nematodes, or roundworms. Ornithology - scientific study of birds.

Archaeogenetics

analysis of ancient and modern DNA Archaeogenetics Language Download PDF Watch Edit Archaeogenetics is the study of ancient DNA using various molecular genetic methods and DNA resources. This form of genetic analysis can be applied to human, animal, and plant specimens. Ancient DNA can be extracted from various fossilized specimens including bones, eggshells, and artificially preserved tissues in human and animal specimens. In plants, Ancient DNA can be extracted from seeds, tissue, and in some cases, feces. Archaeogenetics provides us with genetic evidence of ancient population group migrations,[1] domestication events, and plant and animal evolution.[2] The ancient DNA cross referenced with the DNA of relative modern genetic populations allows researchers to run comparison studies that provide a more complete analysis when ancient DNA is compromised.[3] Archaeogenetics receives its name from the Greek word arkhaios, meaning "ancient", and the term genetics, meaning "the study of heredity".[4] The term archaeogenetics was conceived by archaeologist Colin Renfrew.[5]

atmospheric science

branch of environmental science that includes the study of weather and climate, greenhouse gases, and other airborne pollutants

astrophysics-astronomy

branch of physics dealing with heavenly bodies Astrophysics - branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe, including the physical properties of celestial objects, as well as their interactions and behavior.[1] Among the objects studied are galaxies, stars, planets, exoplanets, the interstellar medium and the cosmic microwave background; and the properties examined include luminosity, density, temperature, and chemical composition. The subdisciplines of theoretical astrophysics are: Compact objects - this subdiscipline studies very dense matter in white dwarfs and neutron stars and their effects on environments including accretion. Physical cosmology - origin and evolution of the universe as a whole. The study of cosmology is theoretical astrophysics at its largest scale. Computational astrophysics - The study of astrophysics using computational methods and tools to develop computational models. Galactic astronomy - deals with the structure and components of our galaxy and of other galaxies. High energy astrophysics - studies phenomena occurring at high energies including active galactic nuclei, supernovae, gamma-ray bursts, quasars, and shocks. Interstellar astrophysics - study of the interstellar medium, intergalactic medium and dust. Extragalactic astronomy - study of objects (mainly galaxies) outside our galaxy, including Galaxy formation and evolution. Stellar astronomy - concerned with Star formation, physical properties, main sequence life span, variability, stellar evolution and extinction. Plasma astrophysics - studies properties of plasma in outer space. Relativistic astrophysics - studies effects of special relativity and general relativity in astrophysical contexts including gravitational waves, gravitational lensing and black holes. Solar physics - Sun and its interaction with the remainder of the Solar System and interstellar space.

classical genetics

functional unit of heredity Classical genetics Language Download PDF Watch Edit Classical genetics is the branch of genetics based solely on visible results of reproductive acts. It is the oldest discipline in the field of genetics, going back to the experiments on Mendelian inheritance by Gregor Mendel who made it possible to identify the basic mechanisms of heredity. Subsequently, these mechanisms have been studied and explained at the molecular level. Classical genetics consists of the techniques and methodologies of genetics that were in use before the advent of molecular biology. A key discovery of classical genetics in eukaryotes was genetic linkage. The observation that some genes do not segregate independently at meiosis broke the laws of Mendelian inheritance, and provided science with a way to map characteristics to a location on the chromosomes. Linkage maps are still used today, especially in breeding for plant improvement.

Atmospheric physics:

is the application of physics to the study of the atmosphere. Atmospheric physicists attempt to model Earth's atmosphere and the atmospheres of the other planets using fluid flow equations, chemical models, radiation balancing, and energy transfer processes in the atmosphere. Atmospheric physics - the study of the application of physics to the atmosphere

geophysics

science treating of the forces that modify the earth Geophysics (/ˌdʒiːoʊˈfɪzɪks/) is a subject of natural science concerned with the physical processes and physical properties of the Earth and its surrounding space environment, and the use of quantitative methods for their analysis. The term geophysics sometimes refers only to geological applications: Earth's shape; its gravitational and magnetic fields; its internal structure and composition; its dynamics and their surface expression in plate tectonics, the generation of magmas, volcanism and rock formation.[3] However, modern geophysics organizations and pure scientists use a broader definition that includes the water cycle including snow and ice; fluid dynamics of the oceans and the atmosphere; electricity and magnetism in the ionosphere and magnetosphere and solar-terrestrial relations; and analogous problems associated with the Moon and other planets.[3][4][5][6][7]

conservation genetics

scientific field that relies on species' genetics to inform conservation efforts Conservation genetics is an interdisciplinary subfield of Population Genetics that aims to understand the dynamics of genes in populations principally to avoid extinction. Therefore, it applies genetic methods to the conservation and restoration of biodiversity. Researchers involved in conservation genetics come from a variety of fields including population genetics, molecular ecology, biology, evolutionary biology, and systematics. Genetic diversity is one of the three fundamental levels of biodiversity, so it is directly important in conservation. Genetic variability influences both the health and long-term survival of populations because decreased genetic diversity has been associated with reduced fitness, such as high juvenile mortality, diminished population growth,[1] reduced immunity,[2] and ultimately, higher extinction risk.[3][4] Genetic diversity Edit Genetic diversity is the variability of genes in a species. A number of means can express the level of genetic diversity: observed heterozygosity, expected heterozygosity, the mean number of alleles per locus, or the percentage of polymorphic loci. Importance of genetic diversity Edit Genetic diversity determines the potential fitness of a population and ultimately its long-term persistence, because genes encode phenotypic information. Extinction risk has been associated with low genetic diversity and several researchers have documented reduced fitness in populations with low genetic diversity. For example, low heterozigosity has been associated with low juvenile survival, reduced population growth, low body size, and diminished adult lifespan.[1][2][5][6][7] Heterozygosity, a fundamental measurement of genetic diversity in population genetics, plays an important role in determining the chance of a population surviving environmental change, novel pathogens not previously encountered, as well as the average fitness of a population over successive generations. Heterozygosity is also deeply connected, in population genetics theory, to population size (which itself clearly has a fundamental importance to conservation). All things being equal, small populations will be less heterozygous - across their whole genomes - than comparable, but larger, populations. This lower heterozygosity (i.e. low genetic diversity) renders small populations more susceptible to the challenges mentioned above.

botany biology

scientist specializing in study of plants Botany - study of plants. Photobiology - scientific study of the interactions of light (technically, non-ionizing radiation) and living organisms. The field includes the study of photosynthesis, photomorphogenesis, visual processing, circadian rhythms, bioluminescence, and ultraviolet radiation effects. Phycology - scientific study of algae. Plant physiology - subdiscipline of botany concerned with the functioning, or physiology, of plants.[1]

four processes-population genetics

selection, dominance, epistasis, mutation

endocrinology

study of hormones, endocrine system Endocrinology Language Download PDF Watch Edit For the academic journal, see Endocrinology (journal). Endocrinology (from endocrine + -ology) is a branch of biology and medicine dealing with the endocrine system, its diseases, and its specific secretions known as hormones. It is also concerned with the integration of developmental events proliferation, growth, and differentiation, and the psychological or behavioral activities of metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sleep, digestion, respiration, excretion, mood, stress, lactation, movement, reproduction, and sensory perception caused by hormones. Specializations include behavioral endocrinology[1][2][3] and comparative endocrinology.

Immunology

study of the immune system Immunology is a branch of biology[1] that covers the study of immune systems[2] in all organisms.[3] Immunology charts, measures, and contextualizes the physiological functioning of the immune system in states of both health and diseases; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders (such as autoimmune diseases,[4] hypersensitivities,[5] immune deficiency,[6] and transplant rejection[7]); and the physical, chemical, and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system in vitro,[8] in situ, and in vivo.[9] Immunology has applications in numerous disciplines of medicine, particularly in the fields of organ transplantation, oncology, rheumatology, virology, bacteriology, parasitology, psychiatry, and dermatology.

Genomics-biology

study of whole genomes, including genes and their functions Genetic testing, also known as DNA testing, is used to identify changes in DNA sequence or chromosome structure. Genetic testing can also include measuring the results of genetic changes, such as RNA analysis as an output of gene expression, or through biochemical analysis to measure specific protein output.[1] In a medical setting, genetic testing can be used to diagnose or rule out suspected genetic disorders, predict risks for specific conditions, or gain information that can be used to customize medical treatments based on an individual's genetic makeup.[1] Genetic testing can also be used to determine biological relatives, such as a child's parentage (genetic mother and father) through DNA paternity testing,[2] or be used to broadly predict an individual's ancestry.[3] Genetic testing of plants and animals can be used for similar reasons as in humans (e.g. to assess relatedness/ancestry or predict/diagnose genetic disorders),[4] to gain information used for selective breeding,[5] or for efforts to boost genetic diversity in endangered populations.[6] The variety of genetic tests has expanded throughout the years. Early forms of genetic testing which began in the 1950s involved counting the number of chromosomes per cell. Deviations from the expected number of chromosomes (46 in humans) could lead to a diagnosis of certain genetic conditions such as trisomy 21 (Down syndrome) or monosomy X (Turner syndrome).[7] In the 1970s, a method to stain specific regions of chromosomes, called chromosome banding, was developed that allowed more detailed analysis of chromosome structure and diagnosis of genetic disorders that involved large structural rearrangements.[8] In addition to analyzing whole chromosomes (cytogenetics), genetic testing has expanded to include the fields of molecular genetics and genomics which can identify changes at the level of individual genes, parts of genes, or even single nucleotide "letters" of DNA sequence.[7] According to the National Institutes of Health, there are tests available for more than 2,000 genetic conditions,[9] and one study estimated that as of 2017 there were more than 75,000 genetic tests on the market.[10

phylogenetics/phylogeny

the analysis of evolutionary, or ancestral, relationships between taxa PhylogeneticsEdit A phylogenetic tree is usually derived from DNA or protein sequences from populations. Often, mitochondrial DNA or Y chromosome sequences are used to study ancient human demographics. These single-locus sources of DNA do not recombine and are almost always inherited from a single parent, with only one known exception in mtDNA.[3] Individuals from closer geographic regions generally tend to be more similar than individuals from regions farther away. Distance on a phylogenetic tree can be used approximately to indicate: Genetic distance. The genetic difference between humans and chimpanzees is less than 2%,[4] or three times larger than the variation among modern humans (estimated at 0.6%).[5] Temporal remoteness of the most recent common ancestor. The mitochondrial most recent common ancestor of modern humans is estimated to have lived roughly 160,000 years ago,[6] the latest common ancestors of humans and chimpanzees roughly 5 to 6 million years ago.[7] Speciation of humans and the African apesEdit The separation of humans from their closest relatives, the non-human apes (chimpanzees and gorillas), has been studied extensively for more than a century. Five major questions have been addressed: Which apes are our closest ancestors? When did the separations occur? What was the effective population size of the common ancestor before the split? Are there traces of population structure (subpopulations) preceding the speciation or partial admixture succeeding it? What were the specific events (including fusion of chromosomes 2a and 2b) prior to and subsequent to the separation?

nuclear physics

the branch of physics concerned with the properties and structure of the atomic nucleus Nuclear physics - field of physics that studies the building blocks and interactions of atomic nuclei

Biophysics

the branch of physics that deals with living matter Biophysics - interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of physics to study biological systems Neurophysics - branch of biophysics dealing with the nervous system. Polymer physics - field of physics that studies polymers, their fluctuations, mechanical properties, as well as the kinetics of reactions involving degradation and polymerization of polymers and monomers respectively. Quantum biology - application of quantum mechanics to biological phenomenon.

Biophysics

the branch of physics that deals with living matter Biophysics - study of biological processes through the methods traditionally used in the physical sciences Biomechanics - the study of the mechanics of living beings. Neurophysics - study of the development of the nervous system on a molecular level. Quantum biology - application of quantum mechanics and theoretical chemistry to biological objects and problems. Virophysics - study of mechanics and dynamics driving the interactions between virus and cells

particle physics

the branch of physics that deals with the basic constituents of matter and the relationships among them Particle physics - the branch of physics that studies the properties and interactions of the fundamental constituents of matter and energy

analytical chemistry

the identification of the components and composition of materials Analytical chemistry - analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry

Archaeoastronomy-astronomy

the investigation of the astronomical knowledge of prehistoric cultures. Archaeoastronomy (also spelled archeoastronomy) is the interdisciplinary[1] or multidisciplinary[2] study of how people in the past "have understood the phenomena in the sky, how they used these phenomena and what role the sky played in their cultures".[3] Clive Ruggles argues it is misleading to consider archaeoastronomy to be the study of ancient astronomy, as modern astronomy is a scientific discipline, while archaeoastronomy considers symbolically rich cultural interpretations of phenomena in the sky by other cultures.[4][5] It is often twinned with ethnoastronomy, the anthropological study of skywatching in contemporary societies. Archaeoastronomy is also closely associated with historical astronomy, the use of historical records of heavenly events to answer astronomical problems and the history of astronomy, which uses written records to evaluate past astronomical practice.

Earth Science

the science that focuses on planet Earth and its place in the universe Earth scienceEdit Main articles: Earth science and Outline of Earth sciences § Branches of Earth science Earth science (also known as geoscience), is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth, including geology, geophysics, geochemistry, climatology, glaciology, hydrology, meteorology, and oceanography. Although mining and precious stones have been human interests throughout the history of civilization, the development of the related sciences of economic geology and mineralogy did not occur until the 18th century. The study of the earth, particularly palaeontology, blossomed in the 19th century. The growth of other disciplines, such as geophysics, in the 20th century, led to the development of the theory of plate tectonics in the 1960s, which has had a similar effect on the Earth sciences as the theory of evolution had on biology. Earth sciences today are closely linked to petroleum and mineral resources, climate research and to environmental assessment and remediation.

Biology

the scientific study of life BiologyEdit Main articles: Biology and Outline of biology § Branches of biology Onion (Allium) cells in different phases of the cell cycle. Growth in an 'organism' is carefully controlled by regulating the cell cycle. This field encompasses a diverse set of disciplines that examines phenomena related to living organisms. The scale of study can range from sub-component biophysics up to complex ecologies. Biology is concerned with the characteristics, classification and behaviors of organisms, as well as how species were formed and their interactions with each other and the environment. The biological fields of botany, zoology, and medicine date back to early periods of civilization, while microbiology was introduced in the 17th century with the invention of the microscope. However, it was not until the 19th century that biology became a unified science. Once scientists discovered commonalities between all living things, it was decided they were best studied as a whole.

Earth Science

the study of earth and space Outline of Earth sciences Language Download PDF Watch Edit See also: Index of Earth science articles The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Earth science: Diagram of the structure of the Earth including its atmosphere Earth science - all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth.[1] It is also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth sciences, and is arguably a special case in planetary science, the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet. Earth science is a branch of the physical sciences which is a part of the natural sciences. It in turn has many branches.

chronobiology

the study of forces that control the body at different times of the day, month, or year Chronobiology - field of biology that examines periodic (cyclic) phenomena in living organisms and their adaptation to solar- and lunar-related rhythms. Dendrochronology - study of tree rings, using them to date the exact year they were formed in order to analyze atmospheric conditions during different periods in natural history.

microbial genetics

the study of how microbes inherit traits Microbial genetics is a subject area within microbiology and genetic engineering. Microbial genetics studies microorganisms for different purposes. The microorganisms that are observed are bacteria, and archaea. Some fungi and protozoa are also subjects used to study in this field. The studies of microorganisms involve studies of genotype and expression system. Genotypes are the inherited compositions of an organism. (Austin, "Genotype," n.d.) Genetic Engineering is a field of work and study within microbial genetics.[1] The usage of recombinant DNA technology is a process of this work.[1] The process involves creating recombinant DNA molecules through manipulating a DNA sequence.[1] That DNA created is then in contact with a host organism. Cloning is also an example of genetic engineering.[1] Since the discovery of microorganisms by Robert Hooke and Antoni van Leeuwenhoek during the period 1665-1885[2] they have been used to study many processes and have had applications in various areas of study in genetics. For example: Microorganisms' rapid growth rates and short generation times are used by scientists to study evolution. Robert Hooke and Antoni van Leeuwenhoek discoveries involved depictions, observations, and descriptions of microorganisms.[3] Mucor is the microfungus that Hooke presented and gave a depiction of.[4] His contribution being, Mucor as the first microorganism to be illustrated. Antoni van Leeuwenhoek's contribution to the microscopic protozoa and microscopic bacteria yielded to scientific observations and descriptions.[4] These contributions were accomplished by a simple microscope, which led to the understanding of microbes today and continues to progress scientists understanding.

Astrobiology-Astronomy

the study of life in the universe, including life on Earth and the possibility of extraterrestrial life Astrobiology - studies the advent and evolution of biological systems in the universe.

Astrobiology-biology

the study of life in the universe, including life on Earth and the possibility of extraterrestrial life Astrobiology - study of origin, early-evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe. Also known as exobiology, and bioastronomy.

Psychophysics

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

materials science-natty science interdisciplinary

the study of the characteristics and uses of materials in science and technology Materials science is a relatively new, interdisciplinary field which deals with the study of matter and its properties; as well as the discovery and design of new materials. Originally developed through the field of metallurgy, the study of the properties of materials and solids has now expanded into all materials. The field covers the chemistry, physics and engineering applications of materials including metals, ceramics, artificial polymers, and many others. The core of the field deals with relating structure of material with it properties. It is at the forefront of research in science and engineering. It is an important part of forensic engineering (the investigation of materials, products, structures or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property) and failure analysis, the latter being the key to understanding, for example, the cause of various aviation accidents. Many of the most pressing scientific problems that are faced today are due to the limitations of the materials that are available and, as a result, breakthroughs in this field are likely to have a significant impact on the future of technology. The basis of materials science involves studying the structure of materials, and relating them to their properties. Once a materials scientist knows about this structure-property correlation, they can then go on to study the relative performance of a material in a certain application. The major determinants of the structure of a material and thus of its properties are its constituent chemical elements and the way in which it has been processed into its final form. These characteristics, taken together and related through the laws of thermodynamics and kinetics, govern a material's microstructure, and thus its properties

behavioral genetics

the study of the effects of heredity on behavior Genetics - study of genes and heredity. Behavioral genetics - study of genetic and environmental influences on behaviors

Condensed Matter Physics

the study of the properties of matter in the solid and liquid states Condensed matter physics - the study of the physical properties of condensed phases of matter.

mechanics physics

theories. Mechanics - the branch of physics concerned with the behavior of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment. Aerodynamics - study of the motion of air. Biomechanics - the study of the structure and function of biological systems such as humans, animals, plants, organs, and cells using the methods of mechanics. Classical mechanics - one of the two major sub-fields of mechanics, which is concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion of bodies under the action of a system of forces. Kinematics - branch of classical mechanics that describes the motion of points, bodies (objects) and systems of bodies (groups of objects) without consideration of the causes of motion.[6][7][8] Homeokinetics - the physics of complex, self-organizing systems Continuum mechanics - the branch of mechanics that deals with the analysis of the kinematics and the mechanical behavior of materials modeled as a continuous mass rather than as discrete particles. Dynamics - the study of the causes of motion and changes in motion Fluid mechanics - the study of fluids and the forces on them. Fluid statics - study of fluids at rest Fluid kinematics - study of fluids in motion Fluid dynamics - study of the effect of forces on fluid motion Statics - the branch of mechanics concerned with the analysis of loads (force, torque/moment) on physical systems in static equilibrium, that is, in a state where the relative positions of subsystems do not vary over time, or where components and structures are at a constant velocity.

medical genetics

treats inherited diseases and disorders Medical genetics Language Download PDF Watch Edit "Clinical genetics" redirects here. For the journal, see Clinical Genetics (journal). For a non-technical introduction to the topic, see Introduction to genetics. Medical genetics is the branch of medicine that involves the diagnosis and management of hereditary disorders. Medical genetics differs from human genetics in that human genetics is a field of scientific research that may or may not apply to medicine, while medical genetics refers to the application of genetics to medical care. For example, research on the causes and inheritance of genetic disorders would be considered within both human genetics and medical genetics, while the diagnosis, management, and counselling people with genetic disorders would be considered part of medical genetics.

Dendochronology

tree ring dating Dendrochronology Language Download PDF Watch Edit Dendrochronology (or tree-ring dating) is the scientific method of dating tree rings (also called growth rings) to the exact year they were formed. As well as dating them this can give data for dendroclimatology, the study of climate and atmospheric conditions during different periods in history from wood. Dendrochronology derives from Ancient Greek dendron (δένδρον), meaning "tree", khronos (χρόνος), meaning "time", and -logia (-λογία), "the study of".[1] Drill for dendrochronology sampling and growth ring counting The growth rings of a tree at Bristol Zoo, England. Each ring represents one year; the outside rings, near the bark, are the youngest Dendrochronology is useful for determining the precise age of samples, especially those that are too recent for radiocarbon dating, which always produces a range rather than an exact date. However, for a precise date of the death of the tree a full sample to the edge is needed, which most trimmed timber will not provide. It also gives data on the timing of events and rates of change in the environment (most prominently climate) and also in wood found in archaeology or works of art and architecture, such as old panel paintings. It is also used as a check in radiocarbon dating to calibrate radiocarbon ages

electricity-physics

A form of energy used in telegraphy from the 1840s on and for lighting, industrial motors, and railroads beginning in the 1880s. Electricity Language Download PDF Watch Edit For other uses, see Electricity (disambiguation). "Electric" redirects here. For other uses, see Electric (disambiguation). Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and motion of matter that has a property of electric charge. Electricity is related to magnetism, both being part of the phenomenon of electromagnetism, as described by Maxwell's equations. Various common phenomena are related to electricity, including lightning, static electricity, electric heating, electric discharges and many others. Lightning is one of the most dramatic effects of electricity. The presence of an electric charge, which can be either positive or negative, produces an electric field. The movement of electric charges is an electric current and produces a magnetic field. When a charge is placed in a location with a non-zero electric field, a force will act on it. The magnitude of this force is given by Coulomb's law. If the charge moves, the electric field would be doing work on the electric charge. Thus we can speak of electric potential at a certain point in space, which is equal to the work done by an external agent in carrying a unit of positive charge from an arbitrarily chosen reference point to that point without any acceleration and is typically measured in volts. Electricity is at the heart of many modern technologies, being used for: electric power where electric current is used to energise equipment; electronics which deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies. Electrical phenomena have been studied since antiquity, though progress in theoretical understanding remained slow until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The theory of electromagnetism was developed in the 19th century, and by the end of that century electricity was being put to industrial and residential use by electrical engineers. The rapid expansion in electrical technology at this time transformed industry and society, becoming a driving force for the Second Industrial Revolution. Electricity's extraordinary versatility means it can be put to an almost limitless set of applications which include transport, heating, lighting, communications, and computation. Electrical power is now the backbone of modern industrial society.[1]

relativity-physics

A scientific theory associated with Albert Einstein. Relativity holds that time and space do not exist separately. Instead, they are a combined continuum whose measurement depends as much on the observer as on the entities being measured. the absence of standards of absolute and universal application. Relativity - theory of physics which describes the relationship between space and time. General Relativity - the geometric theory of gravitation the current description of gravitation in modern physics. Special Relativity - a theory that describes the propagation of matter and light at high speeds.

agrophysics

Agrophysics - the study of physics applied to agroecosystems Soil physics - the study of soil physical properties and processes

systems biology

An approach to studying biology that aims to model the dynamic behavior of whole biological systems based on a study of the interactions among the system's parts. Systems biology Language Download PDF Watch Edit Systems biology is the computational and mathematical analysis and modeling of complex biological systems. It is a biology-based interdisciplinary field of study that focuses on complex interactions within biological systems, using a holistic approach (holism instead of the more traditional reductionism) to biological research.[1] When it is crossing the field of systems theory and the applied mathematics methods, it develops into the sub-branch of complex systems biology. An illustration of the systems approach to biology Particularly from year 2000 onwards, the concept has been used widely in biology in a variety of contexts. The Human Genome Project is an example of applied systems thinking in biology which has led to new, collaborative ways of working on problems in the biological field of genetics.[2] One of the aims of systems biology is to model and discover emergent properties, properties of cells, tissues and organisms functioning as a system whose theoretical description is only possible using techniques of systems biology.[3][1] These typically involve metabolic networks or cell signaling networks.[

astronomy-as in its place in the natural sciences

Astronomy - studies the universe beyond Earth, including its formation and development, and the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects (such as galaxies, planets, etc.) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as the cosmic background radiation).

Astronomy-physics

Astronomy - studies the universe beyond Earth, including its formation and development, and the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects (such as galaxies, planets, etc.) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as the cosmic background radiation). Astrodynamics - application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft. Astrometry - the branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars and other celestial bodies. Astrophysics - the study of the physical aspects of celestial objects Celestial mechanics - the branch of theoretical astronomy that deals with the calculation of the motions of celestial objects such as planets. Extragalactic astronomy - the branch of astronomy concerned with objects outside our own Milky Way Galaxy Galactic astronomy - the study of our own Milky Way galaxy and all its contents. Physical cosmology - the study of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the universe and is concerned with fundamental questions about its formation and evolution. Planetary science - the scientific study of planets (including Earth), moons, and planetary systems, in particular those of the Solar System and the processes that form them. Stellar astronomy - natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, nebulae, star clusters, and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as cosmic background radiation)

Astronomy-divided by general technique used for astronomical research:

Astronomy divided by general technique used for astronomical research: Astrometry - study of the position of objects in the sky and their changes of position. Defines the system of coordinates used and the kinematics of objects in our galaxy. Observational astronomy - practice of observing celestial objects by using telescopes and other astronomical apparatus. It is concerned with recording data. The subdisciplines of observational astronomy are generally made by the specifications of the detectors: Radio astronomy - Above 300 µm Submillimetre astronomy - 200 µm to 1 mm Infrared astronomy - 0.7-350 µm Optical astronomy - 380-750 nm Ultraviolet astronomy - 10-320 nm X-ray astronomy - 0.01-10 nm Gamma-ray astronomy - Below 0.01 nm Cosmic ray astronomy - Cosmic rays, including plasma Neutrino astronomy - Neutrinos Gravitational wave astronomy - Gravitons Photometry - study of how bright celestial objects are when passed through different filters Spectroscopy - study of the spectra of astronomical objects

atmospheric science-earth science

Atmospheric scienceEdit Atmospheric sciences - The study of the atmosphere, its processes, and interactions with other systems Climatology - The scientific study of climate, defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time Paleoclimatology - The study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth Atmospheric chemistry - The branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the atmosphere is studied Atmospheric physics - The application of physics to the study of the atmosphere Paleotempestology - The study of past tropical cyclone activity using geological proxies and historical documents

atomic molecular optical phyics

Atomic, molecular, and optical physics - the study of how matter and light interact Optics - the branch of physics which involves the behavior and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it.

Bio technology

Biotechnology - new and sometimes controversial branch of biology that studies the manipulation of living matter, including genetic modification and synthetic biology. Bioinformatics - use of information technology for the study, collection, and storage of genomic and other biological data. Bioengineering - study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology. Synthetic biology - research integrating biology and engineering; construction of biological functions not found in nature

Epidemiology

Branch of medical science concerned with the incidence, distribution, and control of diseases that affect large numbers of people. Epidemiology is the study and analysis of the distribution (who, when, and where), patterns and determinants of health and disease conditions in defined populations. It is a cornerstone of public health, and shapes policy decisions and evidence-based practice by identifying risk factors for disease and targets for preventive healthcare. Epidemiologists help with study design, collection, and statistical analysis of data, amend interpretation and dissemination of results (including peer review and occasional systematic review). Epidemiology has helped develop methodology used in clinical research, public health studies, and, to a lesser extent, basic research in the biological sciences.[1] Major areas of epidemiological study include disease causation, transmission, outbreak investigation, disease surveillance, environmental epidemiology, forensic epidemiology, occupational epidemiology, screening, biomonitoring, and comparisons of treatment effects such as in clinical trials. Epidemiologists rely on other scientific disciplines like biology to better understand disease processes, statistics to make efficient use of the data and draw appropriate conclusions, social sciences to better understand proximate and distal causes, and engineering for exposure assessment.

cell biology

Cell biology - study of the cell as a complete unit, and the molecular and chemical interactions that occur within a living cell. Histology - study of the anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals using microscopy

chemical physics

Chemical physics - the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from physics

computational physics

Computational physics - study and implementation of numerical algorithms to solve problems in physics for which a quantitative theory already exists

Genetic Epidemiology

Deals with the etiology, distribution, and control of disease in groups of relatives, and with inherited causes of disease in populations. the study of the role of genetic factors in determining health and disease in families and in populations Genetic epidemiology Archaeogenetics Archaeogenetics of the Near East

Ecolgy

Ecology - study of the interactions of living organisms with one another and with the non-living elements of their environment

other physics

Econophysics - interdisciplinary research field, applying theories and methods originally developed by physicists to solve problems in economics Materials physics - use of physics to describe materials in many different ways such as force, heat, light, and mechanics. Vehicle dynamics - dynamics of vehicles, here assumed to be ground vehicles

electromagnetism-physics

Electromagnetism is a branch of physics involving the study of the electromagnetic force, a type of physical interaction that occurs between electrically charged particles. The electromagnetic force is carried by electromagnetic fields composed of electric fields and magnetic fields, and it is responsible for electromagnetic radiation such as light. It is one of the four fundamental interactions (commonly called forces) in nature, together with the strong interaction, the weak interaction, and gravitation.[1] At high energy the weak force and electromagnetic force are unified as a single electroweak force. Lightning is an electrostatic discharge that travels between two charged regions. Electromagnetic phenomena are defined in terms of the electromagnetic force, sometimes called the Lorentz force, which includes both electricity and magnetism as different manifestations of the same phenomenon. The electromagnetic force plays a major role in determining the internal properties of most objects encountered in daily life. The electromagnetic attraction between atomic nuclei and their orbital electrons holds atoms together. Electromagnetic forces are responsible for the chemical bonds between atoms which create molecules, and intermolecular forces. The electromagnetic force governs all chemical processes, which arise from interactions between the electrons of neighboring atoms. There are numerous mathematical descriptions of the electromagnetic field. In classical electrodynamics, electric fields are described as electric potential and electric current. In Faraday's law, magnetic fields are associated with electromagnetic induction and magnetism, and Maxwell's equations describe how electric and magnetic fields are generated and altered by each other and by charges and currents.

Evoluntionary biology

Evolutionary biology - study of the origin and descent of species over time. Evolutionary developmental biology - field of biology that compares the developmental processes of different organisms to determine the ancestral relationship between them, and to discover how developmental processes evolved. Paleobiology - discipline which combines the methods and findings of the natural science biology with the methods and findings of the earth science paleontology. Paleoanthropology - the study of fossil evidence for human evolution, mainly using remains from extinct hominin and other primate species to determine the morphological and behavioral changes in the human lineage, as well as the environment in which human evolution occurred. Paleobotany - study of fossil plants. Paleontology - study of fossils and sometimes geographic evidence of prehistoric life. Paleopathology - the study of pathogenic conditions observable in bones or mummified soft tissue, and on nutritional disorders, variation in stature or morphology of bones over time, evidence of physical trauma, or evidence of occupationally derived biomechanic stress.

genetic testing

Genetic testing, also known as DNA testing, is used to identify changes in DNA sequence or chromosome structure. Genetic testing can also include measuring the results of genetic changes, such as RNA analysis as an output of gene expression, or through biochemical analysis to measure specific protein output.[1] In a medical setting, genetic testing can be used to diagnose or rule out suspected genetic disorders, predict risks for specific conditions, or gain information that can be used to customize medical treatments based on an individual's genetic makeup.[1] Genetic testing can also be used to determine biological relatives, such as a child's parentage (genetic mother and father) through DNA paternity testing,[2] or be used to broadly predict an individual's ancestry.[3] Genetic testing of plants and animals can be used for similar reasons as in humans (e.g. to assess relatedness/ancestry or predict/diagnose genetic disorders),[4] to gain information used for selective breeding,[5] or for efforts to boost genetic diversity in endangered populations.[6] The variety of genetic tests has expanded throughout the years. Early forms of genetic testing which began in the 1950s involved counting the number of chromosomes per cell. Deviations from the expected number of chromosomes (46 in humans) could lead to a diagnosis of certain genetic conditions such as trisomy 21 (Down syndrome) or monosomy X (Turner syndrome).[7] In the 1970s, a method to stain specific regions of chromosomes, called chromosome banding, was developed that allowed more detailed analysis of chromosome structure and diagnosis of genetic disorders that involved large structural rearrangements.[8] In addition to analyzing whole chromosomes (cytogenetics), genetic testing has expanded to include the fields of molecular genetics and genomics which can identify changes at the level of individual genes, parts of genes, or even single nucleotide "letters" of DNA sequence.[7] According to the National Institutes of Health, there are tests available for more than 2,000 genetic conditions,[9] and one study estimated that as of 2017 there were more than 75,000 genetic tests on the market.[10

genetic biology

Genetics - study of genes and heredity. Behavioral genetics - study of genetic and environmental influences on behaviors

Geography-earth science

GeographyEdit Geography - The science that studies the terrestrial surface, the societies that inhabit it and the territories, landscapes, places or regions that form it. Physical geography - The branch of natural science which deals with the study of processes and patterns in the natural environment such as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and geosphere, as opposed to the cultural or built environment, the domain of human geography Human geography - The study of cultures, communities and activities of peoples of the world Geostatistics - A branch of statistics focusing on spatial data sets Environmental chemistry - The scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places Environmental soil science - The study of the interaction of humans with the pedosphere as well as critical aspects of the biosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere. Environmental geology - An applied science concerned with the practical application of the principles of geology in the solving of environmental problems. Geographic information systems - System to capture, manage and present geographic data Edaphology - The science concerned with the influence of soils on living things Pedology - The study of soils in their natural environment Geomorphology - The scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them Spatial decision support systems - Computerised aid to land use decisions Global Positioning System (GPS) - American satellite navigation system Economic geology - Science concerned with earth materials of economic value Engineering geology - The application of the geology to engineering practice Hydrology - The science of applying engineering techniques to the properties of the earth's water, especially its movement in relation to land. Meteorology - Interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere focusing on weather forecasting Satellite navigation - Any system that uses satellite radio signals to provide autonomous geo-spatial positioning Remote sensing - Acquisition of information at a significant distance from the subject Photogrammetry - The science of making measurements using photography

geology-earth science

GeologyEdit Geology - The study of the composition, structure, physical properties, and history of Earth's components, and the processes by which they are shaped. Environmental geology - Science of the practical application of geology in environmental problems. Quaternary geology - The branch of geology that studies developments more recent than 2.6 million years ago Planetary geology - The geology of astronomical objects apparently in orbit around stellar objects Petroleum geology - The study of the origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and exploration of hydrocarbon fuels Historical geology - The study of the geological history of Earth Hydrogeology - The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater Structural geology - The science of the description and interpretation of deformation in the earth's crust independent of extent Geochemistry - Science that applies chemistry to analyse geological systems Geochronology - Science of determining the age of rocks, sediments and fossils Geodesy - The science of the geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravitational field of the Earth Geomagnetics - Study of the Earth's magnetic field Geomicrobiology - Science of the interactions between microbiology and geology Glaciology - Scientific study of ice and natural phenomena involving ice Geophysics - The physics of the Earth and its environment in space, and the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods Micropaleontology - The branch of paleontology that studies microfossils Mineralogy - Scientific study of minerals and mineralised artifacts Gemology - Science dealing with natural and artificial gemstone materials Mineral physics - The science of materials that compose the interior of planets Paleontology - Scientific study of prehistoric life Palynology - The study of dust Petrology - The branch of geology that studies the origin, composition, distribution and structure of rocks Physical geodesy - The study of the physical properties of the Earth's gravity field Sedimentology - The study of natural sediments and of the processes by which they are formed Seismology - The scientific study of earthquakes and propagation of elastic waves through a planet Paleoseismology - The study of earthquakes that happened in the past Stratigraphy - The study of rock layers and their formation Volcanology - The study of volcanoes, lava, magma and associated phenomena

human mitochondrial genetics

Has 13 protein-coding genes, 22 tRNA genes, 2 rRNA genes, and ori. Has its own circular DNA Human mitochondrial genetics Language Download PDF Watch Edit Human mitochondrial genetics is the study of the genetics of human mitochondrial DNA (the DNA contained in human mitochondria). The human mitochondrial genome is the entirety of hereditary information contained in human mitochondria. Mitochondria are small structures in cells that generate energy for the cell to use, and are hence referred to as the "powerhouses" of the cell.

human evolutionary genetics-himan gen-bio

Human evolutionary genetics Language Download PDF Watch Edit Human evolutionary genetics studies how one human genome differs from another human genome, the evolutionary past that gave rise to the human genome, and its current effects. Differences between genomes have anthropological, medical, historical and forensic implications and applications. Genetic data can provide important insights into human evolution. Origin of apes Biologists classify humans, along with only a few other species, as great apes (species in the family Hominidae). The living Hominidae include two distinct species of chimpanzee (the bonobo, Pan paniscus, and the common chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes), two species of gorilla (the western gorilla, Gorilla gorilla, and the eastern gorilla, Gorilla graueri), and two species of orangutan (the Bornean orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus, and the Sumatran orangutan, Pongo abelii). The great apes with the family Hylobatidae of gibbons form the superfamily Hominoidea of apes. Apes, in turn, belong to the primate order (>400 species), along with the Old World monkeys, the New World monkeys, and others. Data from both mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and nuclear DNA (nDNA) indicate that primates belong to the group of Euarchontoglires, together with Rodentia, Lagomorpha, Dermoptera, and Scandentia.[1] This is further supported by Alu-like short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) which have been found only in members of the Euarchontoglires.[2]

inorganic chemistry

Inorganic chemistry - study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry. Bioinorganic chemistry Cluster chemistry Materials chemistry - preparation, characterization, and understanding of substances with a useful function. The field is a new breadth of study in graduate programs, and it integrates elements from all classical areas of chemistry with a focus on fundamental issues that are unique to materials. Primary systems of study include the chemistry of condensed phases (solids, liquids, polymers) and interfaces between different phases.

Quantam Physics

Laws of nature are not entirely certain, implying that analyses of nature ultimately can arrive at only probabilities and predictions. Quantum physics - branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena where the action is on the order of the Planck constant

mathematical and theoretical biology

Mathematical and theoretical biology Language Download PDF Watch Edit Mathematical and theoretical biology is a branch of biology which employs theoretical analysis, mathematical models and abstractions of the living organisms to investigate the principles that govern the structure, development and behavior of the systems, as opposed to experimental biology which deals with the conduction of experiments to prove and validate the scientific theories.[1] The field is sometimes called mathematical biology or biomathematics to stress the mathematical side, or theoretical biology to stress the biological side.[2] Theoretical biology focuses more on the development of theoretical principles for biology while mathematical biology focuses on the use of mathematical tools to study biological systems, even though the two terms are sometimes interchanged.[3][4] Yellow chamomile head showing the Fibonacci numbers in spirals consisting of 21 (blue) and 13 (aqua). Such arrangements have been noticed since the Middle Ages and can be used to make mathematical models of a wide variety of plants. Mathematical biology aims at the mathematical representation and modeling of biological processes, using techniques and tools of applied mathematics and it can be useful in both theoretical and practical research. Describing systems in a quantitative manner means their behavior can be better simulated, and hence properties can be predicted that might not be evident to the experimenter. This requires precise mathematical models. Because of the complexity of the living systems, theoretical biology employs several fields of mathematics,[5] and has contributed to the development of new techniques.

Mathematical Physics

Mathematical physics refers to the development of mathematical methods for application to problems in physics. The Journal of Mathematical Physics defines the field as "the application of mathematics to problems in physics and the development of mathematical methods suitable for such applications and for the formulation of physical theories".[1]

molecular biology

Molecular biology - study of biology and biological functions at the molecular level, with some cross over from biochemistry. Structural biology - a branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules. Molecular biology - study of biology and biological functions at the molecular level, with some cross over from biochemistry. Structural biology - a branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules.

molecular genetics

Molecular genetics Language Download PDF Watch Edit For a non-technical introduction to the topic, see Introduction to genetics. Learn more This article needs additional citations for verification. Molecular genetics is a sub-field of biology that addresses how differences in the structures or expression of DNA molecules manifests as variation among organisms. Molecular genetics often applies an "investigative approach" to determine the structure and/or function of genes in an organism's genome using genetic screens.[1][2] The field of study is based on the merging of several sub-fields in biology: classical Mendelian inheritance, cellular biology, molecular biology, biochemistry, and biotechnology. Researchers search for mutations in a gene or induce mutations in a gene to link a gene sequence to a specific phenotype. Molecular genetics is a powerful methodology for linking mutations to genetic conditions that may aid the search for treatments/cures for various genetics diseases.

Neuroscience-biology

Neuroscience - study of the nervous system, including anatomy, physiology and emergent proprieties. Cellular neuroscience - study of neurons at a cellular level. Cognitive neuroscience - study of biological substrates underlying cognition, with a focus on the neural substrates of mental processes. Computational neuroscience - study of the information processing functions of the nervous system, and the use of digital computers to study the nervous system. Developmental neuroscience - study of the cellular basis of brain development and addresses the underlying mechanisms. Molecular neuroscience - studies the biology of the nervous system with molecular biology, molecular genetics, protein chemistry and related methodologies. Neuroanatomy - study of the anatomy of nervous tissue and neural structures of the nervous system. Neuroendocrinology - studies the interaction between the nervous system and the endocrine system, that is how the brain regulates the hormonal activity in the body. Neuroethology - study of animal behavior and its underlying mechanistic control by the nervous system. Neuroimmunology - study of the nervous system, and immunology, the study of the immune system. Neuropharmacology - study of how drugs affect cellular function in the nervous system. Neurophysiology - study of the function (as opposed to structure) of the nervous system. Neuropsychology - studies the structure and function of the brain related to psychological processes and behaviors. The term is used most frequently with reference to studies of the effects of brain damage in humans and animals. Systems neuroscience - studies the function of neural circuits and systems. It is an umbrella term, encompassing a number of areas of study concerned with how nerve cells behave when connected together to form neural networks.

nuclear chemistry

Nuclear chemistry - study of how subatomic particles come together and make nuclei. Modern Transmutation is a large component of nuclear chemistry, and the table of nuclides is an important result and tool for this field

oceanography-earth science

OceanographyEdit Oceanography - The study of the physical and biological aspects of the ocean Biological oceanography - The study of how organisms affect and are affected by the physics, chemistry, and geology of the oceanographic system. Physical oceanography - The study of physical conditions and physical processes within the ocean Chemical oceanography - The study of ocean chemistry Paleoceanography - The study of the history of the oceans in the geologic past Limnology - The science of inland aquatic ecosystems Marine geology - The study of the history and structure of the ocean floor

organic chemistry

Organic chemistry (outline) - study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and reactions of organic compounds. An organic compound is defined as any compound based on a carbon skeleton. Biochemistry - study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and chemical interactions that take place in living organisms. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related, as in medicinal chemistry or neurochemistry. Biochemistry is also associated with molecular biology and genetics. Neurochemistry - study of neurochemicals; including transmitters, peptides, proteins, lipids, sugars, and nucleic acids; their interactions, and the roles they play in forming, maintaining, and modifying the nervous system. Molecular biochemistry and genetic engineering -an area of biochemistry and molecular biology that studies the genes, their heritage and their expression. Bioorganic chemistry - combines organic chemistry and biochemistry toward biology. Biophysical chemistry - is a physical science that uses the concepts of physics and physical chemistry for the study of biological systems. Medicinal chemistry - discipline which applies chemistry for medical or drug related purposes. Organometallic chemistry - is the study of organometallic compounds, chemical compounds containing at least one chemical bond between a carbon atom of an organic molecule and a metal, including alkaline, alkaline earth, and transition metals, and sometimes broadened to include metalloids like boron, silicon, and tin. Physical organic chemistry - study of the interrelationships between structure and reactivity in organic molecules. Polymer chemistry - multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules. Click chemistry

chemistry-other

Other Astrochemistry - study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation. Cosmochemistry - study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions. Computational chemistry Environmental chemistry - study of chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur diverse aspects of the environment such the air, soil, and water. It also studies the effects of human activity on the environment. Green chemistry is a philosophy of chemical research and engineering that encourages the design of products and processes that minimize the use and generation of hazardous substances. Supramolecular chemistry - refers to the domain of chemistry beyond that of molecules and focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components. Theoretical chemistry - study of chemistry via fundamental theoretical reasoning (usually within mathematics or physics). In particular the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called quantum chemistry. Since the end of the Second World War, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of computational chemistry, which is the art of developing and applying computer programs for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with (theoretical and experimental) condensed matter physics and molecular physics. Wet chemistry Agrochemistry - study and application of both chemistry and biochemistry for agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and environmental monitoring and remediation. Atmospheric chemistry - branch of atmospheric science which studies the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets. Chemical engineering - branch of engineering that applies the physical sciences (e.g., chemistry and physics) and/or life sciences (e.g., biology, microbiology and biochemistry) together with mathematics and economics to processes that convert raw materials or chemicals into more useful or valuable forms. Chemical biology - scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology and involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to analyze and manipulation of biological systems. Chemo-informatics - use of computer and informational techniques applied to a range of problems in the field of chemistry. Flow chemistry - study of chemical reactions in continuous flow, not as stationary batches, in industry and macroprocessing equipment. Immunohistochemistry - involves the process of detecting antigens (e.g., proteins) in cells of a tissue section by exploiting the principle of antibodies binding specifically to antigens in biological tissues. Immunochemistry - is a branch of chemistry that involves the study of the reactions and components on the immune system. Chemical oceanography - study of ocean chemistry: the behavior of the chemical elements within the Earth's oceans Materials science - is an interdisciplinary field investigating the relationship between the structure of materials at atomic or molecular scales and their macroscopic properties. Mathematical chemistry - area of study engaged in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry. It concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena. Mechanochemistry - coupling of mechanical and chemical phenomena on a molecular scale and can be seen as a coupling of chemistry and mechanical engineering. Molecular biology - study of interactions between the various systems of a cell. It overlaps with biochemistry. Molecular mechanics - applies classical mechanics to model molecular systems. Nanotechnology - study and application of matter that is at an atomic and molecular scale. This broad field interacts with chemistry at such scales. Petrochemistry - study of the transformation of petroleum and natural gas into useful products or raw materials. Pharmacology - branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action along with the chemical effects. Phytochemistry - study of phytochemicals which come from plants. Radiochemistry - chemistry of radioactive materials. Sonochemistry - study of effect of sonic waves and wave properties on chemical systems. Synthetic chemistry - study of chemical synthesis.

physical chemistry

Physical chemistry - study of the physical and fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, statistical mechanics, spectroscopy, and more recently, astrochemistry.[3] Physical chemistry has large overlap with molecular physics. Physical chemistry involves the use of infinitesimal calculus in deriving equations. It is usually associated with quantum chemistry and theoretical chemistry. Physical chemistry is a distinct discipline from chemical physics, but again, there is very strong overlap. Chemical kinetics - study of rates of chemical processes. Chemical physics - investigates physicochemical phenomena using techniques from atomic and molecular physics and condensed matter physics; it is the branch of physics that studies chemical processes. Electrochemistry - branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor (the electrode: a metal or a semiconductor) and an ionic conductor (the electrolyte), and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution. Femtochemistry - area of physical chemistry that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales, approximately 10−15 seconds (one femtosecond). Geochemistry - chemical study of the mechanisms behind major systems studied in geology. Photochemistry - study of chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of light by atoms or molecules. Quantum chemistry - branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems. Solid-state chemistry - study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids. Spectroscopy - study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy. Stereochemistry - study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms that form the structure of molecules Surface science - study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid-liquid interfaces, solid-gas interfaces, solid-vacuum interfaces, and liquid-gas interfaces. Thermochemistry -The branch of chemistry that studies the relation between chemical action and the amount of heat absorbed or generated. Calorimetry - The study of heat changes in physical and chemical processes.

physics

Physics - natural science that involves the study of matter[1] and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force.[2] More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.[3][4][5

Physiology

Physiology - study of the internal workings of organisms. Endocrinology - study of the endocrine system. Oncology - study of cancer processes, including virus or mutation, oncogenesis, angiogenesis and tissues remoldings.

planetary science-astronomy

Planetary Science - study of planets, moons, and planetary systems. Atmospheric science - study of atmospheres and weather. Exoplanetology - various planets outside of the Solar System Planetary formation - formation of planets and moons in the context of the formation and evolution of the Solar System. Planetary rings - dynamics, stability, and composition of planetary rings Magnetospheres - magnetic fields of planets and moons Planetary surfaces - surface geology of planets and moons Planetary interiors - interior composition of planets and moons Small Solar System bodies - smallest gravitationally bound bodies, including asteroids, comets, and Kuiper belt objects.

planetary science -earth science

Planetary scienceEdit Planetary science - The study of planets (including Earth), moons, and planetary systems (in particular those of the Solar System) and the processes that form them. Planetary geology - study of the geology of astronomical objects apparently in orbit around stellar objects Selenography - study of the surface and physical features of the Moon Theoretical planetology - the theoretical study of the internal structure of planets by making assumptions about their chemical composition and the state of their materials, then calculating the radial distribution of various properties such as temperature, pressure, or density of material across the planet's internals.

Plant genetics

Plant genetics Language Download PDF Watch Edit Learn more This article needs attention from an expert in Plants. Learn more This article needs additional citations for verification. Plant genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity specifically in plants.[1][2] It is generally considered a field of biology and botany, but intersects frequently with many other life sciences and is strongly linked with the study of information systems. Plant genetics is similar in many ways to animal genetics but differs in a few key areas. An image of multiple chromosomes, taken from many cells The discoverer of genetics was Gregor Mendel, a late 19th-century scientist and Augustinian friar. Mendel studied "trait inheritance", patterns in the way traits are handed down from parents to offspring. He observed that organisms (most famously pea plants) inherit traits by way of discrete "units of inheritance". This term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is referred to as a gene. Much of Mendel's work with plants still forms the basis for modern plant genetics.

Psychiatric genetics

Plant genetics Language Download PDF Watch Edit Learn more This article needs attention from an expert in Plants. Learn more This article needs additional citations for verification. Plant genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity specifically in plants.[1][2] It is generally considered a field of biology and botany, but intersects frequently with many other life sciences and is strongly linked with the study of information systems. Plant genetics is similar in many ways to animal genetics but differs in a few key areas. An image of multiple chromosomes, taken from many cells The discoverer of genetics was Gregor Mendel, a late 19th-century scientist and Augustinian friar. Mendel studied "trait inheritance", patterns in the way traits are handed down from parents to offspring. He observed that organisms (most famously pea plants) inherit traits by way of discrete "units of inheritance". This term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is referred to as a gene. Much of Mendel's work with plants still forms the basis for modern plant genetics.

Quantive genetics

Plant genetics Language Download PDF Watch Edit Learn more This article needs attention from an expert in Plants. Learn more This article needs additional citations for verification. Plant genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity specifically in plants.[1][2] It is generally considered a field of biology and botany, but intersects frequently with many other life sciences and is strongly linked with the study of information systems. Plant genetics is similar in many ways to animal genetics but differs in a few key areas. An image of multiple chromosomes, taken from many cells The discoverer of genetics was Gregor Mendel, a late 19th-century scientist and Augustinian friar. Mendel studied "trait inheritance", patterns in the way traits are handed down from parents to offspring. He observed that organisms (most famously pea plants) inherit traits by way of discrete "units of inheritance". This term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is referred to as a gene. Much of Mendel's work with plants still forms the basis for modern plant genetics.

genetic engineering

Process of making changes in the DNA code of living organisms Genetic engineering Language Download PDF Watch Edit For a non-technical introduction to the topic of genetics, see Introduction to genetics. For the song by Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark, see Genetic Engineering (song). Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the direct manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms. New DNA is obtained by either isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using recombinant DNA methods or by artificially synthesising the DNA. A construct is usually created and used to insert this DNA into the host organism. The first recombinant DNA molecule was made by Paul Berg in 1972 by combining DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with the lambda virus. As well as inserting genes, the process can be used to remove, or "knock out", genes. The new DNA can be inserted randomly, or targeted to a specific part of the genome. An organism that is generated through genetic engineering is considered to be genetically modified (GM) and the resulting entity is a genetically modified organism (GMO). The first GMO was a bacterium generated by Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen in 1973. Rudolf Jaenisch created the first GM animal when he inserted foreign DNA into a mouse in 1974. The first company to focus on genetic engineering, Genentech, was founded in 1976 and started the production of human proteins. Genetically engineered human insulin was produced in 1978 and insulin-producing bacteria were commercialised in 1982. Genetically modified food has been sold since 1994, with the release of the Flavr Savr tomato. The Flavr Savr was engineered to have a longer shelf life, but most current GM crops are modified to increase resistance to insects and herbicides. GloFish, the first GMO designed as a pet, was sold in the United States in December 2003. In 2016 salmon modified with a growth hormone were sold. Genetic engineering Heredity. Genetics. Recombinant DNA. Genetically modified organism. Synthetic biology. Gene editing. Three-parent baby. De-extinction.

statical genetics

Statistical genetics is a scientific field concerned with the development of statistical methods for drawing inferences from genetic data. The term is most commonly used in the context of human genetics. Research in statistical genetics generally involves developing theory or methodology to support research in one of three related areas: population genetics - Study of evolutionary processes affecting genetic variation between organisms genetic epidemiology - Studying effects of genes on diseases[1] quantitative genetics - Studying the effects of genes on 'normal' phenotypes Statistical geneticists tend to collaborate closely with geneticists, molecular biologists, clinicians and bioinformaticians. Statistical genetics is a type of computational biology.

Oceanography

Study of Earth's oceans OceanographyEdit Main article: Oceanography The serious study of oceans began in the early to mid-20th century. As a field of natural science, it is relatively young but stand-alone programs offer specializations in the subject. Though some controversies remain as to the categorization of the field under earth sciences, interdisciplinary sciences or as a separate field in its own right, most modern workers in the field agree that it has matured to a state that it has its own paradigms and practices. As such a big family of related studies spanning every aspect of the oceans is now classified under this field.

population genetics

Study of allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of evolutionary processes. Population genetics Language Download PDF Watch Edit Population genetics is a subfield of genetics that deals with genetic differences within and between populations, and is a part of evolutionary biology. Studies in this branch of biology examine such phenomena as adaptation, speciation, and population structure.[1] Population genetics was a vital ingredient in the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis. Its primary founders were Sewall Wright, J. B. S. Haldane and Ronald Fisher, who also laid the foundations for the related discipline of quantitative genetics. Traditionally a highly mathematical discipline, modern population genetics encompasses theoretical, lab, and field work. Population genetic models are used both for statistical inference from DNA sequence data and for proof/disproof of concept.[2] What sets population genetics apart today from newer, more phenotypic approaches to modelling evolution, such as evolutionary game theory and adaptive dynamics, is its emphasis on genetic phenomena as dominance, epistasis, the degree to which genetic recombination breaks up linkage disequilibrium, and the random phenomena of mutation and genetic drift. This makes it appropriate for comparison to population genomics data.

ecological genetics

Study of how selective values are environmentally dependent. Conservation genetics is an interdisciplinary subfield of Population Genetics that aims to understand the dynamics of genes in populations principally to avoid extinction. Therefore, it applies genetic methods to the conservation and restoration of biodiversity. Researchers involved in conservation genetics come from a variety of fields including population genetics, molecular ecology, biology, evolutionary biology, and systematics. Genetic diversity is one of the three fundamental levels of biodiversity, so it is directly important in conservation. Genetic variability influences both the health and long-term survival of populations because decreased genetic diversity has been associated with reduced fitness, such as high juvenile mortality, diminished population growth,[1] reduced immunity,[2] and ultimately, higher extinction risk.[3][4] Genetic diversity Edit Genetic diversity is the variability of genes in a species. A number of means can express the level of genetic diversity: observed heterozygosity, expected heterozygosity, the mean number of alleles per locus, or the percentage of polymorphic loci. Importance of genetic diversity Edit Genetic diversity determines the potential fitness of a population and ultimately its long-term persistence, because genes encode phenotypic information. Extinction risk has been associated with low genetic diversity and several researchers have documented reduced fitness in populations with low genetic diversity. For example, low heterozigosity has been associated with low juvenile survival, reduced population growth, low body size, and diminished adult lifespan.[1][2][5][6][7] Heterozygosity, a fundamental measurement of genetic diversity in population genetics, plays an important role in determining the chance of a population surviving environmental change, novel pathogens not previously encountered, as well as the average fitness of a population over successive generations. Heterozygosity is also deeply connected, in population genetics theory, to population size (which itself clearly has a fundamental importance to conservation). All things being equal, small populations will be less heterozygous - across their whole genomes - than comparable, but larger, populations. This lower heterozygosity (i.e. low genetic diversity) renders small populations more susceptible to the challenges mentioned above.

Biogeography

Study of past and present distribution of organisms Biogeography - study of the distribution of species spatially and temporally

Astrochemistry-astronomy

The branch of science that explores the chemical interactions between dust and gas interspersed between the stars. Astrochemistry Language Download PDF Watch Edit Astrochemistry is the study of the abundance and reactions of molecules in the Universe, and their interaction with radiation.[1] The discipline is an overlap of astronomy and chemistry. The word "astrochemistry" may be applied to both the Solar System and the interstellar medium. The study of the abundance of elements and isotope ratios in Solar System objects, such as meteorites, is also called cosmochemistry, while the study of interstellar atoms and molecules and their interaction with radiation is sometimes called molecular astrophysics. The formation, atomic and chemical composition, evolution and fate of molecular gas clouds is of special interest, because it is from these clouds that solar systems form.

Developmental biology

The complete development of an individual from fertilization to death Developmental biology - study of the processes through which an organism forms, from zygote to full structure Embryology - study of the development of embryo (from fecundation to birth). Gerontology - study of aging processes

statistical mechanics

The field of physics which deals with the random distributions of matter and energy in bulk. Statistical mechanics - the branch of physics which studies any physical system that has a large number of degrees of freedom

earth science branches

The main branches are geology, meteorology, climatology, oceanography, and environmental science. Astronomy uses principles understood from Earth to learn about the solar system, galaxy, and universe

Anatomy biology

The study of body structure Anatomy - study of form in animals, plants and other organisms, or specifically in humans. Simply, the study of internal structure of living organisms. Comparative anatomy - the study of evolution of species through similarities and differences in their anatomy. Osteology - study of bones. Osteomyoarthrology - the study of the movement apparatus, including bones, joints, ligaments and muscles. Viscerology - the study of organs Neuroanatomy - the study of the nervous system.

Thermodynamics

The study of energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter. Thermodynamics - the branch of physical science concerned with heat and its relation to other forms of energy and work

human genetics

The study of how some traits appear and others disappear in the process of heredity Human genetics Language Download PDF Watch Edit "Human Genetics" redirects here. For the journal, see Human Genetics (journal). For a non-technical introduction to the topic, see Introduction to genetics. Human genetics is the study of inheritance as it occurs in human beings. Human genetics encompasses a variety of overlapping fields including: classical genetics, cytogenetics, molecular genetics, biochemical genetics, genomics, population genetics, developmental genetics, clinical genetics, and genetic counseling. Genes are the common factor of the qualities of most human-inherited traits. Study of human genetics can answer questions about human nature, can help understand diseases and the development of effective disease treatment, and help us to understand the genetics of human life. This article describes only basic features of human genetics; for the genetics of disorders please see: medical genetics. Human genetics Human evolutionary genetics Human mitochondrial genetic

physics

The study of matter and energy and the interactions between the two through forces and motion. Physics embodies the study of the fundamental constituents of the universe, the forces and interactions they exert on one another, and the results produced by these interactions. In general, physics is regarded as the fundamental science, because all other natural sciences use and obey the principles and laws set down by the field. Physics relies heavily on mathematics as the logical framework for formulation and quantification of principles.

Bio chemistry

The study of processes that take place in organisms Biochemistry - study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually a focus on the cellular level

Plasma Physics

The study of the fourth state of matter, plasma Plasma physics - the study of plasma, a state of matter similar to gas in which a certain portion of the particles are ionized

marine biology

The study of the living organisms that inhabit the seas and their interactions with each other and their environment. Marine biology is the scientific study of marine life, organisms in the sea. Given that in biology many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land, marine biology classifies species based on the environment rather than on taxonomy. 71 percent of the Earth's surface is covered by ocean, the home to marine life. Oceans average nearly four kilometers in-depth and are fringed with coastlines that run for 360,000 kilometres.[1][2] A large proportion of all life on Earth lives in the ocean. The exact size of this large proportion is unknown, since many ocean species are still to be discovered. The ocean is a complex three-dimensional world[3] covering approximately 71% of the Earth's surface. The habitats studied in marine biology include everything from the tiny layers of surface water in which organisms and abiotic items may be trapped in surface tension between the ocean and atmosphere, to the depths of the oceanic trenches, sometimes 10,000 meters or more beneath the surface of the ocean. Specific habitats include coral reefs, kelp forests, seagrass meadows, the surrounds of seamounts and thermal vents, tidepools, muddy, sandy and rocky bottoms, and the open ocean (pelagic) zone, where solid objects are rare and the surface of the water is the only visible boundary. The organisms studied range from microscopic phytoplankton and zooplankton to huge cetaceans (whales) 25-32 meters (82-105 feet) in length. Marine ecology is the study of how marine organisms interact with each other and the environment

natural science

The study of the physical features of nature and the ways in which they interact and change.

Chemistry

The study of the properties of matter and how matter changes Chemistry Edit Main articles: Chemistry and Outline of chemistry § Branches of chemistry This structural formula for molecule caffeine shows a graphical representation of how the atoms are arranged. Constituting the scientific study of matter at the atomic and molecular scale, chemistry deals primarily with collections of atoms, such as gases, molecules, crystals, and metals. The composition, statistical properties, transformations and reactions of these materials are studied. Chemistry also involves understanding the properties and interactions of individual atoms and molecules for use in larger-scale applications. Most chemical processes can be studied directly in a laboratory, using a series of (often well-tested) techniques for manipulating materials, as well as an understanding of the underlying processes. Chemistry is often called "the central science" because of its role in connecting the other natural sciences. Early experiments in chemistry had their roots in the system of Alchemy, a set of beliefs combining mysticism with physical experiments. The science of chemistry began to develop with the work of Robert Boyle, the discoverer of gas, and Antoine Lavoisier, who developed the theory of the Conservation of mass. The discovery of the chemical elements and atomic theory began to systematize this science, and researchers developed a fundamental understanding of states of matter, ions, chemical bonds and chemical reactions. The success of this science led to a complementary chemical industry that now plays a significant role in the world economy.

Chemistry

The study of the properties of matter and how matter changes Chemistry is the science of atomic matter (matter that is composed of chemical elements), especially its chemical reactions, but also including its properties, structure, composition, behavior, and changes as they relate to the chemical reactions.[1][2] Chemistry is centrally concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds.

Ethnobiology

The subfield of ethnoscience that studies how people in non-Western societies name and codify living things. Ethnobiology is the scientific study of the way living things are treated or used by different human cultures. It studies the dynamic relationships between people, biota, and environments, from the distant past to the immediate present.[1] Logo for the Society of Ethnobiology "People-biota-environment" interactions around the world are documented and studied through time, across cultures, and across disciplines in a search for valid, reliable answers to two 'defining' questions: "How and in what ways do human societies use nature, and how and in what ways do human societies view nature?"[2] Subjects of inquiryEdit UsageEdit All societies make use of the biological world in which they are situated, but there are wide differences in use, informed by perceived need, available technology, and the culture's sense of morality and sustainability.[citation needed] Ethnobiologists investigate what lifeforms are used for what purposes, the particular techniques of use, the reasons for these choices, and symbolic and spiritual implications of them. TaxonomyEdit Different societies divide the living world up in different ways. Ethnobiologists attempt to record the words used in particular cultures for living things, from the most specific terms (analogous to species names in Linnean biology) to more general terms (such as 'tree' and even more generally 'plant'). They also try to understand the overall structure or hierarchy of the classification system (if there is one; there is ongoing debate as to whether there must always be an implied hierarchy.[18] Cosmological, moral and spiritual significanceEdit Societies invest themselves and their world with meaning partly through their answers to questions like "how did the world happen?", "how and why did people come to be?", "what are proper practices, and why?", and "what realities exist beyond or behind our physical experience?" Understanding these elements of a societies' perspective is important to cultural research in general, and ethnobiologists investigate how a societies' view of the natural world informs and is informed by them. Traditional ecological knowledgeEdit In order to live effectively in a given place, a people needs to understand the particulars of their environment, and many traditional societies have complex and subtle understandings of the places in which they live.[citation needed] Ethnobiologists seek to share in these understandings, subject to ethical concerns regarding intellectual property and cultural appropriation.