National Board Study

Summarize some of the benefits conferred by outdoor adventure and education.

Outdoor learning in nature affords background benefits of increasing physical, mental, and spiritual health; personal and social communication skills; sensory, aesthetic, and spiritual awareness; sensitivity to one's own well-being; and the ability to exercise personal control. Outdoor learning in the natural environment can also have planned benefits when providers or educators determine or negotiate these. For example, through structured, well-planned, hands-on learning experiences, teachers and providers help students to develop their own self-esteem, take personal responsibility, cooperate with others, and respect others' needs. They help them develop better appreciation of the world and its peoples, which allows them to expand their personal horizons. They teach them to understand why people must establish and maintain sustainable relationship with the environment. They improve students' practical teamwork and problem-solving skills. And they foster knowledgeable, positive student responses regarding personal well-being and health. Outdoor learning allows bonus benefits as well through incidental learning and greater than expected value, which highly supportive learning atmospheres enable. Wider benefits include greater sustainability and other benefits for families, schools, sponsors, society, and future generations, who are all stakeholders in outdoor learning success.

Describe the early development of physical education as it relates to the modern American education system.

PE began its modern development in the early 1800s stemming from the integration of gymnastics into secondary education. As the popularity of gymnastics grew, state laws began to require that students participate in daily periods of exercise. During the late 1800 and early 1900s, regressive education psychologist, such as John Dewey, began pushing for increased physical activity as means to provide a more rounded education. As America entered World War, where many recruits did not meet physical fitness standards for combat. In late 1900s, diversity issues limited the participation of women and minority groups in athletic competition. Modern PE seeks to find a balance between health and physiology pedagogy and the ever popular focus of sports, while trying to ensure that physical health is accessible to all students.

Discuss some of the benefits that diverse students can contribute to PE team sports and activities.

PE classes and teams incorporating students from heterogeneous sources benefit from a wider variety of contributions than those with narrowly homogeneous origins. For example, American teachers and students may view the non-competitive cultural values of the collectivist traditions in which Hispanic, Native American, and Asian students have been raised as detrimental to winning in competitive team sports, this is not the only way to view them. Because they value cooperation for good of the group, absorb individual identity in favor of group identification, and helping others to promote collective harmony, students from these cultures can actually make better team players than some highly individualistic American students who behave more like high-profile athletes than they do like equal team members. They are also more likely to engage in respectful sportsmanship than compete in overly aggressive ways.

Explain how perceived physical competence influences motivation to engage in physical activity. Contrast teaching that sacrifices quality for quantity with teaching that emphasizes technique and maintains motivation.

According to research into student's reasons for engaging in physical activity, their main motives are to enjoy it for its fun, and for how enhancing skills and learning enable a sense of accomplishment. Students' perception of their physical abilities-perceived physical competence-frequently determines willingness to try new activities and keep participating. To develop perceived physical competence students must have chances to learn and practice, without which they can develop negative attitudes regarding physical activity, decreasing its future probability. Teaching frequently requires specific numbers of trials within a time limit, counterproductively inducing students to sacrifice quality of movement for competing required quantities. Giving students certain durations for practice without specifying trial numbers enables focus on correct form. Practice durations long enough to develop skill, yet short enough to sustain concentrated attention, preserve enthusiasm and motivation. Teachers should let students experiment while learning and perfect processes, and give them positive feedback describing what they did right technically, instead of stressing products- e.g., emphasizing correct basketball-throwing technique rather making the basket-to enhance motivation to practice.

Cite some findings about how deficiencies in nutrition and physical activity have negative impacts on the health of Americans.

According to the centers for disease control and prevention (CDC) physical inactivity and poor diet are major causes of chronic non-communicable diseases, from which hundreds of thousands of people die every year. In addition to deaths, disabilities caused by strokes, obesity, diabetes, and osteoporosis are the results of improper nutrition and sedentary lifestyles. The healthy people initiatives have found that almost two-thirds of Americans eat too much saturated fat, three quarters do not eat enough fruit, and more than half do not eat enough vegetables. People who are inactive physically have nearly twice the probability of developing heart disease as people who are active regularly. This makes physical inactivity approach high blood pressure, high cholesterol, or smoking cigarettes as a risk factor for heart disease. However, physical inactivity is a more prevalent risk factor than any of those others. Sedentary people who are also obese, and have high blood pressure, and multiple risk factors, can especially benefit from becoming physically active.

Discuss how some state departments of education include family life education in their comprehensive health and PE instruction, and how they address family and cultural values in providing this instruction.

Family life education elements are including in heath and physical education classes required for graduation or diplomas. Health and PE core curriculum content standards in some states include content regarding human sexuality and relationships. Education departments provide for parents who object to this content based on their cultural, religious or moral beliefs by incorporating a policy that their children may be excused from those parts of the courses if parents furnish the schools with a signed statement that this content conflicts with their personal beliefs.

Identify several ways in which fitness assessment data are used in PE

Fitness assessment data furnishes students, teachers, parents, and other stakeholders with student fitness feedback. Comparing baseline to subsequent data enables PE teachers to monitor student progress. PE teachers can also use fitness testing data to inform their curriculum development decisions about which program content will best address students' strengths and needs. Students can make use of their own fitness testing data to inform measurable goals they set for personal fitness plans. PE teachers can use fitness testing results to individualize and differentiate their instruction for each student to help them achieve their goals. Fitness assessment data can also be used motivationally: identifying skill improvements and attaining goals give students incentive to live active, healthy lives. When PE teachers conduct authentic fitness assessments, the results inform the context for the curricula and activities they plan. This helps students comprehend the reasons for PE activities, rather than assuming PE is simply playing games. Student motivation for physical activity; understanding of how to evaluate and improve personal fitness levels; self-assessment, data analysis, and development of personal fitness goals and plans are also enabled by using fitness data.

Identify some intermediate movement themes in educational gymnastics for grades 4-7. For one of these themes, describe one learning experience, including additional refinements for each step.

Here are some intermediate themes for grades 4-7 educational gymnastics lessons. For traveling: moving into and out of balance, and jumping with turns. For weight bearing: balancing while curling, stretching, twisting, or otherwise changing body shapes; partner balances; counter-tension (away); platform balance; and counterbalance (together). For body shape: the body shape in flight. For relationship: partner matching and copying, small group sequences, and using the partner as an obstacle to move over and/or through. For traveling into and out of balance, there are five steps in a learning experience. 1) Run and jump onto a vaulting surface. 2) Run, placing hands on the apparatus, and land on the same spot. 3) Repeat 2), but add a roll upon landing. Practice roll progressions for the backward safety roll. 4) Change the relationship of the feet while performing various vaults into the air; move into a balance. 5) Hold the balance; then move into another balance. Refinements for these steps are: 1) Move into a balance. 2) Take off with feet, and raise the hips as high as possible. 3) Use a curved surface area; tuck tightly. 4) Spread, cross, or bend the knees. 5) Make the sequence parts flow.

Give examples of some behavioral and social skills that PE students in grades 9-12 should demonstrate

High schools students should show recognition of personal responsibility for individual wellness by demonstrating they understand how personal traits, styles, preferences, and performance change throughout life, and applying this understanding to continually evolving fitness plans. By participating in related activities like spotting, refereeing and belaying, they should demonstrate their ability to anticipate and correct consequences from physical activities that are potentially dangerous. Appropriate social interactions include: showing responsibility through sportsmanlike conduct; preventing dangerous outcomes; using quality of play, not results, to evaluate competition; displaying self-discipline and self-direction; revising their actions to show respect for feedback; exhibiting strategies to include diverse others in physical activities; recognizing and developing their leading and following abilities in group activities; and showing cooperation by helping others participate.

Muscle tone example of influence on children's motor skills

Hypertonia which is low muscle tone, causing floppiness, weakness, and poor balance. It is common in down syndrome and cerebral palsy.

Briefly define cooperative games and give three examples of cooperative PE activities. Describe one cooperative PE game activity.

In cooperative games and activities, students must work together to discover solutions to different challenges presented by activities. Examples include activities to develop communication skills, teamwork skills, and problem-solving skills. One cooperative PE game activity for developing communication and teamwork skills is "Caterpillar Riot": Team of 5 or 6 students stand in line, each wearing a hoop; hoops should touch. Each team is a "caterpillar". The goal is to collect as many objects from the floor as possible by moving the caterpillar forward. To advance, the rear player in each line steps into the hoop of the player moves forward into the next hoop. Only the front player may pick up objects; other players must carry objects collected. When all objects are collected, the game ends. Builds include a preparatory race, advancing caterpillars without collecting objects; playing the full version; adding a time limit to the full version; and playing blindfolded.

Describe some examples of strategies for teaching and learning various non-locomotor skills in grades in grades 1, 2, and 3, respectively.

In grade 1, teachers introduce non-locomotor skills like bending, twisting, curling, and swaying involving a broad range of joints by discussing weight transfer, arm-leg opposition, and other mechanics involved. Teachers have students imitate elephants swaying and trees swaying in wind. Teachers assign small groups to develop warm-up routines using these skills, identify joints used, and name each movement. In grade 2, teachers introduce and demonstrate the motions, pair students to perform warm-up and cool-down activities requiring two people using these movements, and have students identify joints and major muscle groups involved and identify exercises targeting each joint in a warm up routine. In grade 3, teachers introduce and demonstrate the skills, work on building student comprehension of principles of improving flexibility, discuss which joints can move, and list exercises targeting each join in a fitness routine. Teachers design a fitness routine for students to improve range of motion in specified joints, connecting the different movements; and pair students to perform these and improvise exercise that equally stretch opposing muscles in specified joints. Teachers have individual students create and lead warmup and fitness routines in class.

Describe some ways in which physical activities help young people to improve their self-concepts and self-esteem.

International council for sport science and physical education president and professor Margaret Talbot has written that challenging physical activities like sports and dance are powerfully influential for helping youth learn to be themselves. When presented appropriately, such activities teach young people to question assumptions they have held that limit them and to perceive themselves and their potentials anew. Studies show physical self-worth, sense of autonomy and self efficacy enhanced through developing competence in sport skills. Latino students benefit with higher self-esteem from school sports participation and other physical activity.

Describe some major milestones of gross and fine motor development demonstrated by normal children 2-4 years. Identify what parents can do to support children's achieving the milestones.

Most 2-3 year olds build on skills developed earlier, gaining skill for activities need speed and coordination. They become able to jump in place, balance on one foot, run forward, kick a ball, turn book pages, hold a crayon, between thumb and fingers, and draw a circle. From 3-4 most children learn to walk in a straight line, throw and catch a ball, slide down a slide unassisted, ride a tricycle, pull and steer toys, build tall block towers, and shape clay.

Identify some of the major gross and fine motor milestones exhibited by normal babies from birth to 3 months

Most infants use rooting and sucking reflexes to nurse and grasping reflexes to hold things in their hands. They begin to raise their heads slightly when lying on their stomachs. Given support they begin to hold up their heads a few seconds at a time. They start forming their hands into fists. They pull and tug at their own hands. They begin repeating body movements they have made before.

Give some examples of evidence that physical activity and exercise enhance mental and emotional well-being.

Research studies show improvements in mood, with fewer symptoms of anxiety and depression, resulting from physical activity. Experiments have compared participants with major depression, giving some psychotropic medication and others an aerobic exercise intervention. The exercisers demonstrated more significant improvements and lower relapse rates than those taking the drugs. Other research has shown that walking programs increase positive mood. Six month resistance training programs have decreased anger, tension, and confusion while elevating moods in participants. Yoga and dance lowers negative affect and stress perception in the groups with the physical activities.

Name 4 of the major body systems

Skeletal, integumentary, muscular and immune system.

Discuss some ways in which substance abuse by students affects their general behavior.

Some aspects of the effects of abusing substances on student behavior include changes from their typical behavior to the opposite. For example, students who have usually been introverted, not socializing much with their peers, and shy, socially inhibited or awkward, can use drugs that cause them to behave more sociably, as well as more impulsively. Alcohol, cocaine, prescription antidepressant/anxiety drugs lower user's inhibitions temporarily. This can cause introverted people to become extroverted. People that don't like being introverted may see drugs as a solution and repeat their use as self-medication, which leads to addiction. However, people that are normally extroverted may become introverted because of their substance abuse. A common symptom of many addictions is social withdrawal: teens lose interest in their usual activities, avoid interacting with friends and isolate themselves.

Discuss some ways that positive relationships can influence and interact with physical and athletic activity and motivation to engage in it.

Some researchers have found that middle school students perceive close friendships more highly through positive affect related to physical activity, and that those perceiving peer acceptance more highly experienced higher physical self-worth, which in turn predicts more positive affect. Positive affect also promotes physical activity and challenge preference. Studies have shown that psychosocial outcomes are enhanced through independent contributions from both peer acceptance and friendship. Quality experiences in physical activity have been observed to benefit from the motivation supplied by positive affect, self-perceptions, and relationships with significant others. Multiple studies have found peers critical to such quality experiences with physical activity. Areas of research interest have included how peers influence affect in the physical domain, shape self-perceptions, affect moral attitudes and behaviors, and affect motivation for making choices of physical activity, seeking challenges, and sustaining long-term commitment to physical activity. Studies have found peer relationships and health behavior reciprocally influence each other. Research into sports implies that individuals identifying exclusively as athletes risk more adjustment problems when undergoing injuries or leaving the sport; some researchers suggest peer relationships may influence identity formation.

Relate some findings about how the allocation, organization, and management of resources influences the amount of PE students receive and how much they engage in physical activity during PE.

Some studies have revealed that an average of over 23 percent of time in PE classes was used for class management. Students were found to be engaging in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during 45.3% of the time during PE classes, which averaged 21.2 minutes per class and equated to only 10.4 min per school day, because most schools studies only offered PE classes 2.47 days per week. Only 17.4% offered PE five days a week. Elementary teachers were found to spend larger amount of class time than middle school teachers on classroom management. Hence middle school students received more minutes per day on PE. Students were exposed to more PE daily when schools had more teachers dedicated to teaching only health and PE. Students engaged in MVPA during PE class, and teachers used less class time on management when class sizes were lower. Higher student MVPA and lower management time were also associated with better access to adequate physical activity facilities and exercise and sports equipment.

Give a definition of spatial awareness and some examples of general instructional planning that PE teachers can use to apply this concept in class activities. Also describe some PE activities for assessing and developing body awareness.

Spatial awareness involves consciousness of and decisions about changes in objects' positions within three dimensional space. The sequence of developing spatial awareness has two phases: 1) recognizing object locations in space relative to one's own body; and 2) locating multiple objects in space relative to each other, independently of one's body. PE teachers can apply the concept of spatial awareness to class activities by instructing students to move toward and away from, behind and in front of, over and under, next to, inside, and outside various objects. They can provide hoops, balls, boxes, etc. as objects in various sizes and shapes. These activities develop spatial awareness, particularly in younger children or students with spatial awareness deficits. PE teachers can assess student body awareness by observing them play Simon says; asking them to touch their body parts; make straight, twists, and round shapes with their bodies; and fit them into variously sized spaces. They can enhance body awareness by having children touch one body part to another, twist their necks, nod heads, wiggle noses, open mouths, close eyes, shrug shoulders, bend elbows, clap hands, snap fingers, bend knees, stamp feet, and wiggle toes.

Describe some locomotor, non-locomotor, and manipulative skills involved in playing tennis, volleyball, and golf.

Tennis involves the locomotor skills of running, walking, and jumping and jumping over the net at the end of a match. It uses the non-locomotor skills of bending to pick up a ball, stretching and twisting to prepare for a serve; and stretching, bending, leaning and twisting and reaching to return the ball in a volley. It uses manipulative skills for swinging the racket to hit the ball when serving and returning. Volleyball uses the locomotor skills of walking to take and rotate positions, and running to reach the ball; the non-locomotor skills of stretching, reaching, twisting, and bending to reach the ball in high and low positions; and the manipulative skills of serving the ball using the fist, spiking the ball from above with the palms of the hands, and hitting the ball from below with the fists. Golf uses the locomotor skill of walking; the non-locomotor skills of twisting and turning to swing, and bending to retrieve the ball from the cup, green, trap, etc.; and the manipulative skills of swinging the club to hit the ball, retrieving the ball by hand, and writing down scores.

Compare professional recommendations for children's daily physical activity to findings of actual activity in school PE classes, and discuss expert advice relative to this comparison.

The institute of medicine has recommended in 2005 that children engage in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) for 60 minutes per day. However, researchers found that in the actual schools they used for their study samples, children had approximately 23 minutes of PE class per day, and were engaged in MVPA for less than half of that time (around 10 min a day). This 1/6 of the national recommendation. They conclude that a low ratio of students per full-time equivalent (FTE) PE teacher affords significant gains in both PE class duration and proportions of student physical activity during those classes.

Define and explain individual differences in exercise science

The principle of individual differences shows the importance of personal training and a program to be specific for meeting the goals of an individual. Even individuals with stronger talents need to practice it to enable their bodies to adapt.

Describe the effects of recreational activity during leisure time on mental health.

The relationship between physical and mental health is reciprocal: Not only does physical wellness promote better mental health, but mental wellness also can have an impact on physical well being. When people participate in physical, recreational, and leisure activities, it gives them a sense of control over how they spend their time. This is important to busy people who often feel overwhelmed by all of the obligations they must meet. It also offers relief from those required duties in the form of having fun instead of only doing things they have to do. Leisure activities give people opportunities to achieve balance in their lives. Recreational activities help individuals manage stress more effectively, and they decrease symptoms of depression. Parent benefit their children by participating in leisure activities as they model healthy ways of managing emotions and addressing stress for them. One state parks report found that simply remembering a past outdoor recreation can elevate one's mood.

Examples of students understanding movement concepts

When a student plays basketball or soccer, he/she has to determine what the appropriate amount of distance of personal space is among players. A student playing a sport has to coordinate speed and direction in order to change or maintain his or her pathway without losing speed.

How does understanding movement concepts inform student activity

When students understand they will be able to move around avoiding collisions with other people and/or objects, and they will have self-confidence in their ability to move effectively. To understand a sport and do it successfully a student/athlete must incorporate the concepts of vision, space, direction, and speed.

Define non-locomotor skills differently from locomotor skills and give some examples of non-locomotor skills, including definitions of some.

Whereas locomotor skills involve moving from one location to another using the legs and feet, non-locomotor skills are motor skills that do not involve moving among locations. Non-locomotor skills involve little or no shifting of the base of support, and do not cause changes in position. Lifting a weight and squeezing a ball are examples of non-locomotor skills. Some other common movements that involve non-locomotor skills are balancing, swaying, turning, twisting, and swinging. Bending is movement around a joint between two body parts. Dodging is sharply avoiding a person or object, e.g., by leaning away or ducking. Stretching is extending or hyperextending the joints to straighten or lengthen the body parts. Twisting rotates the body or body parts around an axis having a stationary base. Turning is moving the body through space in a circle, releasing the base of support. Swinging involves circular or pendular movements below an axis of the body or body parts. Swaying is like swinging, but above an axis. Pushing is applying force against a person or object to move one's body away or move the person or object away. Pulling is exerting force to move people or objects closer to ones body.

Differentiate between the influences of maturation and experience on motor development. Describe some types of experience that influence motor patterns.

While historically, scientists believed that genetically determined growth and development- i.e., maturation- was responsible for motor skill development, more recent research has uncovered evidence that the motor development process is not simply passive in nature, but is active, as when babies engage in movement and physically explore their environments. As they develop physical abilities through growth and acquire motor skills through independent learning, maturation and experience and their interaction all influence motor development. Earlier motor skills like crawling and walking are more strongly influenced by maturation, though experience also clearly plays a part, as evidenced by babies learning through experience in early attempts, errors, failures, repetitions, and eventual success. Later, more sophisticated motor skills like playing basketball or juggling are even more influenced by experience, instruction, and social development follows similar sequences and timing across different cultures, cultural differences do influence the rates at which motor skills develop. For example, babies sit, stand and walk later in cultures where mothers carry them more, and earlier in cultures where parents train them early in these skills.

Describe some recent research conclusions about how perceptual and motor behaviors are related, and how both are interrelated with other developmental domains and processes.

While research has long observed that the developmental domains are interrelated, recent reasearch further reinforces the depth of interdependence among developmental domains, processes, and factors. Some researchers point out that cognition, perception, and motor behavior transpire in the context of culture, social relationships, experience, and emotion, affecting overall brain function and mental and physical health. Others also find perception and motor actions are not independent, but interdependent processes; they characterize these as parts of an action system. Very early strong motivation in infants to pay attention, obtain information, explore, and engage their physical and social environments is evidence that cognitive, perceptual, motor, emotional, and social domains of development are interrelated, demonstrated by visual tracking, head turning, and reaching. One investigator has observed that infants do not reach for desired objects because of brain programming; rather, they match their movements to their goals and the specific tasks involved. As some define it, behavior equals movement. Psychology is the study of human behavior; perception and motor behaviors inform psychological development. Some researchers find excellent opportunities for studying infants social cognition by observing how they use social information to guide motor behavior in unfamiliar or physically challenging situations.

Respiratory system includes the

lungs, bronchi, diaphragm, trachea, larynx, and pharynx and enables you to breathe.

The digestive system includes the

salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, gall bladder, pancreas, rectum, and anus. It breaks down and processes food we eat, takes nutrients to build tissues, supply energy for future use and eliminates waste products.

Describe the motor patterns included in one type of rhythmic movement activity.

"Brain Dance", done to music from Christy Lane's Authentic African and Caribbean Rhythms is a warm-up activity for completing the eight motor patterns on the beat in sequence. 1) Breath: move arms up and down, coordinating with inhaling and exhaling, 2) Tactile: To "wake up proprioceptors," i.e., raise awareness and sensation of location in space and body movement, brush, squeeze, tap, and slap body areas and muscles. 3) Core-distal: Bring all body parts close to the center, and then extend outward. 4) Head-tail: Bring head and tailbone closer front and back; flex, extend, and laterally flex the spine, e.g., rounding, arching, and side-to-side "snake" movements. 5) Upper-lower halves: Move only the upper body and arms bilaterally first, then move only the lower body and legs bilaterally. 6) Body-side (left/right halves): Move the left arm and leg together, then move the right arm and leg together. 7) Cross-lateral (diagonal body division): Make movements in opposition, e.g., lifting the left knee, touching it with the right hand and vice versa, crossing the midline. 8) Vestibular (inner ear): Disrupt and restore balance by moving off-balance and then stopping, using movements like rocking, spinning, etc. the

Give some examples of what students should be able to demonstrate knowing, understanding and doing among PE competencies in grades 1-2.

1) Body awareness: demonstrate body movements (flexion, extension, rotation) and shapes. Walk, run, skip, and slide. Stop at boundaries with control. Quickly, safely change direction without falling. Throw underhand, roll and dribble a ball. Identify walking, running, galloping, skipping, hopping, jumping, leaping, and sliding. 2) Space concepts: Demonstrate directions, pathways, levels, and ranges during activities; perform locomotor skills while changing these; apply them in simple activities or games (moving to dodge tagging, etc). 3) Movement quality: Understand and apply energy and force, time, flow, balance concepts to psychomotor skills, e.g., starting and stopping without falling; bending knees to lower center of gravity; showing understanding of hard and soft, tense and relaxed force variations; controlling personal force, e.g., in tagging, striking; demonstrating fast and slow movement; moving to simple beats and rhythms; following simple, teacher-led rhythmic movements; combining jumping and turning, bouncing and catching; showing smooth transitions between dance or rhythmic movements. 4) Health-related fitness elements: Begin identifying physiological exercise effects like faster breathing and heart rate; define the four health-related fitness components in their own words. Additional competencies include movement-related problem-solving skills, awareness of personal responsibility for individual wellness, self-confidence and success, safe behavior for self and others, and appropriate social interactions.

Describe two strategies that enhance perceived physical competence, and accompanying examples of practices implementing these strategies.

1) Give students enough time to practice. As an example, teachers can specify a certain length of time to work on skills, but not require them to complete a certain number of trials during that time. This will allow them to concentrate on performing the skills correctly rather than focusing on performing actions enough times without perfecting their technique. Teachers can reduce off-task student behavior by changing or varying the activities assigned. 2) Give students positive, specific instructional feedback. Teachers can make it easier for students to take on challenges and risks of errors or failing by communicating relevant, meaningful, task-specific and technique-specific instructional feedback to students. For example, when a PE teacher tells a student the way he or she held his or her elbows in or bent his or her arms when throwing or catching was admirable and to keep it up, the student will experience approval, appreciation, and encouragement of his or her efforts and be more motivated to continue practicing and participating.

Give examples of some manipulative skills that students in grades k-6 respectively should demonstrate for striking sport balls or objects with implements.

1) Kindergarteners: Balance beanbags or objects on rackets and paddles while walking; hit balls off batting tees using implements. 2) First-graders: Strike beach balls or balloons forward using short implements while walking 20 ft without letting them hit the floor; strike four times without their hitting the floor using short, light implements (e.g. lollipops). 3) Second-graders: Bounce, then strike balls at walls or targets; strike beach balls or balloons with implements over low nets to partners without their touching the ground or floor; consistently strike balls upward with only one bounce. 4) Third-graders: Successfully hit balls or objects from close-proximity "soft tosses"; bounce and strike small foam tennis balls with soft, controlled forehand across the gym or into large areas; use long-handled implements to strike objects on the floor or ground to targets. 5) Fourth-graders: Successfully hit self-tossed objects with one bounce; volley or rally objects using implements over nets and low barriers; receive teacher hockey passes and shoot to targets from about 10 ft. 6) Fifth-graders: successfully strike underhand teacher-pitched (3-5 inches) whiffle or foam balls; repeatedly hit balls forehand or backhand against walls at close range; bounce and hit small foam balls with soft, controlled backhand into large areas; dribble and shoot at goals with continuous action using long-handled implements. 7) Sixth-graders: Successfully strike underhand-teacher-pitched softballs; serve balls without bouncing consistently at target areas; and give-and-go using long-handled implements.

Name two ways of organizing positive interdependence for students in cooperative learning groups, including descriptions and examples.

1) Positive resource interdependence: Every group member only has part of the information, materials, or resources needed to complete a task; therefore, members must combine resources to attain group goals. To accentuate cooperative group relationships, teachers may give students limited resources that they have to share, e.g., one copy of the task or problem for each group; or they can use the jigsaw procedure," only giving one piece or part of the necessary resources to each group member, and they then must fit their pieces together to make a whole. 2) Positive Role Interdependence: Each group member is assigned a role, specifying responsibilities need for the group to complete a joint task. Each role is interconnected and complementary with the others. For example, roles include reader, recorder, participation encourager, understanding checker, and knowledge elaborator. Numerous well-controlled, high-quality research studies show checking for understanding correlates significantly with higher student learning and achievement levels.

Identify two methods for structuring positive interdependence within a cooperative learning group, and explain what each one means, including some examples.

1) positive goal interdependence: students understand that the only way to accomplish their learning goals is if all group members also achieve their learning goals. Shared group goals unites the group, giving them a concrete reason for the groups existence. Teachers must structure a clear mutual or group goal, incorporated in every lesson. 2) Positive reward- celebrate interdependence: The teacher gives every group member the same reward accomplishing group goals. Teachers may also include joint reward for accomplishing group goals. Teachers may also include joint rewards adding to goal interdependence. For example each student gets five extra credit points if all group members score 90 percent or higher on the test.

Identify three PE teaching strategies to improve students perceived physical competence, with examples of practices demonstrating each strategy.

1) stress personal improvement- PE teachers can instruct student to determine their fitness or activity baselines, by counting the number of times they can make a chest pass or bounce pass against the wall, and encourage them to establish personal goals, repeating these actions to match or exceed baseline numbers. 2) group students rapidly- if PE teachers quickly group students, they prevent students from comparing peers to choose teams. This avoids comparing some students in nearest proximity to them. This avoids comparing some students unfavorably to others, which impedes their developing perceived physical competence. 3) ask student their permission in advance to demonstrate skills. When a teacher observes a student performing a technique correctly, he or she should ask the student first whether he or she is willing to demonstrate for the class instead of unexpectedly telling the student to demonstrate. Putting a student on the spot is stressful.

Identify a variety of PE class rules used by different PE teachers for classroom management at public schools across the country.

A Maryland teacher uses "Freeze Up": stop, look at the teacher with eyes and ears open and mouth closed; "Move Under Control": avoiding running into persons or objects; "Get Equipment": politely (teacher demonstrates and explains this), carefully, one at a time; and "Reminder for Any Cue": the teacher asks, "What am I looking for?" This teacher also advises consistently praising good work when assisting students at school year' start and periodically after holidays and other school breaks during "refresher courses." An Oregon teacher tells students to "be nice" to one another and try their hardest; he comments that in 23 years of teaching elementary-grade PE, "I have found...pretty much everything can be handled within these two rules." An Illinois teacher adds the rule "Hands Off". He reviews rules often, asking students to identify and explain them; test fifth through eighth graders on rules; and assigns papers for rule violation to fourth through eighth graders. Another uses mnemonic acronym RESPECT: Right to learn, Effort, Safety, Purpose, Enthusiasm, Challenge; Trust/Team building. She engages students in "meaningful discussion" of these concepts in school's first week and includes the acronym in home letters and newsletters.

Describe what studies have found about the comparative effectiveness of training an athletic skill by teaching individual parts of it vs teaching the skill as a whole, including an example.

A common consideration in teaching new athletic skills is whether to teach a skill as a whole, or to break it down into its component pieces and teach those individually. Although task analysis has proven valuable for some purposes to education, to acquire specific sport skills, whole training has been found superior to part training for motor learning. For example, in volleyball, to teach spiking the ball, the parts would consist of approach footwork, arm work, jumping, contracting the ball, and recovery. The whole of spiking would be all these elements together. A part of spiking would be contracting the ball alone, or jumping alone, etc. Investigators reviewing the literature could not find even one study showing better results from teaching individual parts of such sport skills, or teaching individual skill parts in progressive sequence. Much additional research corroborates the concept that volleyball and other athletic skills demanding high levels of inter-limb coordination are learned best through teaching and practicing the whole skill rather than the parts or even progressive parts.

Generally define physical fitness as it applies to the majority of people. Identify how physical activity should figure into life. Identify the three major components of physical fitness that should be included in a comprehensive fitness program.

A definition of physical fitness that applies to most people rather than only to professional athletes is being able to actively complete all of one's daily living tasks without becoming overly tired and still having enough energy to pursue leisure activities for enjoyment. Physical activity should include both planned, structural activities and movement that is integrated into daily life as an essential part of it. Regularly engaging in physical activity and exercise are not only required for being athletic, but for basic well- being and health. To be effective and safe, any comprehensive physical fitness program should incorporate the three major components of 1) aerobic exercise-to promote cardiovascular health, endurance and manage weight; 2) resistance training-decreases risks for lower back injuries and pain, improves posture, builds strength and muscular endurance, and manages weight. 3) flexibility- to stretch the muscles and move the joints, which prevent sore muscles, decrease risk of injuries and maintains and improves the range of motion in joints and mobility of the muscles.

Identify some differences in equipment and rules of softball from regular baseball and differentially describe two types of softball.

A variation of baseball, softball uses a smaller infield and larger ball. Two main rule differences from baseball are that, in softball, pitching must be underhand; and regulation softball games have seven innings rather than nine as baseball does. Softballs are 11-12 inches in circumference, which is 3 in bigger than baseballs. Infields have bases 60 ft apart, not 90 ft apart as they are in baseball. Two types of softball are slow-pitch and fast pitch. Slow pitch, the kind most often played, has 10 players per team. Slow pitch softball sometimes uses a ball larger than the usual 12 inches. Slow pitch softball requires the pitcher to throw the ball in an arcing path. It also does not allow bunting the ball or stealing bases as baseball does. Fast pitch softball has nine players per team, the same as baseball. As its name indicates, it requires faster pitching than slow pitch softball. Fast pitch softball also permits bunting and stealing as baseball does. In both slow pitch and fast pitch softball, and underhand pitch is required. Pitching distances required are from 46-43 feet for men, 39 ft for women, and 35 ft for girls. This contrasts with baseballs 60.5 ft pitching distance.

Relate some recommendations for eating a balanced diet for achieving and maintaining a healthy weight.

According to US centers for disease control and prevention (CDC) and federal dietary guidelines, a healthy diet should place the most emphasis on fruits and vegetables, whole grains and fat free or low fat dairy products. It should also include lean protein sources like beans, fish, eggs, nuts, poultry and lean meats. It should eliminate or limit trans fats, saturated fats, salt, added sugars, and cholesterol. In addition, a balanced diet should not contain many more or fewer calories than an individual needs everyday to function optimally. Eating fresh produce in season, especially produce grown locally is the best. When favorite fruits are out of season or unaffordable, they are available frozen, canned or dried. One caveat is to avoid canned fruits with heavy laden syrups and find those canned in their own juices. if fresh vegetables are unavailable, many flash frozen at their peak nutritional value without added sodium or fatty sauces. For canned vegetables, avoid those with added sodium. Some ways to enjoy vegetables more include streaming them; adding different herbs, which provide flavor without salt or fat; sautéing in non-stick pans with a little cooking spray; and trying a new or unfamiliar vegetable every week.

Describe some suitable practices for conducting fitness assessment and reporting the data obtained.

According to the National Association for sport and physical education (NASPE), fitness assessment is one of the components of the continual process of enabling students to comprehend, maintain, improve, and enjoy physical fitness that PE teachers should use. PE teachers should physically prepare students in each fitness component and testing protocol of the assessment instruments used to ensure safe participation. Teachers should do everything needed to establish non-threatening, private, encouraging, and educational testing circumstances. For example, they should explain to students to use test results as springboards for personal progress, not to compare themselves with others. Teachers should ensure the privacy of students and parents when sharing test results as tools to help students and parents develop individual goals and strategies to sustain and improve fitness measures. Teachers should also report student progress regularly to students and parents. Students should be informed immediately after testing of their scores, and use these during instruction throughout the school year. Parents should receive student fitness reports following completed assessments.

Define creative movement and dance, including examples of how its elements can be varied in teaching.

According to the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), within the art form of creative movement, the words "dance" and "movement" are interchangeable. The human body is this art form's medium. The basic elements of dance/creative movement are: 1) the body, its parts and range of motion; 2) space; 3) time; and 4) energy. Teachers can vary these elements when teaching children, e.g., by assigning variations in body part movements like marching while touching knees; clapping; holding arms up high, which one knee straight and one bent, on tiptoes; lying on the back with legs/feet in the air; etc. They can assign spatial variations, e.g., marching high, low, backward, turning, or in a square; temporal variations, e.g., marching in slow motion or as fast as possible, for designated number of steps and then freezing; etc. Energy variations include marching as if stomping through mud, as if stuck in quicksand, as if barefoot on hot blacktop, without making any sound, etc.

Describe some considerations for establishing and monitoring personal fitness goals.

Adults and students alike should set fitness goals that lead to long-term changes in lifestyle and are realistic. Goals should include both results and behaviors. For example, jumping 1 inch higher by the next sport season and losing 12 pounds within three months reflect outcome goals. Exercising every weekday at 7:30 pm for 20 minutes is a behavioral goal. To set suitable behavioral goals, students should understand the underlying objectives. Students can have far more control over accomplishing behavior goals than outcome goals, so they should focus on attaining those target behaviors. If they do not meet short-term outcomes by their original goal deadlines, they should not let this discourage them. When they do accomplish outcome related goals, students should change their behavioral goals accordingly. If they are not sure they can meet behavior goals consistently, or if they find more effective ways of meeting their objectives, students should re-evaluate their fitness goals.

Describe the developmental progress of babies in using hand-held implements purposefully as tools.

After babies have mastered the motor actions involved in reaching and grasping objects, they can apply their skills to achieve rewarding results. They learn to differentiate textures: they will bang hard objects against hard surfaces because this makes noise, but will not repeat banging soft objects soft surfaces as it makes no noise. Infants are observed to test different combinations of objects and surfaces to determine which is noisiest. At 9 months, babies typically can bang on surfaces with spoons, but they take several months longer to develop the fine motor control for using spoons in the complex operation of scooping and bringing food to their mouths. Cognitive developmental psychologist Jean Piaget first described how older babies differentiate their reaching and grasping skills into instrumental actions to attain their goals. For example, around 8 months, babies reach and pull a cloth to move a toy on the cloth closer. Older babies lean forward, holding sticks, to extend their reach for objects. Toddlers rake in out of reach objects using canes as tools. They demonstrate comprehension of the tool target relationship by turning the canes functionally.

Give some examples of how to modify creative movement and dance activities to accommodate children with special needs.

All children can participate in most movement activities when they are modified. Each child can approach movement according to his or her individual abilities, experiences, and imagination. For instance, if a teacher gives children a greeting activity involving their waving various body parts, they can instruct children with physical disabilities to move their fingers, toes, eyelids, or tongue. When leading children in a jumping activity, if the class includes children in wheelchairs, teachers can instruct them to move their heads, shoulders, arms, and fingers instead of their legs. If the teacher is instructing children to form the shapes of alphabet letters with their fingers or arms rather than their entire bodies. Children who are unable to do this can point to or hold up a picture or large shape of each letter to participate actively. Children of all/most ability levels can participate in dance stories by exploring and elaborating on characters and events in stories, poems, books, or songs through creative movement, including facial expressions.

Define locomotor skills. Identify the basic locomotor skills in the approximate order in which children typically develop them. Relate some tips for parents to help children learn locomotor skills.

Among motor skills, one major category is locomotor skills. Locomotor skills are movements wherein we use our legs and feet to move our bodies from one location to another. The basic locomotor skills children develop, in the approximate order they usually learn them are: walking; running; hopping; jumping; skipping, galloping, sliding, i.e., galloping sideways; and leaping. Most normally developing children typically learn to walk around the age of 1 year. They usually have learned to run, hop, and jump by the age of 2 years. They begin to learn how to gallop, skip, slide, and leap around the age of 3 years. Young children will need to be provided with plenty of opportunities for practicing, though most of them find practicing fun during early childhood. They also will need their parents to provide them with some instruction to acquire the basic locomotor skills, which they do not necessarily just learn on their own.

Give a description of a rhythmic movement activity that incorporates non-locomotor, locomotor, and manipulative movements plus transitions between movements to a beat.

An activity that emphasizes accent and phrasing involves bouncing pinky balls on different beats within a measure or phrase, first while standing (non-locomotor and manipulative) and then while walking (locomotor, non-locomotor, and manipulative). Teachers instruct students to stand and bounce balls on the "1" of each 4-count phrase, then on the "2", then on the "3", then on the "4", practicing repeatedly before changing beats. After enough practice, teachers have students do this while walking. They can then give them different combinations of bouncing with walking, such as step, bounce, step, bounce, bounce, step, bounce, step: step, step, bounce; bounce, bounce, step, etc. Teacher can give students music with a 4/4 time signature and then change to 3/4 (waltz) time music, 24 time, etc. The most challenging transition is from the '4' to the "1" count without stopping while walking through space. Recommended music includes: Ball room 2/4; edelweiss 3/4; mad world 4/4; and viva la vida cold play or I gotta feeling by black eyed peas 4/4 time.

Quote and report some of the rules used for class management and accompanying comments of PE teachers in various U.S. locations.

An elementary PE teacher in Washington state states three rules, all beginning with "RESPECT:" "Yourself (by working hard and safely every day to improve your fitness level); Others (always encourage, never put down); Equipment (by using it for intended purposes). This teacher comments, "These are my posted rules. I haven't found anything I couldn't somehow relate to these rules." Another teacher in Illinois comments, "We believe in using a few simple rules that can cover any situation. These rules are sent to all parents at the beginning of the school year." These rules are: "Follow directions; Actively listen when a teacher is talking; Respect others; Keep your hands and feet to yourself. An elementary teacher in New York state comments, I explain each rule in some detail; the older the students, the more detail they get. For example, being a good listener means: eyes on the speaker, hands quiet, voices quiet, and raise your hand to speak. His rules for students are: Be a good listener; Always follow directions; Treat others with respect; Use equipment correctly; Always try your best.

Describe some of the current opportunities for athletes and others with disabilities to participate in sports.

Associations and organization in the world devoted to accommodating athletes with disabilities have grown markedly from the 1970s until now. Many of these are international groups. People with disabilities in some nations also have more opportunities now than in the past for participation in PE in schools, community associations, clubs, and casual recreational activities. In the arena of competitive sports, opportunities include disability-specific and sport-specific world championships; the Parapan American Games and other regional tournaments featuring multiple sports; certain Olympics Games events designated for athletes with disabilities; similar such events in the Commonwealth Games; and additionally, some athletes with disabilities compete against non-disabled athletes in some mainstream competitions. Internationally, 18 or more games now exist for athletes with disabilities. Among the three biggest international competitions, the Special Olympics offer year-round opportunities for training and competition to people with intellectual disabilities at every level; the Paralympic Games include intellectual disabilities, cerebral palsy, spinal cord injuries, amputations, visual impairments, and other disabilities, and the Deaflympics offer competitions for deaf and hard-of-hearing athletes.

Explain some of the basics of techniques taught and learned in various forms of dance.

Ballet is the foundation for all other western dance forms, so students taught ballet will be well equipped to learn other forms. The development of core strength, which is essential; the first five foot positions; and many steps, turns and jumps from ballet are shared by jazz, modern/contemporary, tap, and ballroom dance. Some additional techniques not taught in classical ballet include: pelvic rotations and ribcage isolations in jazz dance; torso contractions and extensions in modern/contemporary dance; loosening the ankles in tap, as well as "spanking" and other tap-specific foot movements; specific frames, holds, and other postures in the Viennese Waltz and quickstep in ballroom dance; specific turns, steps, and other movements in the cha-cha, samba, rhumba, pasodoble, and other Latin ballroom dances; and general techniques in ballroom dance bearing weight and leading more on the heels than the toes, and movement down, into the floor instead of up, away from it as in ballet.

Explain some ways that baseball, basketball, and football combine locomotor, non-locomotor, and manipulative skills.

Baseball requires locomotor skills for players to run to the bases after a hit, and to run to catch fly balls. It requires non-locomotor skills as players twist their bodies to field the ball, catch the ball, and when batting; lean backward or forward to field balls, lean or bend to catch low or rolling ground balls; reach out to tag runners out before they reach a base; and go through the movement sequence of pitching that involves leaning back , twisting, raising one leg, etc. Catchers also move their bodies while squatting to catch pitches without changing their base support. Baseball additionally involves manipulative skills for pitching, catching, fielding, and batting. Basketball involves the locomotor skills of running and jumping; locomotor skills of leaning, stretching, and bending, and manipulative skills of dribbling, passing, catching and throwing the ball. Football involves the locomotor skills of running, and sometimes jumping over other players; non-locomotor skills of bending in the huddle and twisting when dodging tackles; and manipulative skills of holding, passing (throwing), intercepting, and receiving (catching) the ball.

Summarize a group of gymnasium or outdoor activities appropriate for grades 4-9 that develop strength and flexibility, including what developmentally appropriate equipment is needed and considerations.

Body core strength provides a foundation for all sports and physical activities. Here are some gym/outdoor activities with core strengthening exercises for grades 4-6 and 7-9. Equipment includes one basketball, volleyball, soccer ball, or medicine ball per student; jump ropes; folding mats; ribbon sticks, scarves, pompoms; exercise bands; and masking tape. Have students warmup first and then choose partners and balls. Teachers review exercises for core strength and stability. Considering any student physical limitations or injuries, teachers offer variations and/or have student suggest variations. Exercises include abdominal crunches with feet on floor, feet raise 90 degrees, and elbow to opposite knee; V sits; twisting v sits; same sided hand to heel touch sit ups; bicycles; hip raises; dolphin kicks; side planks; alternating leg lowering from 90 degrees and superhuman lying prone, raising opposite arm and leg alternately. Partners alternate: one performs, one gives feedback. Students may roll dice to decide repetition numbers, or repeat to muscle fatigue. Individual students record activities and repetitions they completed. Use these for future reference to monitor progress. Ribbon sticks, scarves, pompoms and exercise bands can help some students extend their movements. Teachers encourage students to practice their favorite activities every 15-30 seconds while watching TV, doing homework, or using computers.

Explain the relationship of sports teaching methods to student learning and experience levels, e.g., beginning vs. advanced and student age and grade levels.

By studying sports training methods as they are informed by principles of motor learning, researchers have found that, while educators must structure learning environments according to their particular students skill levels and information processing abilities, the training methods they use should nevertheless be constant across students. Neuroscience informs that beginners are more limited in their ability to process information. Additionally, motor learning principles dictate a positive correspondence between the relative complexity of the regulatory stimuli educators use and students experience, and vice versa. The balance is such that, without enough novelty will overwhelm student processing capacities. Teachers can control the learning environment to accommodate beginners' lower processing abilities. For example, when teaching volleyball to 3rd graders, they can limit the content by using a smaller court, fewer players, a lighter ball, and a lower net. As a student gains playing skills, teachers can introduce more new stimuli, enabling student motor behaviors to progress in complexity

Discuss some of the legal aspects of equipment and class organization in physical education, including teacher supervision of students

Class sizes are generally increasing and PE classes are large, supervision is harder, accidents higher and PE lawsuits are increasing. Teachers risk liability because they are recognized as certified professionals with high-responsibility, high profile roles. Teachers are liable for acts of omission (not supervising PE activities) and acts of commission (endangering or threatening students with harm). In lawsuits, levels of negligence are decided according to the roles teachers or coaches played in preventing injuries conditions in adequately or inadequately providing post-injury care, and by professional standards compliance or noncompliance. To be judged negligent, four parts are required: duty, breach of duty, cause, and damage. Common areas of negligence in PE include supervision, instruction, classroom environments, first aid emergencies, and transportation. To prevent, use common sense, be informed of best practices, and follow practices and procedures give by national organizations. Teachers should continually supervise, watch for safety of students and execution, and encourage peer supervision.

Identify some types of music used with different types of dance movements.

Classical ballet commonly employs classical music. Many classical compositions were written expressively for the purpose of accompanying ballets. For example, Tchaikovsky, Swan Lake, Romeo and Juliet, and The Sleeping Beauty. Modern classical composer Igor Stravinsky collaborate with choreographer Michel Fokine for Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes production of The Firebird (1910). Cincinnati Ballet choreographer Adam Hougland created an opera ballet to Mozart's masterpiece Requiem Mass in D Minor. In ballroom dance, the Viennese waltz was traditionally performed to waltzes by classical Viennese composers like Johann Strauss; however, today's creative choreographers also use diverse contemporary music 3/4 time, e.g., on TV's Dancing with the Stars. Latin ballroom dances traditionally used music specifically for each dance, e.g., rhumba, samba, cha-cha, pasodoble, tango, etc., but DWTS also uses other music with appropriate tempi and rhythms. Jazz and tap dances have often been choreographed to Broadway show tunes, but can use any compatible music. Contemporary dance choreography frequently interprets song lyrics or expresses lyrical or evocative music. Hip hop music most often accompanies hip-hop dance.

Describe some of the benefits of participating in dance activities.

Dancing increases aerobic fitness, cardiopulmonary and cardiovascular fitness, endurance, muscular strength, muscular tone, and motor fitness. It strengthens the bones through bearing weight and decreases risk of osteoporosis. It aids in managing a healthy weight. Dancing improves a person's flexibility, agility, and coordination. It enhances spatial awareness, balance, and sense of direction. People who learn to dance enjoy greater physical self-confidence, overall self confidence, and self esteem. Dancing improves mental functioning. It promotes better well being, in general and psychologically. Because of the social interactions inherent in learning to dance, and dancing in classes, groups and with partners, dance also improves social skills. Serious dancers become very physically fit; even those more casually involved in dance will get more physical activity, improving their health and well being. Dance can be pursued competitively or socially. Inclement weather does not interfere with dance classes or lessons, including dance studios, dance schools, fitness clubs, colleges and universities, university extensions, dance halls, community recreation centers, etc.

Identify a number of barriers to participating in sports that people with disabilities commonly experience.

Depending whether an individual has acquired a disability later in life or has had it from birth, some individuals will not have had experiences with sports early in life. This presents one obstacle to sports participation later and throughout life. Another common problem for people with disabilities is people in their communities, schools, and organizations lacking awareness and understanding of how to include persons having disabilities in sports events they organize and manage. Limited community resources, programs, and opportunities to acquire training, participate, and compete affect people with disabilities. This limitation sometimes results from the aforementioned lack of awareness and understanding about inclusion methods; and sometimes also exists despite community awareness, understanding, and desire, e.g., when funding and support are still missing. Lack of accessible gyms, buildings, and other facilities is another barrier. Dearth of accessible transportation interferes with attending sports events to participate. Social and psychological barriers include parent, teacher, coach, and even disabled people's attitudes and beliefs toward disability and sports participation. Inadequate access to information and resources is another obstacle.

Discuss some maturational considerations for PE teachers and coaches in assigning physical activities to middle and high school students, including some examples, and team assignment.

Despite common PE class segregation of males from females, some experts find it appropriate to allow adolescents of both genders to participate together in physical activities without body contact that require agility and lower body strength. Some examples of these include running, ultimate Frisbee, and capture the flag. For activities that need more upper body strength, PE teachers and coaches should base their assignment of teams on the skill levels of the individual students to prevent them from injuring themselves and one another. Experts also point out the importance of evenly matching sports teams on the basis of levels of maturation and skills. That way, deficits in individual student skill levels are not as obvious, and all students have fun participating. Some examples of suitable activities include individual and/or partners' tennis, badminton, and competitive team activities like flag football. It is important for PE teachers and coaches to monitor student physical activities, and adjust them as needed to assure all students have competitive, positive, and enjoyable experiences.

Define effort awareness

Effort awareness refers to an individual's knowledge of time, force, and balance and how these are related to physical movements and athletic activities.

Give some individual examples of how a physically active lifestyle promotes enjoyment and challenge, respectively.

Enjoyment: 1) A high school boy never interested in traditional intramural and team sports offered in Pe classes sees a brochure on kayaking and decides to enroll in lessons at a local outdoor adventure training company. He finds navigating rapids thrilling and enjoys interacting with nature. 2) Some low-income urban kindergarteners have done unstructured running, jumping, etc. and played simple games like Simon Says at home, but never learned any physically active games with rules. Their teachers introduces them to a variety of games wherein they must walk, run, change directions, link arms, jump, tumble, do extensions; throw, bowl, and fetch balls, touch things, etc. following teacher directions and rules. They enjoy these new experiences. Challenge: 1) A middle school girl can only do a few sit-ups. Her PE teacher assigns 30 sit-ups to alternating pairs. While spotting her partner-a pretty, thinner friend she admires, she sees the effort on her face with each sit-up. She is inspired to complete all 30 during her turn 2) A high school student has run 500-yard dashes, but never a marathon, and doubts her ability. Her PE teacher encourages her. After training regularly for three months, she successfully completes a full 26 mile race.

Describe some aspects of the role of the manual skills of reaching and grasping in motor development.

Even before birth, fetuses display arm and hand movements- waving arms, making isolated finger movements like moving their thumbs to their mouths. Outside the womb, without the buoyancy of amniotic fluid, newborns must contend with gravity, Beginning with jerky extensions and flapping of the arms, they develop successful reaching for objects by 4-5 months. Detailed their hands to targets individually. More sedentary babies must transcend gravity to raise their arms, while more active babies must damp inertia to control spontaneous, continuous arm-flapping. Both only open their hands into fitting shapes after touching objects. By around 8 months, babies can adjust their hand shapes prior to object contact, informing themselves visually about object shapes, sizes and orientations. While visual information about object properties and locations is critical to adaptive planning of arm and hand movements, babies can reach and grasp as successfully in the dark as in light, so they need to see their arms or hands to guide them- likely because kinesthetics and proprioception work for body parts but not separate objects.

Share several strategies that PE teachers can use in planning effective class behavior management.

Experienced experts advise PE teachers to get to know every single student as soon as they possibly can to develop rapport with students and classes. Learn a unique fact about each student. Greeting each student by name as he or she arrives to class daily will demonstrate teacher recognition and interest for every individual Teachers should establish all class routines and procedures, such as for using and returning equipment, bathroom breaks, etc. to be consistent from class to class everyday. These should not exceed five in number, as students will not be able to remember or keep track of more. Teachers should enforce these expectations consistently. Expectations should not focus on the negative (not to do), but on the positive (to do). Post expectations in locker room or on a bulletin board in classroom.

Describes some basic rules that PE teachers and coaches should follow to maintain student safety and limit teacher liability for personal injuries.

Experts advise supervising students between classes, intervening in student altercations or fights, monitoring and supervising the athletic and PE complexes' multiple entrances and exit, and collaboratively developing plans with co-workers for the latter. PE teachers should lock gyms, and pools between classes, not give students keys and always check hyms and pools for athletes before locking doors. Check equipment to prevent injuries. Basic vaulting and tumbling skills for gymnastics should be taught in PE and with individual spotters in these. Falls are more likely since average students lack the strength to support their bodies or hang using their arms. Falls could cause spinal damage, paralysis or death. Never use trampolines in PE. If they are used in cheer or other after school activities check to make sure insurance covers it (most does not).

Discuss some aspects of inclusion for participants with disabilities in adventure PE.

Experts identify the building blocks of adventure PE programs as the core values of adventure education, which include: emphasizing non-competitive activities; participants sense of accomplishment from successfully completing a specifically designed activity sequence; trust and cooperation fostering among co-participants; the communication participants exchange to attain their goals; the ability to implement activities at individual participant levels; the combination of enhancing strength, coordination, flexibility and endurance while having fun; and the fact that activities require participants to cooperate with nature, promoting better appreciation and respect for the natural environment. Adaptations includes allowing longer times to complete tasks, slowing activity paces, demonstrating activities visually and verbally, employing peer partner assistance, simplifying steps, modifying body positions, removing obstacles and distractions, increasing participation time by using stations, providing ramps, shortening course or activity distance, and using signing gestures along with verbal instructions. Special and regular education teachers must collaborate creatively to assess needs and find appropriate curriculum adaptations that both enable individual success and attain the school's/organization's and individual students learning goals.

Identify some culturally competent strategies recommended for enhancing physical activity levels among divers populations.

Experts recommend that local government offices should work together with members of their communities who represent people with disabilities, low incomes, and culturally and ethnically diverse backgrounds. Incorporating the input and insight these community members can contribute, they can collaborate to make organized plans; identify, secure, and prepare or renovate suitable sites; construct community recreation facilities; and staff, operate, and manage them. When families have access to recreational facilities that are close to their homes and provide safe environments, appropriate space and equipment, and beneficial social interaction, they are much more likely to engage in physical activity for recreation, benefiting their physical, mental and social health and well-being. Some neighborhoods have organized local walking groups and activities in ethnically diverse communities. These combine greater physical activity with safety and social interaction. Residents report greater neighborhood pride and ownership and stronger sense of community. Mexican American citizens have reported in focus groups that they value family-based physical activities. For culturally competent responses, recreation facilities should organize family programs rather than individually targeting women, men, seniors, youth, etc.

Describe some considerations and approaches related to the time, cost, access and resources involved in participating in physical fitness and weight management activities.

Experts say to be healthy, children and teens need to engage in moderate to vigorous activity for around an hour a day, adults around half an hour a day, about five days a week. People who want to lose weight or maintain weight loss may need to 40-90 minutes of activity daily Modern conveniences plus school and occupational work primarily done seated interfere with physical activity. Lack of financial resource is another obstacle. People living in socioeconomically disadvantaged communities lack not only money, but often accessible community recreation facilities like safe outdoor parks, indoor recreation centers, facilities, equipment, and clubs or other social groups focusing on physical activities. For time, physical activity like walking can be divided into small, 10 minute sessions three times daily. For motivation, family outings, free or low cost group activities, and walking and exercise partners offer social support.

Identify several fundamental practices that PE coaches and teachers should observe to limit the chance of student injuries and coach or teacher liability for them.

Experts with both PE and legal experience caution PE teachers and coaches to remember that if basic rules are not followed in sports like softball, these seemingly innocent activities can become dangerous. For example, teachers must instruct students to call for fly balls; students who do not should back away from those who do. When you have 30 plus students on a fielding team instead of the 9 in a regulation or non-class game, collisions are far more likely. Serious injuries are more probable from head to head/smaller to bigger student collisions. All sports have safety rules to observe. PE teachers must check slip-resistant surfaces for wear or inadequacy (particularly if water's present), inspect facilities monthly, and report any repair or maintenance departments, procure and use eye protection when reasonable, use applicable safety equipment for each sport or activity, prevent non-participating students from getting in harms way, follow physician instructions in any students doctor excuses, review safety rules with students, never punish students with strenuous exercise, confer with school nurses regarding any student medical conditions causing strenuous activity intolerance, and avoid student physical contact, except for safety reasons.

Identify some external variables that affect performance in physical activities.

External factors are things outside ourselves, over which we usually have little or no control but which still have impacts on our physical performance. Weather in outdoor environments can have helpful or detrimental impacts on physical performance, depending on the activity. For example, a strong wind blowing steadily can interfere with performance when playing tennis, but will aid performance when sailing a boat. Equipment is another external variable. Although individual or team performance is aided by better equipment, there is also always a chance of equipment malfunction or failure. Technology is an external variable gaining importance as it develops and advances. Video and computer technology enable more precise and sophisticated analysis of sports and movement techniques. Computer technology also enhances equipment capabilities and use. In sports, other players constitute an external variable. Performance is affected by both teammates and opponents. Poor teammate performance can interfere; good teammate performance can inspire. Poor or good opponent performance can make competing easier and less challenging, or harder and more challenging. Decisions made by referees, umpires and other officials are external factors that can increase or destroy motivation.

Summarize some psychological factors that affect learning in PE settings. Identify and define three stages of motor learning. Summarize how arousal and attention affect performance, how anxiety affects attention, and how to reduce anxiety.

Factors that influence learning include: 1) Readiness, i.e. physiological and psychological variables that affect individuals to initiate goal-directed activities; 2) Reinforcement, i.e., actions, behaviors, and events, positive or negative, augmenting the probability that an individual will repeat the same response to a stimulus; 3) Individual differences, i.e., student abilities, backgrounds, intelligence, personalities, and learning styles. Stages: 1) In the cognitive stage of motor learning, learners understand the goal and nature of the activity, and make first attempts, including major errors. 2) In the associative stage, learners practice to master skill timing; errors are more consistent and less numerous. 3) In the autonomous stage, learner movements seem effortless and are well coordinated; errors are minimal; and performance automaticity enables learners to redirect attention to other skill aspects. Peak athletic performance is enabled by optimal individual arousal levels. Attention ranges from narrow to wide, and internal to external. Attention flexibility is capacity for shifting voluntarily and quickly among different attentional styles according to task demands. Anxiety affects performance by narrowing and internalizing attentional focus. Physical activity reduces general or non-competition anxiety; pre-competition warmups reduce performance anxiety, as well as prevent injuries and enhance movement.

Define fitness education. Identify a national resource developed to provide guidance to PE teachers and others in designing instruction to meet diverse student needs. Summarize the purpose and basic assumption of this resource.

Fitness education is a part of a total PE program, directed toward helping student gain information and higher-level comprehension of both the processes of physical activity habits and health lifestyle, and the products of good health, wellness and health related physical fitness. The fitness education project team formed by NASPE after reviewing current literature and consulting with nationwide professionals with expertiae in pedagogy and content specialities, PE district curriculum materials, and state and national PE standards to gain insights, produced a comprehensive instructional framework for fitness education in physical education (IFFEPE).

Describe some lifespan changes in flexibility and body composition and how to address these.

Flexibility appears to peak in the late teens/early 20s. Anatomically, females are more flexible than males. Aging related structural joint changes reduce flexibility as tendons lose elasticity, ligaments fray, synovial fluid loses viscosity, and cartilage cracks, However, according to research studies, people can maintain or increase their flexibility just by being active. At birth, average body compositions is 11 percent fat in boys and 14 percent in girls. The size and number of fat cells grow to 26 percent in boys, 28 percent in girls, during their first year of life. During puberty, girls experience greater increases in size and number of fat cells than boys. The only time fatty tissue decreases in early life is when babies begin walking. Adult norms are 10-25 percent body fat for men, 18-30 percent for women. Fourteen to 17 percent body fat in men and 21-24 percent in women are associate with fitness. Obesity standards are at more than 25 fat in men and 32 percent in women. Increased or excess fat around the organs is highly correlated with heart disease. While some adults lose fat with aging, others gain fat with slowing metabolisms and muscle loss. Physical activity and exercise cannot stop but can help manage age related fat, weight gain, and muscle loss.

Identify some of the primary equipment PE teachers should know their students need to participate safely in football, baseball, and hockey games.

Football players need heavy shoulder, chest and elbow pads to protect them from body contact injuries. Helmets are imperative to prevent head and brain injuries from collisions and blows. Recently the NFL began requiring players to wear knee and shin guards; PE teachers should have students follow this practice. Baseball does not require body contact through hitting or tackling like football. However, because it involves swinging hard bats and hitting and throwing balls which become projectiles, baseball players must wear helmets to protect against head injury. When traumatic brain injuries do not occur, getting beaned by a baseball is still extremely painful- even when wearing a helmet, let alone to an unprotected head. Being accidentally hit by a baseball bat can also seriously injure a student. Hockey players use angled wooden sticks, which can cause injuries. Ice hockey uses a small, dense, hard rubber puck, which can be very injurious if striking a player. Helmets, neck guards, shoulder and chest pads, elbow and forearm pads, and shin guards are included in hockey, plus heel guards on skates in ice hockey. Mouth guards are recommended in football and hockey to protect players from lost and broken teeth.

Give descriptions of skills that students should be able to perform to combine movement skills for specific sports, including to combine dribbling and shooting in grades 4, 5, and 6 respectively; and to combine throwing, catching, and rolling skills in grades k and 1 respectively.

For dribbling and shooting, 4th graders should be able to demonstrate a bank shot with a basketball, and dribble the ball around obstacles with good ball control while changing directions at a jogging speed. Fifth graders should be able to juggle small objects like beanbags, tennis balls, etc. in a cascade pattern; dribble a basketball with good control while changing speeds and directions around defensive opposing players who must walk and not use their hands; and demonstrate a basketball layup using the opposing players who must walk and not use their hands; and demonstrate a basketball layup using the opposing foot on takeoff while moving continuously throughout. Sixth graders should be able to shoot a basketball from anywhere on the court behind the second hash mark*, demonstrating good form. *PE teachers may want to vary the distance they use to assess this skill. Sixth graders should also be able to demonstrate good skills for handling basketballs. For throwing and catching, kindergarteners should throw and catch beanbags to themselves and catch teacher thrown (7-9 inches) foam balls from 5 feet. First graders should roll a tennis ball and scoop up a slowly rolled tennis ball in their hands; throw small, soft balls with hand foot opposition; and consistently catch big (4-9) balls self-tossed above the head.

Describe some of the requirements for recreational activities, whether they are necessary, and some of their purposes.

For people to engage in recreational activities, they must have free time when they are not occupied with working, activities of daily living, sleeping, or social obligations. People had less leisure time than they do today: they needed more time to survive physically and economically. With industrialization, higher standards of living, longer life expectancies, and more commercially offered recreational activities, people now have more leisure time available. Although some perspectives see leisure as spare time, others see it as an essential part of civilization and personal development because it enables people to reflect on the realities and values they overlook during daily life activities. Leisure is viewed as both a reward in and of itself and a reward for work, or even the purpose of work. Today, leisure has come to be seen as reflecting a nation's character and values: the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights considers leisure a human right. Recreational activities are pursued for purposes of pleasure, health lifestyles, social interaction, competition, physical and mental rehabilitation, and other therapeutic and preventative medical purposes.

Identify some PE teaching techniques to help students develop better spatial awareness and coordination, some skills and activities that can be taught in steps, and some recommended instructional strategies.

For students to develop greater spatial awareness and coordination, they need both maturity and plenty of practice. In their lessons, PE teachers should concentrate on activities that require vision, hearing and/or touch; that are sequential in nature; and that children enjoy performing. It is very beneficial to students for PE teachers to discuss the specific steps for performing fundamental skills with them. For example, running; hitting and catching a ball; dribbling a basketball, making a basket; and setting volleyball are all skills and activities that PE teachers can break down into incremental steps and teach them one step at a time. Instructional strategies that are recommended include first introducing a skill to students; having the students practice the skill using a variety of equipment and in a variety of settings; modifying games to incorporate practice of the requisite skills; implementing lead-up games containing these practice modifications; and then, after enough practice, giving students the opportunity to use the skills they have learned and practiced in the contexts of real games.

Describe a PE competitive team game for children, including the movement patterns and skills it develops, equipment needed, playing directions, and teaching tips.

Four-Corner Cage Ball involves kicking and crab-walking movements, and develops striking skills, arm and shoulder strength, and teamwork skills. Equipment is four cones and one cage ball. Divide the class into four teams, each forming one side of a square marked by cones. Number off each team; children must remember their numbers. Place a cage ball in the middle of the square. Call a number. All children with that number crab-walk to the ball; their goal is to kick the ball over the heads of the other team. Other players, also crab-walking, can only block the ball using their feet. Any team having the ball kicked over their heads gets a point. Start again, calling new numbers. The object is NOT getting points. Teaching tips: With this competitive game, children may become excited, forget the rules, and block the ball with their hands. Teams can be given points for doing this if not for safety. For safety, no hard shoes or boots are allowed, and children should remove glasses. If outdoors on grass, carefully check first for debris. If running out of time without everybody getting a turn, extend boundaries as needed; call two or three numbers at once.

Describe some typical learning objectives combining locomotor, non-locomotor, and manipulative skills in volleying for grades k-6 respectively.

Fourth graders should run and change direction dribbling a basketball or kicking a soccer ball. Fifth graders should integrate skills by changing speeds and directions to evade defenders while dribbling a basketball, running with a football, or kicking a soccer ball; or consistently and strategically moving to open spaces to receive passes in small sided games. Sixth graders should run and leap over consecutive cones or other obstacles without stopping. kindergarteners should be able to volley beach balls or balloons to themselves five successive times and hit balls or balloons up 9-12 in continuously with different body parts. First graders should be able to vary their striking force and volleyball 6-10 times upward, alternating left and right palms. Second graders should be able to volley with partners using both hands, and volley underhand while walking forward c 20 ft. Third graders should make and catch forearm passes to themselves, and volley to partners using overhead passes. Fourth graders should serve underhand or overhand with correct form, and consistently volley using forearm passes to themselves. Fifth graders should serve underhand, overhand, pass overhead, and forearm pass; show correct overhead volleying form against a wall; and consistently serve volleyballs over nets 6 ft high or walls 15 ft away. Sixth graders should return volleyballs with forearm passes at least 6 ft high.

Identify some examples of things students should be able to understand and demonstrate in PE at grades 7-8.

Give partners and groups constructive feedback; solve more complex problems with larger groups in simple movement challenges. Describe body movements using more advanced terminology Show an understanding of body part relationship in performing more complex gymnastics, dance, sports, and/or related activities. Recognize similarities in the use of space in tactics, dance, gymnastics, and other advanced activities. Perform more complex movement sequences like low/high ropes exercises. Keep time to music while performing steps and patterns in a variety of dance styles. Adjust movements with partners or groups to a beat. Combine speed, force, directions, levels, and pathways in a dance routine, a sport tactic like dribbling against a defender, or other complex series of movement concepts and motor skills. Demonstrate mature form in various basic skills; adjust skills to more complex situations, e.g., throwing and hitting to different locations. Assess personal performance on Fitnessgram or other nationally accepted instrument. Monitor heart and respiratory rate, perceived exertion, recovery rate during and following activity. Understand basic FITT principles. Play by rules, show appropriate sports conduct, officiate small-group games, appropriately assume leader-follower roles, cooperate with others, show appreciation for appropriate feedback, interact with others from diverse backgrounds.

Describe some examples of PE competencies for grade levels 3-6.

Grades 3-4: Describe movements identifying body parts and actions. Identify basic muscle groups and movements. Show awareness of body part relationships (opposition, unison, sequence). Demonstrate leaping, alternating leading foot. Apply space concepts in movements with others. Balance on various equipment with control. Show an understanding of static and dynamic balance. Show comprehension of how bodies create and absorb force. Choose forces appropriate to tasks. Control personal and manipulative force, like dribbling while walking and running. Demonstrate slow, medium, and fast movement. Move with tempo changes. Incorporate various equipment into rhythmic patterns and movements. Combine up to three movements with or without equipment, e.g., jump-roping routines. Demonstrate smooth transitions among sequential motor skills, like running to jumping. Solve movement challenges combining concepts of force, time, and balance, e.g., gymnastics routines. Define, apply, and assess the four health-related fitness components. 2) Grades 5-6: Identify specific muscle groups and movements. Combine body movements and sports. Recognize similar skills in different activities. Perform movement sequences. Adjust force for tasks projecting objects, using various equipment. Adjust body movements for speed changes. Combine movement concepts and motor skills in series.

Relate some tips that parents can give to young children to help them master the basic locomotor skills of walking, galloping, jumping, hopping, side-sliding, leaping, and skipping.

Here are some tips for parents to help their young children master the basic locomotor skills. Walking: tell children to walk with straight, smooth steps and swing their arms in opposition to their feet. Have them practice different walks, e.g., on tiptoe, low with bent knees, fast and slow, robotic and liquid, etc. Galloping: tell children to use one foot as "leader" and the other as "follower," alternating sides. Jumping: Have children keep their feet together, pushing and landing with both feet. Have them try jumping rope; see how high they can jump, how many times in a row, and how quietly they can land. Hopping: Have children see how quickly and slowly they can hop, and whether either side is harder. Side-sliding: tell children to spread their arms, lead with one foot, and rise in the middle. Leaping: have children lead with one foot and leap over an object, landing with the other foot. Skipping: tell children to march, raising one knee high and hopping on the other foot-step/hop, step/hop, alternating sides.

Discuss the significance of posture to both classical and contemporary theories of motor development.

In both classical and contemporary theories of motor development, the role played by posture is central. In classical theories, which attributed motor skills development to neuromuscular maturation, the gradually increasing erectness of babies' postures as they progress in overcoming the effects of gravity was demonstration of the growth of control over actions in their cerebral cortices. In contemporary theories involving dynamic systems approaches and perception-action relationships, posture is equally important as actions bio-mechanical basis. Not only locomotor skills, but manual skills and even raising and turning the head all depend on having a stable postural base. Sitting up, crawling, walking, and every other developmental milestone in posture necessitates learning about new perception-action systems. In learning control over a new postural system, the first step is contraction of large muscle groups. This enables focusing attention on the movements goal directed aspects by freeing more resources. But movements initiated by co-contraction are energy inefficient and jerky. With enough practice, babies learn to activate muscles in sequence and take advantage of the forces of inertia and gravity, allowing much lesser exertion of muscular force.

Identify some reasons for greater PE teacher or coach liability compared to classroom teacher liability.

In classrooms, student movement is limited; However, in PE classes, movement is the primary activity. PE teachers and coaches contend with movement by many students simultaneously. Baseballs, softballs, footballs, tennis balls, discus, shot puts, javelins, and other projectiles can injure students. PE facilities are bigger than a normal classroom and include both indoor and outdoor spaces. PE teachers have to cover a bigger space. Swimming is another factor in PE. Swimming pools, showers add other risk factors like drowning or injuries. Do not leave students alone without supervision. First in and last out. Another liability is personal vehicles owned by teacher that are used for transport to activities outside of school. Most schools block transportation; however, AAU, and other outside school programs are not capped by this.

Identify some effective strategies that PE teachers can use when making their plans for class behavior management.

In effective behavior management plans, PE teachers should privately and quietly discipline individual students when needed. They should never hold disciplinary talks in front of the other students. When disputes between or among students develop during classes, one strategy that PE teachers can use is to settle them using the "rock, paper, and scissors" method. This ensures randomness for objectivity instead of subjective or preferential decisions. When assigning students to groups, PE teachers should consider their individual differences and needs, such as disabilities or special needs, skill levels, English language proficiency, race, gender, etc. To balance groups evenly, teachers should divide their classes into high, middle and low achievers and then place one from each level into each group. English language learners and special needs students should be paired with supportive buddies or partners. Teachers should begin and end class on time, teaching bell to bell.

Identify some criteria for durations and intensities of aerobic activity recommended for most individuals as part of their personal fitness plans. Give some respective examples of activities with moderate and vigorous intensity levels.

In fitness plans for most individuals, aerobic activity at a moderate level is recommended to add up to 150 minutes or 2.5 hours per week. Aerobic activity at a vigorous level is recommended for half that duration, ex. 75 min per week. Individuals may also choose to combine or alternate moderate and vigorous aerobic activities for equivalent durations. During activities at moderate intensities, people are able to speak but unable to sing. During activities at vigorous intensities, people can only utter a few words before needing to pause for breath. Examples of moderate-intensity activities include walking briskly, 3mph or faster; bicycling at less than 10mph; playing doubles tennis; doing water aerobics, ballroom dancing, and dancing in general. Examples of vigorous intensity activities include running, jogging, race walking, bicycling at more than 10mph; playing singles tennis; swimming laps; aerobic dancing; doing heavy, continuous gardening that raises the heart rate; hiking with a heavy backpack or uphill; and jumping rope.

In an example of thematic unit, describe some strategies teachers can use to help students in grades 4, 5, and 6 respectively to learn and practice non-locomotor skills.

In grade 4, teachers review non-locomotor skills and discuss their importance in physical activities, including bending in tucked, pike, squat, forward, and backward positions; stretching before physical activity, including identifying muscle groups to stretch in warm-up and cool-down; static balancing, with 1 part to 4 part bases and in gymnastic routines; and dynamic balancing, including turning in dance and games and flopping from sitting, kneeling, and standing positions. Teachers guide paired students in mat exercises, have them create routines targeting multiple muscle groups, and have all students perform these. In grade 5, teachers review; have students develop skills further through individual and group activities; perform bends, stretches, and rolls on mats; and create warmup and cool down routines, and lead the class in performing these. Teachers invite a physical therapist or other professional to discuss stretching and injuries caused by improper stretching. In grade 6, teachers review; have students explore non-locomotor movements on mats, pointing out specific movements discovered; assign pairs or small groups to create warm-up routines, recording and displaying activities and muscle groups included on posters; assign homework of short reports with diagrams explaining the relationship of stretching and injury prevention; and emphasize more independent student movement development.

Explain some essential elements that define positive interdependence in a cooperative learning lesson in terms of student perceptions.

In shared responsibility termed positive interdependence, students perceive they cannot succeed unless their group mates do, vice versa, and they must coordinate their work with other members work to accomplish any task. Students maximize the learning of all small group members when they collaborate by giving each other mutual encouragement and support, sharing resources, and celebrating their group success. They realize that every member of the group has unique roles, responsibilities, and resources; therefore, every member makes a unique contribution to the collective endeavor. In cooperative learning groups, all students are responsible for learning the assigned content, and for assuring every member of their group also learns it.

In considering the effects of individual differences on learning in physical education, differentially define individual and situational interest. Also explain how these are related.

Individual interest describes the relatively lasting psychological preference or predisposition of an individual to repeatedly engage with certain categories of events, ideas, or objects over time. It is specific to the content involved, develops gradually and slowly, and is comparatively stable. Individual interest also evolves in relation to the individual's values and knowledge. Individual interest figures significantly in student' preferences for engaging in certain activities or tasks over time, and is predictive of their future motivation. Situational interest describes the momentary affective responses generated by environmental stimuli. The effects of this may be short term, and its influence on individual values and knowledge may be marginal. Appealing or specific environmental features usually stimulate situational interest, which can also potentially lead to true interest. Both individual and situational interest influence learning. Although the former proceeds from internal psychological characteristics and the latter from external environmental stimuli, they do not exist separately: they interact and influence each other's development. Situational interest can help long-term individual interest to develop, and strong individual interest can enable an individual to respond differently to stimulating environmental situations than others lacking such interest.

Explain how coordinating perceptual exploration with early manual skills development is a basic requirement in motor development.

Infants need visual information about the characteristics and locations of objects to reach and grasp, as evidenced by their intercepting moving objects, moving their opposite hand to the right place before object arrival. Researchers have observed a basic motor development need is coordination of perceptual exploring and manual skills. Newborns not only bring hands to mouths; when stretching arms out, they also turn their head to maintain their arm view. As they grow, older babies bring not only fingers, but also objects to their mouths. They coordinate among visual, tactile, an oral exploration; looking at; reaching; grasping; touching; turning; and mouthing objects. Babies also must use balance control, even for simple reaching actions: extending one arm out from the base of support displaces the center of gravity, requiring counterbalancing through opposition. When infants abdominal and back muscles are not yet strong enough to support them in sitting positions, they use their hands to achieve a tripod balance. Once they sit independently around 5-6 months, this frees their hands to reach, grasp, and manipulate smaller objects. Within several more months, they can coordinate learning with reaching to avoid tipping over.

Describe the principle of feedback relative to motor skill learning in PE students.

Input from teachers and coaches is vital for students to learn motor skills. Student motivation and interest are enhanced by positive feedback, while student recognition and correction of errors are enhanced by negative feedback. When students learn motor skills, these are temporarily saved in short term memory. Positive feedback supports transfer to permanent, long term memory. It not only encourages, but also helps students remember all aspects of their performance. Negative feedback is not only corrective, but also motivational: when students and athletes do not improve their technique over time, they lose motivation. Students receive internal feedback through kinesthesia and proprioception. When they produce movements, they receive sensations and information from their muscles, joints, and vestibular (balance) systems. They receive verbal and visual external feedback from teachers and coaches. External feedback that improves internal feedback by enabling students and athletes to establish kinesthetic references for correct movements and techniques is called augmented feedback. Extrinsic feedback includes knowledge of performance, and information about performance and technique. Studies find feedback timing equally important as feedback content. Positive feedback is crucial to beginners for successfully learning skills. Beginners may be bored by negative feedback, but corrections and results are very important to advanced students and athletes.

Discuss some legal aspects of PE equipment use and class organization related to instruction, classroom environments, emergency first aid and transportation.

Insufficient or improper advance instruction directly informs teacher liability. Also, teachers should not let students lacking judgment of their personal capability perform movements. Safety instructions should be stated simply. Instruction in procedures and protocols for equipment setup, use and takedown is a must. Teachers should watch weather, for potential dangers, space students, and look at equipment to make sure they are used correctly and not broken. Students moving and not still are more likely to get injured. Teachers are expected to give appropriate help and first aid treatment. They should be trained and currently certified in first aid. First aid procedures should be included in class objectives, permanently displayed school wide and developed among school personnel. Know your preexisting conditions for students. They should write a detailed report if incidents arise, including prevention measures. Transportation outside of school risks liability: teachers should get written parental consent, and always follow school policies, practices and procedures.

Comment on how student substance abuse affects student interpersonal relationships.

Interpersonal relationships may initially be contributing factors to student substance use. For example, adolescent students may begin using alcohol or other substances in response to peer pressure; in social situations, peers using alcohol or other drugs may urge teens to join them, and they do so to fit in with their majority or to gain their acceptance, approval, or admiration. When a student with a pre-existing friendship or personal relationship abuses substances, he or she may withdraw from the relationship as procuring and using the substance takes precedence. Another effect of substance abuse is increasing conflict within personal relationships. Disagreements and fights are more common.

Identify some objectives for manipulative skills involving kicking that students should learn at each elementary grade level.

Kindergarteners: dribble a soccer ball slowly with both feet while walking; approach stationary balls and kick with high follow-through without stopping; kick stationary balls with any foot part with high leg backswing and follow through. First graders: dribble medium/large balls with either foot, walking/jogging; kicking balls with solid contact, hight follow-through; approaching stationary balls, kick without stopping with high follow-through. Second graders: dribble balls using both feet, jogging trap balls when stopping; show correct form kicking balls using insteps; kick slowly-rolled balls to kickers with solid contact and high follow-through. Third graders: dribble soccer balls using feet insides/outsides, running at varying speeds; pass balls to partners or targets using inside-foot kicks somewhat accurately and consistently; punt balls, with or without a bounce, using correct form, 15 feet or more most times. Fourth graders: dribble around stationary opponents or objects without object contact or ball loss; trap teammate-rolled balls; dribble and instep-kick moving balls at large goals. Fifth graders: dribble around lightly resistant, moving opponents; punt soccer balls and/or footballs 30 ft or more with two-or three-step approaches; make lead passes while dribbling with inside-foot kicks to moving teammates. Sixth graders: change speeds and directions to evade opponents while dribbling soccer balls; trap balls from different speeds and heights; show competency with soccer dribbling and inside foot passes in keep away games.

Describe what students should be able to do to demonstrate their manipulative movement skills for dribbling and shooting basketballs at grade k, 1, 2, and 3 levels respectively.

Kindergartners should be able twirl a hula hoop and roll it on the floor. They should be able to drop a ball and catch it at the peak of its bounce. They should be able to dribble a ball continuously with their dominant hand. First graders should be able to juggle two scarves, pass beanbags hand to hand between their legs in figure 8m and dribble a ball with their dominant hand while moving. Second graders should be able to dribble a ball around stationary objects, and dribble a ball with both left and right hands while standing in place without losing control. Third graders should be able to circle a hula hoop around the waist without using the hands; juggle three scarves or plastic bags in a cascading patter; and dribble a basketball in a figure 8 pathway, alternating dribbling hands, to the opposite of cones set 10 in apart.

Define kinesthesis and equilibrium, and explain how our perceptions of these inform our perceptions of our body movements in space, and of spatial relationships in body movements.

Kinesthesis is the sense of the body parts' positions and movements. Muscles, tendons, and joints contain receptors enabling kinesthesis. We are able to know where all of our body parts are at any time, and in what manner and direction they are moving, through kinesthesis. Equilibrium is our sense balance. This gives us information regarding where our bodies are in space. For example, we can distinguish whether we are standing up, sitting or lying down; in an ascending or descending elevator; or riding a roller coaster through our sense of equilibrium. The vestibular system in the inner ear is the sensory system that provides equilibrium. Specifically, the three semicircular canals contain fluid. Whenever our heads move, this fluid moves along with the head. The fluids movements stimulates hair cells/cilia in the semicircular canals. These receptors send impulses to the brain via nerves. The brain interprets these impulses to understand the movement, giving us feedback about it. Our brains interpret the combined feedback from kinesthesis and equilibrium for orienting ourselves in space.

Discuss some of the benefits to children of learning tumbling and gymnastics.

Learning tumbling and gymnastics skills and routines contributes significantly to children's development in many domains- not only in sport-specific skills, but additionally in academic performance and personality, psychological, and social development. Students meeting challenges in gymnastics, e.g., learning skills for performing on balance beams and parallel bars, gain self-confidence in their own abilities, which extends to school subjects and other life areas. Younger children think concretely, not abstractly; their lives are more physical than mental. The superior body movement and coordination they develop through tumbling and gymnastics give them much of their self confidence. Children lacking natural talent to be a star athlete in other sports benefit from success in tumbling and gymnastics as teachers can control the challenges and progress they experience. Students learn to overcome fears and to perform in front of others. The training required in gymnastics builds determination and a hard work ethic; its controlled environment and rules teach discipline. Physical strength and flexibility-which also prevents many injuries. Listening, following directions, taking turns, politeness, and respecting others are social skills learned in gymnastics.

Name and describe some of the types of apparatuses used in gymnastics.

Low parallel bars are 7 feet long, 15 inches high and 18 inches wide for practicing hand balances. Standard parallel bars are adjustable hand rails, made of fine-grained wood, on uprights connected by oval-shaped presses steel rails. Rails go under upright and are completely secured inside the base. Bars adjust from 3 ft and 9 in to 5 ft and 3 in high and from 15 to 18 inches wide. Mats are thick pads covered with canvas or other material, filled with 2 inches of kapok/felt, made in various lengths, widths, and grades, to protect gymnasts when landing or falling. A side horse is a cylindrical body with an approximately 14 inch diameter, covered in leather/other material, mounted on steel legs/base, with two pommels, i.e., handles, on top near the middle. Horse height is adjustable from 36 to 57 inches. A spring board is an inclined board about 6 ft by 22 inches, over a fulcrum about half its length. It is lightweight, usually made of ash, shod with rubber, and with its upper end carpeted in cork. It is used to spring off from for tumbling, horse and buck vaulting, and to parallel bars.

Define manipulative or object control skills. Give examples of these. Explain a consideration when children are initially learning them.

Manipulative or object control skills are the category of motor skills that involve using objects. They include both fine motor skills, as in buttoning buttons, zipping zippers, fastening and unfastening clasps, twist ties, etc.; using crayons, pencils, pens, and other writing, drawing, and painting implements; using spoons, forks, and other eating utensils; and gross motor skills, as in swinging a baseball bat, a tennis racket, a jai-alai cesta, a jump rope, a golf club, a bow and arrow, etc. The actions included in manipulative skills include pushing, pulling, lifting, swinging, striking, throwing, catching, kicking, rolling a ball, volleying, bouncing, and dribbling. A consideration to keep in mind when young children are first learning manipulative skills is not to expect them to be perfectly accurate, for example hitting a target, throwing directly to another player in a game, or catching a ball thrown to them. Children must first master the throwing, catching, hitting, kicking, or other action before they can develop accuracy as well. It can help to have children practice the movements and techniques with imaginary objects to begin, and then progress to real objects.

Identify five conditions required for cooperative learning activities to be more productive than individual or competitive learning activities.

Merely grouping students does not achieve cooperative learning, which requires a common group goal whose achievement the group is rewarded. Conditions required for cooperative learning include these five basic elements: 1) the students have positive interdependence and clearly perceive this. 2) The students engage in substantial amounts of face-to-face, promotive interaction. 3) the students are personally and individually accountable and responsible for achieving the goals of the group, and they clearly perceive they are. 4) The students often make use of the small-group and interpersonal skills that are pertinent to their cooperative learning activity. 5) The students regularly and frequently engage in group processing of their current group functioning to improve the effectiveness of the group in the future. All effective cooperative relationships, including work groups, partner learning, peer tutoring, peer mediation, families, etc. always incorporate these five fundamental conditions or elements. Cooperative relationships do not necessarily occur naturally through simply grouping students; teachers need to structure and manage them for students.

Define kinetics and running. Describe some aspects of the interaction between force and in the example of running.

Most sports require running speed-to outrun opponents in races, as a running start to develop enough takeoff velocity for jumping distance or height, to get to a base before being tagged, to evade tacklers, etc. Although speed walkers can attain high speeds via an unusual gait that drops the hip with each step, running typically has faster speeds than walking. Kinetics is the part of biomechanics involving the study of movement and the forces that produce movement. The definition of running is a gait that includes an aerial phase when no body parts contact the ground or floor, with no external forces on the body (excluding gravity and wind resistance). Runners must modify the stance phase (when contacting the ground) to change speeds. A force plate measures running forces according to Newton's third law of motion (for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction): foot produces an upward, forward force. The force plate measures this ground reaction force (GRF). Faster running requires shorter stance time plus higher peak forces. Force=impulse/impact time; impulse is relatively constant. Bent knees extend impact time, reducing joint forces and injuries.

Discuss some research results about the effects of experience on motor patterns.

Neurophysiological studies have found the brain has plasticity; i.e., both its structures and functions can be modified by various influences, such as behavioral training and other new learning. Neuroplasticity afford great promise for improving abilities in people with neurological damage or deficits, and those wanting to enhance their cognitive processing skills. Furthermore, some researcher have found specific motor experiences determine the place and character of plasticity in the corticospinal system. For example, training in motor skills stimulates generation of new synapses, enhances synaptic potential, and restructures movement representations in the motor cortex. Training in endurance generates formation of new blood vessels in the motor cortex, but does not change number of synapses or organization of motor maps. Strength training changes activation of spinal motor neurons and generates new synapses in the spinal core, but does not change motor map organization. All three types of training modify spinal reflexes that rely on each task's specific behavioral requirements. These findings show acquiring skilled movements causes neural circuits in the motor cortex to be reorganized to support producing and refining skilled movement sequences.

Describe some activities using manipulative movements of throwing and catching for students aged 5-12

Older children can practice throwing for accuracy or distance. Here are some activities to practice throwing for distance. 1) "Force Back": Students face one another in pairs, throwing a ball toward the others as far as they can. The thrower's partner catches or retrieves the ball, throwing it back from where it landed. 2) "Three Court Ball": Assign students to two equally-numbered teams. Each team has one-third of a court and a tennis ball. Students try to throw the ball into the middle third of the court and have it bounce over the other team's goal line. 3) "Scatterball": Use a baseball diamond or any field with several bases arranged in a diamond, circle, square or other enclosed shape. Divide students into two teams: throwers and fielders. Throwers take turns, one at a time, throwing balls as far away as they can. Then each thrower runs around bases until told to stop. The fielders catch or retrieve the balls thrown and collect them in a basket, bucket, or other receptacle. Switch teams and repeat. The team scoring the most runs wins. Students can also practice catching by throwing and bouncing balls or beanbags in pairs, groups and teams.

Briefly differentiate educational gymnastics from Olympic style gymnastics. Describe some introductory movement themes in educational gymnastics for grades k-3.

Olympic gymnastics are better learned outside school hours. Educational gymnastics have different, non-competitive purposes: to teach children to increase their skills for controlling and maneuvering their bodies effectively against gravity's force, on the floor and on apparatus, through learning experiences. It integrates movement concepts, e.g., body and space awareness, force and effort, movement qualities and relationships. It also integrates with skill themes. e.g., balancing, transferring weight, traveling, jumping, and landing. Children must experience these in isolation and/or in dance or game contexts before experiencing them incorporated into gymnastics. Under traveling, some introductory themes include traveling independently and safely, to/from and on/off apparatus, changing direction/level, on feet/hands, together/apart, weight on hands, balancing on different surfaces and body parts, balancing and rolling, landing and rolling, changing feet relationships with weight on hands, and while balancing. In weight transfer, included are log/side rolling, forward rolls, jumping and landing, and back safety rolls. Under relationship, included are individual sequences; partner sequences together, apart, or side-by-side; and symmetrical and asymmetrical movements.

Describe a number of ideas for PE teachers to include in their behavior management plans for keeping their classes running smoothly.

One component for PE teachers to include in an effective behavior plan involves how to give students directions; teachers should make sure that before telling students what to do, they tell them when to do it. For example, do not simply say "Each team, pick up a soccer ball" first, or students will stop listening to follow that direction. Instead you should say, "when I say go, each team pick up a soccer ball." That way, you will keep the students attention as they will not act until they hear the prompt. Keep instructional cues concise and use rule of threes. For example, three players, three passes, three feet, three minutes, etc. Also, remember the 8020 rule: teach the class a concept until 80 percent of the students understand it; during the subsequent learning experience, the other 20 percent will figure it out through doing it. PE Teachers should not talk too much when teaching. PE teachers should use pair-and-share strategies and questioning techniques to give their students opportunities to talk with one another.

Give descriptions and quotations of PE class rules given to students by assorted PE teachers around the country for PE class management.

One elementary teacher in Ohio has four rules: safety, use good manners, respect self, others and equipment, and have fun. These rules cover all aspects of PE. A Connecticut teacher has rules: stop, look and listen when the whistle blows, demonstrate good sportsmanship, and be responsible for gym equipment. Rewards are praise, recreation day, and awards. His consequences are: time out, f for the day, letter home, and referral to admin. Another teacher instructs students to find a place in the gym and prepare for the activities, show kindness to others, know when to talk, follow all instructions and participate for the whole activity. Another teacher in Maryland uses always try your best, if someone is in trouble help instead of laughing, take care of equipment, keep hands, feet and objects to yourself and when the teacher or a classmate is talking, you are not.

Describe a competitive game that can be played by a whole class of children, including the movement skills and patterns it entails, which skills it develops, some teaching tips, directions for playing, and one game variation.

One game PE teachers can have a whole class of children play is Astronaut, which involves running and dodging movement patterns and skills. It develops endurance, locomotor skills, non-locomotor skills, and group cooperation. The only equipment is one balloon per child. Teaching tips: The game is best played in a large, grassy area. Include short rest periods for young children, who tire quickly. Do not let children keep balloons afterward. To play, select four children as astronauts. The rest are Martians. Each astronaut has an air supply, i.e., an inflated balloon. On the teacher's signal, the Martians chase the astronauts, trying to destroy their air supplies by popping the balloons. Once all four balloons are popped, start over with four different astronauts. Repeat until all children have been astronauts. One variation is to add flags: once a Martian pulls an astronaut's flag, she must surrender the balloon to that Martian.

Describe two ways in which physical activity addresses stress.

One way in which physical activity combats stress is by directly reducing it. Moving at moderate intensity long enough to increase the heart rate, breathe more deeply, work the muscles, and break a light sweat releases endorphins. These hormones, named from the Greek meaning " the morphine within," produce a naturally occurring "high," or sense of euphoria. Endorphins also alleviate physical and mental pain. People feel physically and mentally relaxed after expending energy; working the heart, lungs and muscles; and perspiring and releasing toxins. Family and friends often observe someone they know well seems and feels much more "mellow" after exercising. Worries and negative attitudes are frequently dissipated by exercise. Another way physical activity affects stress is by improving the ability to cope with it. While some stressors are inherent in life and cannot themselves be eliminated, people's attitudes toward them can change markedly though being physically active. Increased physical strength, stamina, and flexibility afford greater senses of personal competence and empowerment. Increased blood circulation enables clearer thinking , creating better problem solving. Enhanced physical and mental health synergistically improve capacities for dealing with life's challenges.

Explain the role of PE teachers and programs relative to health-related fitness, why learning about this is important for students, and the role of fitness assessment in health-related fitness learning. Give examples of common fitness assessment measures for elementary school students.

PE programs and teachers instruct students not only in sports skills, but also in the significance of health-related fitness. PE teachers need to help students develop both comprehension cognitively and competence physically to engage in regular physical activity to enable them to follow physically active, healthful lifestyles. To do so, students need to learn about health- related fitness needs, principles and goals. One required component of this learning process is the assessment of fitness through testing. Some examples of fitness tests often used to assess elementary school student fitness include measuring the number of push-ups, curl-ups and chin-ups the can do, and how well they repeat these to a beat, to assess muscular strength and endurance. To assess flexibility, PE teachers may measure how far in inches a student can reach while sitting and how far she can stretch. To assess cardiorespiratory endurance and aerobic capacity, a common measure is how many laps a student can run, and the time in minutes it takes a student to run a mile or half-mile.

Describe some instructional activities PE teachers can provide students to help them gain understanding and control of the spatial concepts of direction and level.

PE teachers can help students develop their understanding of the spatial concept of direction by instructing them to move to the left, to the right, forward, backward, up, down, and diagonally in space. They can prompt student to be aware of their own kinesthetic feedback that tells them in which directions they are moving. Activities that develop rotation skills also help children's awareness and control of the directions in which they are turning. Locomotor car activities for children that involve taking turns walking in pairs, one behind the other with hands on the front child's shoulders, can include having the front child steer, changing walking directions. This develops the front child's skill in controlling direction, and the back child's skill in following directional changes. Rotation activities for middle childhood using equipment can involve exploring moving in various directions. Students learning to fall sideways should practice doing this in both directions. PE teachers can direct student to notice the high, middle or low levels of their bodies or body parts during movements. When teaching how to land safely from falls by rolling sideways, PE teachers can have students practice with falling from different levels.

Identify some PE activities that teachers can provide students to help them develop understanding and control of the movement concepts of pathway, energy, time, speed, and force.

PE teachers can help students develop understanding and control of pathways of movement through space by having them walk and run in a circle, a zigzag pattern, a serpentine pattern, etc. They can also help students develop concepts of planes in space by having them move along circular, vertical, or horizontal pathways. To help students understand different types of energy required in different activities, they can have them perform short-term, high-intensity activities like lifting weights and sprinting, and explain these use fast-twitch/type II/white muscle fibers; and longer duration, lower-intensity activities like distance running and bicycling, and explain these use slow twitch/type I/red muscle fibers. The latter require more aerobic/oxygen using energy whereas the former do not use oxygen and cannot be repeated once muscles fatigue until rested and replenished. PE teachers can have students run or perform other movements at different speeds to understand the roles of time and speed in movement, and have them practice increasing and decreasing the rates of their movements to gain control over speed. They can teach students their movements to gain control over speed. They can teach students how force, time, and speed interact during running as they must modify their stance time and peak force/impact time to change running speeds.

Identify some examples of cultural implications involved in teaching PE activities to students from diverse backgrounds.

PE teachers need to realize some cultural differences they will encounter when teaching diverse students. For example, Hispanic students tend to learn kinesthetically. While this is a natural fit with PE activities, some Anglo-American teachers who introduce new activities using verbal information may need to adjust instruction to begin with movements, with Latino student need to engage in learning. American and hispanic students that are not raised in America are likely to avoid eye contact with teachers, and teachers should not demand it. Latino may not be indicating agreement with a nod; their silence may not indicate understanding or agreement, but confusion or embarrassment. For all English language learners (ELLs), teachers should include visual aids in demonstrations and employ peer facilitators to bridge language barriers. Latin, Asian, Native American, and other cultures frown upon competing and value cooperating, and should accordingly deemphasize aggressive competition. Asians communicate nonverbally, eg leaning forward or backward; they rely on this more when they are ELL's.

Discuss the principles of practice, self-assessment, and observational learning that PE teachers must understand to help students acquire and refine motor skills.

PE teachers not only need to know the process of motor development thoroughly, they moreover need to understand the principles whereby their students learn and transfer new information to progress in learning motor skills and refining them. Instruction and practices are critical: without these, the extent of children's motor skills development is determined only by their natural talents and abilities. But when PE teachers give students structured, frequent practice, their motor skills development improves. In motor skills development, student self-assessment is a tool that can have powerful impact. When PE teachers require students to assess their own abilities and skills, students are encouraged to reflect about their current levels of skill; they become more motivated to advance these levels, and assume control over their development processes. Observational learning is a key principle of PE because students learn motor skills more easily by observing their correct performance demonstrated by teachers than they can by trying to follow verbal directions. It is easier to reproduce physical movements we see than imagine and produce them from what we hear.

Relate several behavior management techniques recommended as effective for PE teachers to apply with their classes.

PE teachers should make sure that they prepare gym equipment in advance, before classes begin. They should not set up the equipment in the presence of their students. They can enlist willing students to help them set up equipment in the mornings before school starts. Another practice for PE teachers to support effective behavior management is putting their agendas on paper and posting them on a bulletin board before class. They should hold students accountable for checking day's agenda and initiating assigned learning experiences. PE teachers should train students always to look at the bulletin board before asking what they are doing that day. Another recommended technique is to use "high activity roll call taking strategies" rather than letting students remain inactive while taking attendance. Inactivity encourages misbehavior, and allows students to forget the point of PE class-physical activity. Another technique is to make use of transitions by assigning time limits, like giving 10 seconds to get to the basketball court, 30 seconds to get from the gym to the outdoor playing field.

Identify some appropriate PE teacher practices for promoting student responsibility and social skills, and for creating productive learning environments.

PE teachers should purposefully design situations and activities that teach and help students develop social skills for cooperation, collaboration, competition and sportsmanship rather than leaving these only for "teachable moments" or assuming they are learned incidentally. They must take advantage of strategies including peer teaching, group work, letting students choose equipment, and involving student in making rules. PE class sizes should be similar to other subject classes: teachers should not regularly combine classes with one supervising a doubled class while the other does something else. Teachers must monitor students for safety rather than leave classes unsupervised periodically or position themselves without views of all students. They should create environments including and supporting all children regardless of diverse abilities and characteristics, not preferential to skilled athletes. Teachers should include culturally diverse activities, not exclusively teach American team sports, and challenge students of all developmental and ability levels including those with disabilities appropriately, not allowing highly skilled students to dominate. Socialization, support, and encouragement should be equal between genders, without identifying certain activities with boys or girls; teachers should use gender-neutral language.

Discuss some of the physical benefits of recreational activities

Participating in recreation can enhance an individual's physical health and wellness. This is especially true of participating in outdoor recreational activities. According to the findings of research studies, people who are often active in recreation offered at state parks are found to make fewer visits to the doctor, to have lower body mass indexes (BMI's i.e., the ratio of their weight to their height), and lower systolic (top or first number) blood pressure than people who are not active in such recreational parks activities. Moreover, a state parks report from California has shown that recreational activities outdoors constitute some of the best opportunities for people to increase the amounts of exercise that they get. In addition, another research study has found that the amounts of physical activity in which people participate in their communities are directly influenced by how many recreational facilities are available in their area.

Identify some techniques and strategies for maintaining motivation and commitment to personal fitness goals and plans.

Planning specific workout times and establishing routine helps physical activity become a habit. Students can enter theses in their smartphone or tablet calendars like appointments; set alarms to remind them when to exercise; and pack workout bags or lay out exercise clothes and gear in advance. If they sometimes don't feel like exercising, they can agree with themselves to do just a short, light workout. Once prepared and warmed up, they will often become more motivated for a full session. They should not give up hope if they miss a session, but reevaluate their fitness behavior plans, adjust strategies to prevent future omissions, recommit, analyze past barriers and identify new strategies to surmount them, and make backup plans for unexpected events or situations. Doing a variety of activities and exercises maintains interest. This includes fun activities for the week or month helps. So does changing workouts according to changing interests and moods. Music, TV, and or reading while walking, jogging, or cycling prevent boredom. Partners provide social support. Pedometers, stop watches, heart monitors, etc and logging activity in writing or on digital devices help monitor progress.

Describe some of the typical effects of student substance abuse on classroom performance.

Poor academic performance is far likelier in students using alcohol and other drugs, according to US substance abuse and mental health services administration (SAMHSA). For example, students abusing alcohol can have lapses in memory, while students abusing marijuana can have impaired short term memory and impairment in saving information to long term memory. If someone becomes addicted then obtaining and using them becomes precedence over school performance. This will lead to neglecting homework, skipping classes, and falling behind in school. When these patterns are repeated, this leads to suspension and expulsion. For example, some students abuse ritalin and experience psychotic episodes and violent behavior while abusing alcohol, pcp, cocaine, and others can cause physical violence against peers and rebellion against teachers.

Identify and describe some responsible personal and social behaviors that can be expected of students in physical activities to demonstrate respect for differences and positive social interactions.

Pre-K/K students may be expected to show consideration of and cooperation with others, like taking turns and sharing, to maximize activity times. Grades 1-2 may be expected to show good fitness partnership behaviors, e.g., cooperation, willingness to work with any partner, and giving encouragement. Grades 3-5 may be expected to show respect by avoiding "put-downs," encouraging peers, communicating respectfully with students having similar and different fitness or skill levels, and to identify and experience diverse cultures's physical habits and activities. Grades 6-8 may be expected to demonstrate sensitivity and respect for others feelings when they participate in fitness activities with students having different cultures, skills, abilities and genders, an to analyze how health behavior is both challenged and enriched by cultural diversity. Grades 9-12 may be expected to participate with and invite others to physical activities irrespective of different cultural backgrounds, abilities, skills and limitations, and analyze how developing appreciation of physical, gender, ethnic, and cultural diversity is influenced by sport participation. Higher education students may be expected to invite their family members and friends to participate in physical activities.

Offer some examples of skills that students at grade 9-12 levels should be able to demonstrate successfully in PE.

Recognize personal strengths and weakness and develop strategies accordingly. Give partners and groups critical, specific feedback to improve skills and efficiency. Describe body movements using advanced terminology. Identify similar skills in different activities, like volleyball spikes and tennis/badminton smashes. Apply space concepts applicably in varied activities, e.g., dance or gymnastic floor routines and set plays and other tactics in sports games. Recognize similar uses of space among different advanced activities. Apply balance skills in various activities like yoga, skiing Tae Bo, and volleyball. Demonstrate competency choosing and performing skills in several new activities, e.g., territorial team sports, wall and net sports, target sports, run-scoring games, rhythmic activities, and outdoor adventure or recreation activities. Choose, perform, and apply knowledge and skills proficiently in two different kinds of sports or physical activities. Regularly participate in physical activities to attain and maintain personal activity goals. Assess, refine, maintain comprehensive personal fitness plans based on nationally accepted assessment. Adjust activities according to knowledge of physiological effects. Analyze characteristics of sports and activities. Persevere to achieve higher performance levels. Anticipate and correct potentially dangerous outcomes (spotting, refereeing, and belaying). Evaluate competition by quality, not results. Show self-discipline and self-direction. Respect feedback and revise actions. Develop leading and following skills. Include diverse others. Help others.

Explain some aspects of the interaction between diet, physical activity and health

Regular physical activity aids in weight control; strengthen the heart, blood vessels, lungs, muscles bones, and joints; and lowers risks for heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and various cancers. However, physical activity must be combined with good nutrition to be most effective. In fact, improper nutrition can even undermine any benefits of physical activity. For one thing, the body requires fuel to be physically active. People who eat too little and or eat food that is not nutritous will not have enough energy to exercise. For another, foods high in refined sugars and flours and saturated fats will actually cause fatigue, depriving a person of energy and motivation to be active. People who want to built muscle cannot do so through strength training alone; they must eat lean proteins to supply the amino acids that are the building blocks of muscle. Foods high in refined sugars and flours and saturated fats are also very high in calories. Exercising, even vigorously for hours, is usually insufficient to burn as many calories as one can easily consume from the junk foods, fast foods, and restaurant foods so prevalent in modern society. Improper nutrition can derail the health benefits of physical activity.

Summarize some of the benefits of sports competition for people with disabilities.

Research evidence in recent decades shows that quality of life and functional abilities are improved for people with disabilities by participating in sports and other physical activity. Studies have found that physical well-being and health are enhanced across disability groups by participation in physical activity and sports. General affect, as well as physical fitness, are seen to improve through sports and physical activity in psychiatric patients diagnosed with anxiety and depressive disorders. Research studies have also established correlations between physical and sports activity and increased self-esteem, social awareness, and self-confidence in people with disabilities, which can contribute to their empowerment. Also in recent decades, a major focus has developed on including and integrating people with disabilities into mainstream sports. This has resulted in many new opportunities for them to compete or participate. Disability sports participation also contributes on a global scale to national identity and nation-building. After natural and man-made disasters, sports participation helps to rehabilitate people with disabilities.

Discuss some factors that encourage physical activity in communities and families.

Research finds people are more likely to engage in physical activities for recreation when they are located near their homes and are free or inexpensive. Even in communities containing beautiful state parks and other natural areas, citizens still prefer recreation that is closest to home and most affordable. People are more likely to exercise regularly when they live within 1 mile of a recreational facility. Another factor affecting physical recreation often must use public roads and streets, where motor vehicle traffic threatens their safety and discourages their participation. Some communities have obtained funding to create local bike, walking, and or jogging paths separate and safe from road traffic. Because low income families are less apt to enjoy access to recreational facilities, experts recommend that establishing free or low-cost facilities in low income communities would make an appreciable difference in their physical activity levels, improving their health and enjoyment in life.

Summarize the recent status of physical education and activity for American teens, and the corresponding roles of PE programs and teachers. Identify three strategies for increasing internal motivation in students, with examples of practices for each.

Research finds that despite ongoing concern and priority for enhancing all Americans' physical activity for its physical and mental health benefits, daily PE for high school students has decreased; worse, fewer high school students elect to take available PE courses. Effective PE teachers and programs have critical roles for giving children positive experience with physical activity early in life. These are accompanied by necessity of creating environments structured for motivating students to engage in healthy lifestyles with ongoing physical activity. One strategy to increase internal motivation is giving students freedom to choose. Example practices are giving students choices of two or more activities, and involving them in decision-making processes whenever possible. Another strategy is modifying activities and skills, and letting students do so. Example practices are changing the rules, space, or equipment to facilitate student success, and giving students flexibility to be creative in modifying activities to fit their individual needs and interests. A third strategy is giving every student ideal challenges. Practice examples are matching activities to students, and offering student choices among different task difficulty levels, e.g., letting students select among differently shaped balls or scarves in juggling lessons.

Explain the general relationship between leisure physical recreation and quality of life. Also summarize some uses and benefits of recreational therapy (RT), including an organization providing more information about this.

Research studies investigating the efforts of leisure recreation have found that quality of life is improved by finding balance in life, and one important way people can find such balance is by allocating some of their time for leisure and recreation. In addition, physical recreation is especially related to enhancing self-esteem. People who participate regularly in recreational activities are more likely to report greater satisfaction with their lives. Greater life satisfaction is implicated significantly in better mental health. Better mental health is in turn associated with better physical health. As overwhelming evidence of this, in a 2000 study by the American Recreation Coalition, 90 percent of respondents who regularly engaged in recreational activities reported satisfaction with their physical fitness and health. A sharp contrast was the 60 percent of respondents not regularly engaging in recreational activities, who reported dissatisfaction with their fitness and health. Such benefits make recreational therapy (RT) important in rehabilitation programs. The American Therapeutic Recreation Association highlights RT benefits to recovering addicts, psychiatric patients, seniors, and children including better body function, improved cognitive function, stress management, and accelerated healing from medical conditions.

Describe some ways in which variations in human, material, and curricular resources can affect the amounts of time students are physically active during PE classes.

Researchers find that one mechanism where students are physically active during less of their PE classes is the proportion of time PE teachers must devote to administrative tasks. For example, studies have revealed PE teachers may take up to 21 percent of their class time on class management and administrative duties. This can be decreased by providing sufficient resources: high student-teacher ratio and large classes entail more time taking attendance and making transitions between activities. Equipment selection and transitions among spaces take more time when access to suitable equipment and facilities is inadequate. A positive influence increasing student PE class time spent in physical activity is access to curriculum resources aligned with best PE practices, particularly when physical educators use these resources in focused, organized lesson planning. Investigators have found that the minority of schools studied offered PE every day, averaging fewer than three days weekly; average lessons lasted less than 47 minutes; and students were very active only during one-fourth of class time, spending over 20 percent of the time walking, over 20 percent sitting, over one-third of the time standing, and lying down a small amount of time.

Describe some skills combining throwing, catching, and rolling skills for specific sports that students should be able to perform in grades 2, 3, 4, and 5 respectively.

Second graders should catch small, soft tennis/yarn balls at peak, self-tossed above the head; throw balls 7 inches and larger against walls from roughly 8 ft away and catch them before they bounce; and underhand-toss small balls with correct form and accuracy to targets or partners from 15 ft. Third graders should demonstrate correct form in a two handed overhead/soccer throw, pass balls to slowly moving partners using chest and bounce passes, catch balls while slowly traveling, and overhand-throw small balls using correct form to partners and targets from at least 20 ft. Fourth graders should throw and catch footballs, frisbees, and other sport-specific balls or objects with correct form; consistently scoop up rolled balls with hands using mature form (knuckles on ground, pinkies together), moving laterally to get ahead of the ball; and play "keep away" and other small-sided, low level throwing catching games. Fifth grades should throw and catch footballs, basketballs, and other sport-specific balls within skill combinations, e.g., catching, dribbling, and passing to moving teammates; and throw lead passes including chest bounce, overhand, and underhand to moving teammates with mature form and accuracy. Sixth graders should accurately throw and catch footballs, basketballs, and other sport balls to and from partners in dynamic situations with mature form, and advance balls down playing areas passing back and forth in small sided games.

Identify several self-management skills that interact with a physically active lifestyle, including some examples and benefits of each skill.

Self-assessment skills enable: self-evaluating fitness and interpreting results, e.g., choosing and self-administering good fitness assessments; goal setting and plan-making; and success, new thinking, and learning skills. Self-monitoring skills entail keeping records, enabling viewing one's behavior more objectively and accurately, and gauging progress toward goals. For example, if you cut calories yet aren't losing weight, record-keeping can reveal you are eating more than you thought. Keeping progress records also promotes adhering to fitness plans and programs. These skills supply information and feedback, help change beliefs, aid planning and goal-setting, and raise success probabilities. Goal-setting skills are particularly important for beginners at behavior change. They enable establishing achievable, realistic future objectives. For example, success is more likely for someone wanting to reduce fat with a process goal to eat 200 fewer calories and burn 200 more calories daily than an outcome goal to lose 50 pounds. These skills facilitate planning and feedback, build confidence, change attitudes and beliefs, and increase enjoyment and success. Planning skills enable independently designing fitness programs, reinforcement, self-confidence, success, and enjoyment. Performance skills enhance competence, self-confidence, attitudes, success, and enjoyment. An example is learning stress management and relaxation skills. Balancing attitudes enhances planning; goal-setting; beliefs; and enjoyment, e.g., emphasizing exercise's positive aspects, not its negative.

Discuss the impact of the relative availability of various resources in PE on student outcomes.

Smaller PE class sizes and student teacher ratios improve student safety, activity levels, and learning as well as how much time students participate in PE, whereas larger class sizes and student teacher ratios correlate with decreased physical activity by students. Also, in schools with enough teachers teaching only PE and no other subjects, students receive more PE weekly. Student activity levels and physical fitness knowledge correlate positivity with numbers of available, qualified PE teachers. Teachers having to teach both PE and other subjects give shorter lessons, with less student physical activity. Similarly to human resources, material and curricular resources affect student physical activity during PE classes, directly influencing how much of class include student engagement in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Educational researchers are reaching increasing consensus that standards-based PE curricula augment students' physical activity. Access to safe, appropriate, well-maintained, aesthetically appealing facilities and environments also enhance physical activity during PE classes is having enough exercise and sports equipment, suitable for students' sizes and in good condition.

Describe some of the rules and practices of soccer (association football).

Soccer fields are rectangular, with a goal at each end. Soccer teams have 11 players, who score by kicking the ball into the opposing team's goal. Some competition rules stipulate a minimum number of players per team, commonly seven. Only goal keepers are allowed to touch the ball with their arms and/or hands while it is in play, and only in their penalty areas in front of the goals. Goal posts are 8 yards apart. Outfielders are allowed to contact the ball with their heads and/or torsos in addition to their feet. Whichever team scores more goals by the end of the soccer game is the winner. For tied scores, a draw is declared; there is a penalty shootout; or extra time is designated, depending on the format of the competition. Soccer has 17 official game laws. Soccer balls are 27-29 inches around, weight 14-16 ounces, are inflated to pressures of 8.5-15.6 pounds per square inch (at sea level). Adult pitching distances are 110-120 yards long and 70-80 yards wide internationally, 100-130 yards long and 45-90 yards wide non-internationally. Soccer/association football's highest governing body is FIFA (Federation Internationale de Football Association), which organizes the world cup every four years.

Explain some ways in which being physically active as a regular part of life can increase social interaction and decrease healthcare expenses. Give examples.

Social interaction: 1) two high school girls have free periods at the end of the ay and don't want to wait on the bus. They decide to walk to one of their homes instead. During the 3-mile trip, they enjoy conversing and interacting in the outdoors more than on a noisy, crowded school bus. 2) A boy in elementary school gets good grades but is socially introverted and lacks physical self-confidence. His parents offer to enroll him in Little League baseball. As he learns and succeeds he gains confidence, teammates applaud and encourage him, and he makes new friends. Health expenses: 1) A diabetic child's mother is overprotective about exercise. The school nurse and PE teacher collaborate with her on a plan for regular blood sugar testing during the school day, suitable exercise, and appropriate snacks before and after exercising. As a result, her family doctor reduces the child's insulin dosage. 2) A PE teacher, collaborating with dietitian and school nurse, designs a safe fitness program for an obese high school student. With significant weight loss, his type 2 diabetes symptoms abate. He needs less medication and fewer doctor visits; as a result, his parents health insurance co-pays decrease.

Identify some outdoor adventure activities and related pursuits, how to learn outdoor skills, and what is included in teaching them.

Some exciting, fascinating, rewarding outdoor adventure activities include mountain-climbing; rafting; canoeing; kayaking; whitewater paddle-boarding; sailing; driving powerboats; slack-lining; rope-climbing; exploring mines; exploring caves; walking long-distance footpaths; backpacking; hiking; running; jungle treks; expeditions through primary rainforests; nature hikes and walks; exploring wild areas in four-wheel drive vehicles; and orienteering, which involves navigating a wilderness environment with a compass and a map, while also racing against others to reach a destination first. Some outdoor adventure enthusiasts pursue these interests close to home, which is most convenient and affordable, while others travel to other countries and exotic locations. Some altruistically minded adventurers combine adventure expeditions to other lands with team community service projects when they arrive. Others find adventure experiences inspire photography, drawing, painting, writing music, writing literature, other artistic pursuits, or scientific/practical inventions. People unfamiliar with and interested in adventure can learn from experienced, credentialed instructors in the outdoor industry- as adventure school faculty or independent freelancers-many with websites advertising their services. In addition to teaching techniques and safety practices, instructors also mentor motivate, and encourage learners; build their confidence and self-esteem; and foster their skills for teamwork, decision making and problem solving.

Identify some fundamental motor skills that are critical for children to learn in elementary school. Give examples of how two of these essential skills are applied in specific sports. Identify at which grade levels students should be introduced to, and master, each of these skills.

Some fundamental motor skills critical to learn in elementary school include running, jumping vertically, leaping, dodging, kicking, overhand throwing, catching, ball bouncing, punting, forehand striking, and two handed side-arm striking. Some examples of the overhand throw as applied in advanced form in specific sports include baseball and softball pitching, tennis and badminton serving, throwing a javelin, volleyball passing, and basketball shoulder passes. Some examples of the two handed side arm strike as applied in advanced sports specific forms include swinging a golf club, hockey stick, or baseball bat; forehand drives in tennis, badminton, disc golf, squash, or table tennis (ping pong); and cut shots in volleyball, golf, or pool. Running, vertical jumping, kicking, and catching should be introduced in kindergarten. Running, vertical jumping and catching should be mastered in 2nd grade, kicking in 3rd. Overhand throwing, ball bouncing, leaping and dodging should be introduced in 1st grade. Ball bouncing, leaping, and dodging should be mastered in 3rd grade, overhand throwing in 4th grade. Punting, forehand striking, and two handed side arm striking should be introduced in 2nd grade. Punting should be mastered in 4th grade, forehand and two hand side arm strikes in 5th.

Discuss some methods and practices for modifying educational gymnastics to include students with disabilities.

Some gymnastics educators state that inclusions is not difficult because coaching practices should not really change: in providing opportunities according to individual student needs, program competencies and strategies can be preserved while maintaining awareness of disabilities. Educators have effected cultural changes by informing coaches at national championships that inclusion tools, tips and other resources would become available. They find it necessary to raise awareness of and communicate social messages about inclusion before teaching technical elements of coaching students with disabilities. They advocate developing disability action plans. Some agencies and organizations offer funding to support such plans' strategies. Following awareness and educators identify the next step as requiring teacher or coach accreditation processes to incorporate mandatory training in inclusion management. They point out that high-performance coaches do this routinely when they assign unevenly-numbered teams and small-sided games and focus on developing specific tactics, techniques, and skills. An inclusive approach, they say, involves the same practices, but simply done for different purposes. Some experts use the TREE acronym and principle for modifying and challenging sports players according to individual ability: Teaching style, Rules and regulations, Equipment, and Environment.

Discuss some elements of weight management related to maintaining current weight.

Some individuals are not overweight, but will need to plan to avoid gaining weight. Others are overweight, but currently not ready to lose weight. In both cases, weight management has the benefits of preventing many chronic diseases, as well as minimizing the need for future weight loss. The number of calories needed to maintain weight varies individually. Variables affecting metabolism include height, weight, gender, age, levels of physical activity, and muscle to fat ratio. Muscle tissue burns more calories than fatty tissue, even at rest. Thus some people have higher basal metabolisms than others; these people can afford to consume more calories without gaining weight. Some of this body composition is natural, some lifestyle-related. More physically active people burn more calories and can eat more than sedentary people. To maintain current weight, it is useful for people to weigh themselves regularly. It is easier to lose a gain of 2-3 pounds discovered sooner than 10 pounds discovered later. If weight creeps up, it helps to self-examine changes in physical activity and eating. People can keep food diaries, activity logs, and use numerous available digital apps for self-monitoring.

Identify and define some teaching methods to use for promoting psychomotor learning.

Some instructional methods PE teachers can use to promote student psychomotor learning include the task/reciprocal method. In this technique, the teacher uses stations to integrate the students' learning of specific tasks into the learning setup. Another is the command/direct method. In this style, teacher centered task instruction is utilized: The PE teacher gives students clear explanations of the learning goals, explains the skills to be learned, and then demonstrates these skills for the students. The PE teacher then give s the students time to practice the new skills. During their practice, the PE teacher monitors their progress frequently and regularly. Another instructional method PE teachers can use to promote psychomotor learning is the contingency/contract approach. In this type of instruction, the PE teacher offers specified rewards to students, which are contingent upon their completing the indicated tasks. This behavioral method reinforces psychomotor behaviors, i.e. increases the probability of students' repeating them, by rewarding the behaviors.

Identify some behavioral and administrative types of course related to outdoor adventures. Describe several types of courses in techniques for specific outdoor adventure sports or activities.

Some of the courses offered in the area of outdoor adventure include leadership, group dynamics, risk management, conflict management, expedition planning, execution, and evaluation. Classes are offered in specific activities, e.g., backpacking techniques for beginners; slack lining techniques, including choosing the correct trees and avoiding damage to the trees used; learning to set up a line; and learning to stand and balance on a line before learning to walk on it. Multi-pitch climbing techniques include anchoring skills with gear anchors and multidirectional anchors, anchor builds, rappelling techniques, belaying directly off of anchors from above, belay station rope management, belay transfers, efficiently changing leaders, self-rescue techniques, and other hands-on learning. Some outdoor adventure schools and instructors use sports like paddle boarding in whitewater rapids while standing up as facilitation techniques for therapeutic recreation. They advocate these activities for being experienced in natural environments, including elements of perceived or actual danger, and providing challenges to participants. Beginning courses in kayaking techniques teach the basic strokes, e.g., the forward stroke, forward sweep stroke, and low brace stroke, starting in calm lakes. Once learners can paddle in straight lines, they can learn how to turn using the paddle as a rudder and use steering strokes.

Relate some rules for K-12 PE classes that some teachers use and which experts find useful.

Some recommended rules for K-12 students when attending PE classes include the following. Students should be prepared for PE class. This includes wearing only athletic shoes, not wearing dresses, and tying back long hair. Students should pay attention. This includes treating their classmates, PE teacher, and equipment the same way they want to be treated themselves, and not eating or bringing food to PE class or chewing gum during class. Students should be safe and respectful. This includes following directions, staying on task, and cooperating with others. Some PE teachers also inform students of consequences for violating rules during PE classes. One method has three steps: 1) The PE teacher gives an oral, verbal warning that students are disobeying class rules. 2) If students do not comply, the PE teacher gives the student time out or a brief individual separation from the class to take time and refocus their attention. 3) After this initial timeout, if the student is still not following the rules, the PE teacher assigns an additional time-out during which the student must write a response e.g. identifying which rules he broke and what he will do to follow the rules.

Differentially identify two types of factors among resources that affect the quality of PE instruction in public schools, including examples of each. Give examples of measure that will improve each of these.

Some researchers differentiate between structural and process factors for predicting levels of student physical activity. For example, among resources that promote student physical activity, adequate facilities, equipment, and quantity and quality of PE teachers are defined as structural factors. Even though both structural and process factors predict student activity levels, and thus comprehensive approaches for enhancing children's health and well-being through more effective PE must address both of these, the researchers also note the importance of differentiating them for the purposes of differentiating approaches for improving each. Instructional practices by PE teachers are defined as process factors. Federal, state, and district policies that require allocating sufficient funding for retaining enough PE teachers for ideal teacher-student ratios, will improve structural factors. PE teacher professional development in technique for decreasing class management time will improve process factors.

Discuss some techniques for establishing and maintaining personal fitness programs and some things to avoid.

Statistics show that half of all people who embark upon exercise programs abandon them within only six months of beginning. Therefore, personal fitness trainers recommend assorted techniques to adopt that will increase the likelihood of sticking with an exercise program long enough to make it a permanent lifestyle change and reap its benefits to health and well being. One technique is to identify the best location for exercising. Students who do not get enough exercise through PE classes need to choose place best suited for them. Some find working out at a gym offers fewer distractions and better facilities, equipment and trainers; others will find exercising at home more convenient. Distantly located gyms decrease the likelihood of attendance. Students should also identify the time with the most convenience and fewest distractions for exercising; and the activities they enjoy the most because the more convenient and fun a program is, the more likely they are to continue it. Starting exercise at overly high intensities and durations predicts dropout. Those who work out with more experienced partners may also overdo it.

Summarize a basic pattern of group learning and individual application. Relate six methods for structuring individual student accountability for doing his or her share of group work during cooperative learning exercises.

Students in cooperative groups first learn skills, procedures, knowledge, and strategies together. Then they apply this learning individually to show they have mastered it personally. Teachers must evaluate each individual student's contribution to group work; give individual students and groups constructive feedback; help groups eliminate work redundancy by multiple members; and assure all members' responsibility for their final results. Six ways to structure individual accountability in cooperative student groups are 1) Keep group size small to increase individual accountability. 2) Give each individual student a test. 3) Randomly call on individual students to present group work to the teacher or class for oral examinations. 4) Observe each student group and record how often each member contributes to the group. 5) In each group, assign one student to the function of checker. This student asks other members of his or her group to explain rationales and reasoning behind the group answers they formulate. 6) Have individual students teach what they have learned to another. "Simultaneous explaining" is when all students participate in this activity.

Discuss some of the effects of substance abuse on student ability to complete physical activity.

Students who abuse substance demonstrate higher probabilities of impaired physical performance during PE classes. For example, students who abuse marijuana or alcohol have a higher likelihood of impaired physical coordination. They are more likely to have low energy, less motivation and less ability to engage in athletic activity, less ability to continue physical activity if they start it and greater chance of tiring quickly. Marijuana use just before PE can impair depth perception. Alcohol use before PE classes impairs student judgment as well as coordination and energy, increasing accident and injury risk as well as poor performance. While student may excel in the short term activities requiring strength, speed, etc. from using steroids, continued use has many side effects like high blood pressure, aggressive and violent behavior, acne, liver disorders, and cancer.

Relate some information about how student substance abuse affects students' overall health.

Substance abuse by teenagers can affect their health in a myriad of catastrophic ways, including injuries from auto accidents caused by driving under the influence. Alcohol abuse and intoxication are particularly implicated in driving fatalities among adolescents. Many teens die from drug overdoses, and others survive but suffer permanent health damage, including loss of teeth, skin damage, damage to the liver, lungs, heart, and kidneys, and destruction of the blood supply (avascular necrosis) to the joints from long-term abuse of alcohol or certain drugs. Higher risk of dying from other accidents, drug-induced accidents illnesses, HIV/AIDs transmission, homicides, and suicides.

Define bio-mechanical summation of forces. Explain the principles it involves and give examples.

Summation of forces is to attain maximal force with any movement that uses multiple muscles in a manner that enables generating the maximum force possible. Thus the total amount of force is a sum of the total individual muscles when these are added together. The general principle of the order of use is that larger, stronger muscle groups in the center of the body initiate power, and smaller muscles in the extremities are used for coordination and finer movements. The largest, heaviest body parts are slowest and move first; smaller body parts are faster and move last. Force is both simultaneous and sequential. To attain maximal force, use as many body parts as possible. Sequential force, e.g., of body, then arm, then forearm, must be well-timed: if these follow too early or late in the sequence, they are ineffective. For example, the summation events in kicking a football are: body weight is transferred forward with the abdominals and quadriceps move the thigh forward, quadriceps and calf muscles straighten the lower leg, and calf muscles snap the foot.

Expand the acronym TARGET as a model for promoting student motivation for PE. Explain the meaning of each of the first three dimensions (T, A, and R). Identify strategies and associated examples for each of these.

TARGET stands for Task, Authority, Recognition, Grouping, Evaluation, and Timing. For Task, strategies include giving several activities with varying difficulty levels, and adjusting skills and activities to be developmentally appropriate. For example, PE teachers can instruct first graders to try catching beanbags with their preferred hand, their non-dominant hand, or both hands. For Authority, a strategy is to allow students to have some of the responsibility for their choices of activities. For example, PE teachers can tell each student to select his or her favorite among upper-body exercises, and perform their selected exercises while music is playing. For Recognition, strategies include recognizing the process rather than the product, focusing on self-improvement rather than outcomes, and helping students focus on self-improvement by establishing an environment that eliminates or reduces peer performance comparisons and by delivering positive feedback. For example, the PE teacher can praise a student in a voice just above a whisper, commenting that he or she can tell the student is working hard because the student is using the other foot or hand, thus complimenting the student's efforts.

Describe some manipulative movement activities involving throwing for children aged less than 5 years.

Teachers can put hoops on the ground or hand them from doorframes or trees with rope for young children to practice throwing things through them. Parents can develop throwing skills at home by having children throw rolled socks into laundry hampers or baskets. When they succeed, have them take one step further back for the next throw. Teachers and parents can use pillows or cushions to set up courses (with or without children's participation), placing empty boxes, wastebaskets, buckets, etc. as "golf holes." Have children take turns throwing beanbags into the holes. Children can crumple paper into "snowballs"; adults tape these up and give baskets of them to two groups of children. Mark a line between groups with rope, tape, or chalk. On a signal, children throw "snowballs" over the line for 30 seconds, see who has the fewest snowballs left, switch teams, and repeat. Have children clean up by throwing snowballs into baskets. Adults can cut centers out of empty plastic food tubs to make rings, and have children try to toss rings over plastic bottles. Have children try to toss coins onto paper or plastic plates on the floor or ground. Let children throw a ball trying to knock a stuffed animal off of a stool.

Relate some characteristics of tennis including some of its activities and rules.

Tennis is played with rackets strung with cord hitting a small, felt covered, hollow rubber ball over/around a net in the center of the court to the opponent's side. Courts are clay, grass, asphalt, concrete, or acrylic, and sometimes carpeted indoors. Nets are 3 ft high in the center, and 3 ft 6 in at post. The object is preventing opponents from returning the ball within bounds. Returning the ball within bounds earns a point. Tennis is played by opposing single players or doubles (teams of two). One player, behind the baseline between sideline and center mark, serves the ball. Receiver can be anywhere on their side of the court. Legal services must clear the net without touching and go diagonally into the opposing service box. A "let", a serve hitting the net before landing in the service box, is void and retaken. Serves falling wide or long of the service box or not clearing the net are faults. Touching the baseline or extension of the center mark with one's foot before hitting the ball is a foot fault. Two consecutive service faults (double faults) give receiver the point. Legal returns hit the ball before two bounces. Players and teams cannot hit the ball twice consecutively. During rallies, legal returns can hit the net.

Name the six dimensions represented in the TARGET model by each letter in the acronym. Define the last three dimensions (G, E, and T). Supply some PE teaching strategies and accompanying examples for each strategy.

The TARGET acronym represents Task, Authority, Recognition, Grouping, Evaluation, and Timing. For Grouping, teaching strategies include using "toe to toe" and other techniques to form groups quickly, avoiding peer comparisons, and augmenting the aspect of social interactions in the PE environment by encouraging students to partner with different classmates often. For example, teachers can instruct students to seat themselves in groups of four following the class rule of one girl and one boy to each group; inform them they will stay in the group for a few minutes and then switch; and thank them for quickly forming groups. For evaluation, strategies include engaging students in self-evaluations targeting self-improvement, and involving students in evaluation processes, ensuring each student's evaluation is private, meaningful, and specific. For example, the teacher tells a student, "Awesome pass" I like how you're making a table and moving your feet, remembering the cues. Excellent work!" For Timing, strategies include maximizing learning and practice time, and not introducing competitive play too soon; helping students make time outside class to practice and be physically active; and individualizing teaching and practices so all students have time and motivation for practice. Examples include specific fielding instructions, and suggesting additional practice at home later.

Define the biomechanical term center of gravity, including as it relates to the human body.

The center of gravity is the point at which a single force, of magitude mg, meaning the weight of the system of body, would have to be applied to a rigid system or body in order to achieve an exact balance of the rotational and translational effects of the gravitational forces that act on the parts of the system or body. Put another way, the center of gravity is the point at which the weight of a system or body can be considered as acting. Although there is a minuscule difference between the center of gravity and the center of mass, they can be considered as the same for all practical applications. Therefore, center of mass is considered a synonym for center of gravity; however, center of pressure is not a synonym. In terms of human body, its center of gravity is not fixed at any certain location in the anatomy. The location of the human body's center of gravity changes in accordance with the positions of the various body parts. The symbols used for center of gravity are C of G or COG.

Discuss some ways in which physical activities can afford opportunities for students to experience personal challenges and satisfaction.

The concept of a "personal best" can be even more consistent with individual excellence, as it does not depend on comparisons or differences with other students and teams. Students with a higher internal locus control (they attribute their successes and failures to their own internal factors, not external influences) are more likely to maintain motivation to achieve more constantly across time, settings and situations than those with a more external locus of control (they attribute their success or failures to the help or interference of people, things and events outside themselves. Students that strive to run faster than their last time, farther than their last distance, lift more weight or reps, jump higher, and even in team sports (score more points etc.) compete with themselves, not others. This change or difference in opponents will not affect their motivation or efforts. This allows players to experience satisfaction regardless of what others do.

Identify and define some biomechanics concepts and principles as they are applied in PE.

The concept of force-motion states that when we produce or change movement, unbalanced forces act upon our bodies or objects we manipulate. Force time states that substantial changes in motion are produced over time, not immediately. Inertia defines the property all objects have of resisting changes in states of motion. Range of motion is the overall extent of motion a person uses in a movement, described through angular or linear movement of the body parts. Balance is an individual's capacity for controlling his or her body position in relation to a base of support. The coordination continuum means the goal or purpose of a movement determines the most effective timing of segmental movements or muscle actions. For example, people extend their hips, knees and ankles concurrently to lift a heavy object but use more sequential movements in the kinematic chain, from legs to trunk to arms, in overarm throwing. Segmental interaction means that forces operating in a system of rigid, lined bodies are transferable through joints and links. Optimal projection means there is a best range of angles of projection for given goals or purposes in most human throwing and propelling of projectiles.

Define eight stages into which human life is often divided. Identify some characteristics of physical development in each stage.

The eight stages of life are infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, late childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, and late adulthood or old are. In physical development, infancy (birth to 1.5 years) involves the most rapid growth in size, weight and brain development; and the first rudimentary form of voluntary movement. Early childhood (1.5 to 4 years) involves the development of fundamental movements. During middle childhood (4 to 6 years), children further develop these fundamental movements and extend them to sport skills. In later childhood (6 to 12 years), children develop their sport skills further. In adolescence (puberty to 18-20 years), teens develop secondary sex characteristics and undergo sexual and physical maturation during and after puberty. They learn to accept their physiques and use them effectively. Young adults (18-30s) achieve their peak physical abilities and performance. Middle adults (30-50s) make transitional adjustments as physical energy, strength, and endurance decline somewhat. This decline becomes more pronounced in later adulthood or old age (60s to death).

Identify and define some of the elements of rhythm as they relate to rhythmic movement.

The elements of rhythm include beat, duration, tempo, accent, meter, phrase, rhythms, and polyrhythms. 1) Beat is the underlying pulse that can be heard and counted in music, percussion, and rhythmic movements like tapping toes, clapping hands, snapping fingers, dribbling basketballs, etc. 2) Duration is the length or span of time covered by a beat. 3) Tempo is the speed or pace at which music and rhythmic movement proceeds, from slow to fast and everything in between. 4) Accent is additional emphasis on one or more beats. 5) Meter is the rhythmic organization/time signature of music. For example, the 4/4 time signature means there are four beats to each measure and the quarter note gets one count. The 6/8 time signature means there are six beats to each measure and the eighth note gets one count. 6) Just as a phrase in language is a combination of words, a musical phrase is a combination of beats, which can be longer than a single measure. 7) Rhythms are combination of beats, which may be equal in duration/interval (1,2,3,4) or uneven, mixing fast and slow beats and/or different durations. 8) Polyrhythms are multiple rhythms played simultaneously in layers.

Identify some of the benefits of adapted physical education (APE) to students with special needs.

The federal individuals with disabilities education act (IDEA) mandates a free and appropriate public education (FAPE) to students who are eligible for special education services in the least restrictive environment (LRE) possible. Those that can't participate because of disabilities are required to be given APE services, which are adapted to enable them to participate in and benefit from PE. APE benefits them by developing functional, developmentally appropriate motor skills in young children that enable them to play and participate in educational environments with non-disabled peers, promoting an active lifestyle, developing basic motor skills need to participate with peers, improve self-image and self-esteem, gaining skills that increase mobility, and reducing health related complications.

Describe some weight management strategies related to making dietary changes without giving up favorite foods, including examples.

The healthiest diets involve balance rather than completely eliminating foods we enjoy. Many people's favorite "comfort foods" happens to have high caloric, sugar, and or fat content. To lose weight and or maintain weight loss, it is not necessary to give up these foods entirely, though. One strategy is to indulge in fattening foods, but less often. For example, instead of every day, eat them once a week, or even once a month. Not eating high calorie foods as frequently reduces overall calories. Another example, is enjoying fattening foods in smaller portions. Like have a can bar, but only eat half of it or buy it in a smaller size. Sometimes taste and texture provide enough enjoyment rather than amount. Another example is comfort food makeovers. For example, macaroni and cheese can be remade with skim milk instead of whole milk and less butter. Some people incorporate healthier foods to lower calories while adding fiber and nutrients (like cauliflower in macaroni and cheese, pureed spinach or beets in brownies, etc).

Describe a rhythmic movement activity that integrates non-locomotor and locomotor movements while teaching rhythm.

The hip hop activity gives students practice in changing duration among regular time, half time, and double time, plus emphasis on beat and phrasing. Recommended musical selections. Teachers lead students in tapping two fingers together to music, lightly so as not to influence classmates or overwhelm the music, first in halftime, then regular time, and then double time. Students then repeat each step individually for practice. Then they repeat tapping while marching in place, then while walking with full motion through each beats duration-first at halftime; then when the teach says "hip," speeding up to regular time; when teacher cues "hop", slowing down to half time; when the teacher says "hip-hop", slowing down two levels to half time. Each is performed for two 8 counts, rotating from half time to regular time to double time, back to half time, etc, including full range of arm movements. Tapping and walking combinations begin with just walking half time, then walking regular time while tapping half time, then walking double time while tapping regular time, then walking half time while tapping double time, etc.

Identify a national fitness education resource to help PE educators meet students' needs, and summarize some aspects of its nature, applications, content, design, and uses.

The national association for sport and physical education (NASPE) created a fitness education project and a team dedicated to it. They study the current research into fitness education and conferred with experts in fitness education content, instruction, curriculum and standards across the country. Based on the information they acquired, the team developed a comprehensive instructional framework for fitness education in physical education (IFFEPE). This is a set of materials to help students by guiding PE teachers and others in designing current, coherent, sequenced, integrated fitness education curriculum and instruction. The content is holistic, treating all areas as important to include in fitness education. PE teachers can use it to identify desired fitness education learning experience results, and to tailor content to meet diverse students needs on program, local, or state levels.

Identify some resources for obtaining information on safety and risk management practices in outdoor and adventure sport and learning.

The outward bound wilderness first aid book is a manual of standard operating practices for risk management and safety in outdoor adventure recreation and education programs. Outdoor education organizations offer similar books. Additional good resources include government education departments and recreation agencies, which have published outdoor activity risk management guidelines in many countries. Research studies published by various organizations provide data and narratives regarding risk management and incidents. For example, Adventure Program Risk Management Report, Volume I was issued by the association for experimental education. The American Camping Association (ACA) and other outdoor associations have published guidelines, articles and manuals describing risk management in rope challenge courses and many other specific adventure activities. Adventure incorporated and others offer risk management specialists as consultants. The national outdoor leadership school organizes an annual wilderness risk managers conference in America. Every developed nation offers outdoor and adventure risk management and first aid training courses, listed at www.outdoored.com. Professional outdoor education listservs also extensively discuss safety and risk management practices.

Explain some basic aspects of how perception contributes to motor development in children.

The process of absorbing, organizing, and interpreting sensory input- i.e., perception-is multi-sensory: information from all of the sense contributes to a child's motor behaviors in response to the input received. For example, when infants see a face and hear a voice, they turn their heads. From natural newborn waving and kicking, babies adapt to their environments by developing control over reaching for things; locomotion, i.e., learning to crawl, then walk, then run, etc.; and eventually learning complex skills for sports participation. Developing infant motor behaviors include control over eye movements to gaze at people and things, and control over head movements. As motor competence develops, babies use perceptual information to choose which motor actions perform. Reciprocally, they get most of this perceptual information through motor movements of their eyes, arms, hands and legs. According to how slippery, rigid, or sloped a surface is, they will adjust their crawling or walking. Changes in size, weight, muscular strength, and body fat from infancy to toddlerhood present perceptual motor challenges as they practices various actions.

Summarize some practices for safety and injury prevention in dance education.

Thorough warm-ups and cool-downs are critical. Warm-ups must have cardiovascular elements increasing body temperature, heart and breathing rates, blood circulation to muscles, muscle tone, joint flexibility, reaction speed, mental alertness, and motivation to move; and move major muscle groups and angular, gliding and rotational joints, including internal and external hip rotations. Cool-downs lower body, temperature, slow breathing and mind, deeply stretch muscles, reward the body for its exertions, and should be followed by recovery periods. Thorough warm-ups and stretching can prevent delayed-onset muscle soreness, cramps, sprains, and tendonitis. Avoiding muscle fatigue prevents inflammation and cramping. Hydration and keeping dietary electrolytes balanced also prevents cramps. Dance spaces should have clean and sprung wood floors, heigh ceilings, no obstacles, good lighting and ventilation, access to water, separate male/female changing rooms, and wheelchair and telephone access. If only concrete flooring is available, high-impact jumping and running must be avoided to prevent stress fractures. Teacher first aid training and kits are necessary. Student footwear must be appropriate to floor surfaces (slippery, dirty, etc.). Teaching and learning correct body alignment also prevents (or at least limits) injuries and promotes proper dance technique, more effective mechanical functioning, and more energy-efficient movement. Pilates, Feldenkrais, ideokinesis, and yoga alignment.

Give some examples of aspects of an individual's current physical status to assess for developing a personal fitness plan.

To assess individual current status, define fitness goals, and identify what one is able or willing to do to achieve them, identify the following: current age; indicators of the current body fat (ex. six pack, a small belly, or large belly, increase strength). One can do a few pushups, or at least 20 good pushups and 10 good pull-ups. Define a fitness goal like wanting people to perceive you are (a) trim and healthy (b) must work out, or (c) must compete athletically. Define how soon you want or need to accomplish this goal (in a few months to a year, 1-2 years, or 3-6 years). To define what you are able or willing to do, identify whether you have about 2-4 hours, 5-10 hours or 11-21 hours weekly to devote to your goal. Nutritionally, are you willing to substitute a few healthy for unhealthy foods, or consistently avoid junk food and eat produce, whole grains, and lean protein? Or eat siz small meals daily and follow a strict dietary plan? Individuals should also identify their available exercise equipment and partners.

Give some expert recommendations of effective behavior management methods that PE teachers can use in their class plans.

To engage students in their own learning, PE teachers should use approaches like cooperative learning methods and peer assessment instead of direct instruction. Some experts advise that the teachers should not have to work harder than their students. Another way to prevent behavior problems and delegate effort while teaching responsibility to students is to assign management and leadership roles for capable students to perform, such as team captains, referees, equipment managers, squad leaders, warmup leaders, and new student buddies. Another method is to hold student accountable for their own behavior through a combination of positive reinforcement for desired behaviors and consequences for undesired ones. Regularly giving ample informal, verbal positive reinforcement for desirable behaviors, the PE teacher should define formal rewards, and consequences for students in advance, and enforce them consistently. When you discipline students you should talk to them as if their parents are standing directly behind them.

Contrast some examples of appropriate vs inappropriate teacher practices related to establishing a productive learning environment in PE.

To establish a productive learning environment, PE teachers systematically plan, develop, and sustain atmospheres of teacher and peer respect and support, emphasizing participation and learning. Sacasm or insults are unsafe and unsupportive, causing student, discomfort, embarrassment, or humiliation. Productive environments support all students' development of positive self-concept, enabling them to try, fail, and try again without fear, teacher or peer criticism, or harassment. Intrinsic, not extrinsic motivations are stress, guiding student responsibility for learning and behavior, not fear of punishment. Classroom management practices are consistent and fair, not using inconsistent, unclear rules. Teachers should immediately address bullying, taunting, and inappropriate student behaviors and comments firmly, not ignoring or overlooking them. Actively teach safety and post and practice emergency plans, not ignoring or permitting unsafe student practices (pushing, shoving, tackling; swinging bats close to others). They match activities to ability levels, not permitting dodge ball or drills enabling aggressive behaviors. Updated CPR and AED certifications and regular facility and equipment safety inspections are imperative.

Summarize some ways that PE teachers can help students develop body awareness and spatial awareness. Describe some activities PE teachers can provide to help students develop understanding of force.

To help students develop body awareness, PE teachers can instruct them to touch or point to their body parts, form their bodies into different shapes, and to fit their bodies into differently sized and shaped spaces. These can both assess and develop body awareness. To assess and develop spatial awareness, PE teachers can provide differently sized and shaped objects like boxes, balls, hops, etc. and have students move around, over, under, into, out of, in front of, in back of, and toward and away from them. To help students develop understanding of force, PE teachers can place targets at varying distances and have students throw beanbags, balls or other objects at the targets. They can prompt students to notice how much force they must use to reach nearer vs farther targets, and discuss use of relatively too much and too little force. Another exercise is to have spotters positioned behind each student, and have students forcefully throw or otherwise propel wind resistant objects like swim fins away from them to observe how this forces their bodies backward. This can also be done in swimming pools.

Discuss some salient elements of the relationship between physical activity, healthy weight, and general health. Also give an example illustrating how diet can affect weight and health despite physical activity.

To lose weight, you must expend more calories than you consume. In other words, weight loss requires a calorie deficit. Although most people lose weight by reducing the calories they eat, research evidence also finds regularly engaging in physical activity necessary for maintaining that weight loss. This explains why so many people who do not engage in enough regular physical activity regain weight after losing it. Even when people lose weight, if they are physically active on a regular basis they lower their risk of diabetes and cardiovascular disease beyond the risk reduction afforded by weight loss alone. To put the relationship between diet, exercise, and weight into perspective, consider that a Big Mac from McDonald's has about 550 calories. A person who weight 150 pounds would have to run at a speed of 5 mph for an hour to burn that many calories. Few if any people who just ate a Big Mac will want or be able to run that fast for that long. Moreover, its high saturated fat content, refined white flour, etc. all contribute to cardiovascular disease, diabetes and cancers.

Describe a cooperative PE game that teaches students skills for communication, teamwork, and synchronization. Include the equipment needed, one safety rule and some questions to ask students to guide a discussion after playing.

To play "Toxic Waste: The equipment used includes ringette rings, foam balls, jump ropes, cones and optional blindfolds. Teams of four students each have one foam ball sitting on top of a ringette ring with a four jump ropes tied to it. The goal is for students to move the "toxic waste" foam ball from one end of the gym to the other without touching the ringette ring's ball, so students must utilize the ropes. If the ball falls, whichever team dropped it must return to the starting line and start over. After students play the original game, the teacher can add a build wherein one student on each team is blindfolded. After each round, the teacher blindfolds one more player, continuing until all players are blindfolded. One safety rule is that blindfolded students must walk, not run. After playing, the teacher can initiate student discussion by asking them questions such as, "To succeed in moving the toxic waste to the other side, how did you have to coordinate your movements as a team?" "How was the communication affected by having one or more players on your team blindfolded?"

Explain some ways in which physical activity can offer positive social interactions and healthy alternatives to risky behaviors.

To play organized games with peers, they must learn to follow rules, take turns, share, cooperate with others, and refrain from hitting, kicking, biting, punching and other antisocial behaviors. The structure and rules of organized games are ideal to teach one to control aggressive behaviors and to reinforce the pro-social, unselfish, helpful, and cooperative behaviors, and to reinforce the pro-social, unselfish, helpful and cooperative behaviors young children naturally display at times. By participating in games, sports, dance, etc., older students learn not to reject, ignore, insult, tease, taunt, assault, or take advantage of peers to offer helping hands when they need them, including peers with different backgrounds and abilities in physical activities. Improved physical fitness helps student to gain self-esteem and physical well-being. This discourages incompatible bad habits like overeating, smoking, drinking, and taking drugs.

For PE teachers to develop and apply effective behavior management plans, relate some components they can include for their classes.

To prevent behavior problems and motivate students, PE teachers should play school-appropriate, current, student-friendly music. Students comply more with clearer expectations. PE teachers should model everything they expect; for example, on rainy days, not running but walking from the gym to the auditorium. To call on students in an equitable manner, PE teachers should set up a tracking system. They should try to alternate calling on female and male students and keep track of the ones called over the weeks. Experts advise PE teacher to enlist students' parents as their allies. They can do this by calling them early in the school year and staying in frequent communication; being sure to talk about positive behaviors; using very specific terms and objective descriptions to communicate concerns; focusing not on the student but the behavior; and always allowing time to calm down before contacting parents regarding undesirable behaviors. According to experts, the best behavior management plan is strong instructional plan. Thus PE teachers should prepare for each lesson. The more students are engaged in learning activities, the less they will demonstrate maladaptive behaviors.

Discuss aspects of modifying curriculum and instruction in group or cooperative PE activities for special student needs.

To provide inclusive environments, modifications are needed to make learning environments safe and meaningful for every student, enable all students' successfully learning appropriate PE skills, and eliminate mismatches between lesson content and student skill levels. To be appropriate, modifications must not make settings or activities unsafe for non-disabled students; not ruin activities or games by precluding fun; not overburden regular PE teachers; and enable safe, meaningful and successful disabled student participation. Curriculum modifications include: 1) multilevel selections of different learning objectives in the same domain, 2) objectives from different domains overlapping in the same activity, and 3) different alternative activities. Part (1) includes modifying tasks and equipment, e.g., for limited strength, speed, endurance, balance, or coordination, extending skill stations, e.g., holding basketball on lap tray, dropping ball to floor, slapping ball three consecutive times, dribbling while stationary or walking, or dribbling while jogging and or guarded; modifying instruction, e.g., in class format, teaching style, cues and signals, instruction and participation duration, setting, distracters intervention level, direct instruction, movement exploration, and strategies intervention model. Part (2) includes cooperative learning; class-wide peer tutoring; teaching locomotor skills plus walking, dribbling, and 3 point shooting in basketball game. Part (3) includes pull-out activities; concurrent multiple activities; and pocket-reference IEP objectives and RPE modifications, arrangements, and activities.

Give a definition of torque, including its relationship to bio-mechanical force. Provide the units and formula for measuring torque, and a practical example illustrating relative torque.

Torque is the rotational version of force. In other words, torque represents how much a given force can make something or someone rotate or turn. Large torque is strong rotation; small torque is weak rotation. In the US/English system, the unit of torque measurement is the foot-pound; in the SI system, it is the Newton-meter (Nm). With torque represented as T, force as F, and the perpendicular (right-angle) distance from the force's action line as d, the formula for measuring torque is T=F-d. A practical example to illustrate how torque operates is to imagine two skaters on ice. One skater has longer arms and the other has shorter arms. Each skater's body is equal to a rotational axis. If both skaters extend their arms horizontally and a third person pushes on each skater's arm, this will cause the skater to rotate. Each skater's arm length equals the quantity -, i.e., distance between the axis (skaters body) and force. Equal force will make the longer armed skater rotate faster because the longer arm creates greater torque.

Describe some activities of the sport of track and field.

Track and field is a sport that encompasses a number of different competitive athletic activities that involve running, jumping, and throwing skills. Among running events, it includes sprinting (short, fast running contests), middle and long distance races, hurdling (jumping over barriers while running), and relay races. Included among jumping events are long jump (horizontal distance jumping contest), high jump (a vertical height jumping contest), triple jump, and pole vault (clearing a high bar by propelling one's body with a pole). Throwing events include the shot put (swinging and flinging a small, heavy iron shot for the maximum distance), javelin (throwing a long, spear like projectile for distance), discus (throwing a flat, disc-shaped projectile for distance. Track and field also includes events that combine multiple sports into a single contest, such as heptathlon combining seven events, the decathlon combining 10 events, and others. Athletes win running events with the fastest time, and jumping and throwing events with the longest heights and distances. Major track and field competition activities include the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) governing body's World Championship, and the Olympics.

Define some basic tumbling terminology and stunts for a single gymnast.

Tumbling is a series of acrobatic, controlled large-muscle movements including flips, springs, rolls, falls, dives, twists, etc. Tumbling stunts can be on the mat, deck or ground; semi-aerial, i.e., from the feet to the hands to the feet; or aerial, i.e., from the feet through the air to the feet going forward, backward, or sideways. Mat stunts include chest rolls, from a hand balance onto the chest; dives-from a running start, leaping into the air, ending on the chest; dives- from a running start, leaping into the air, ending on the chest, back arches, rolling backward; rockers on the stomach, back arched; forward/backward rolls, and sideward shoulder rolls. Semi-aerial stunts include front/back walkovers; barrel rolls; cartwheels; cradle rocks to back and shoulders; egg rolls/fish flops, backward to short head balance to shoulders forward, rolling down to chest, stomach, to standing; round offs, changing forward to backward momentum via inward half-turning; front, back, leaping or one-arm handsprings; headsprings, and shoulder/neck springs. Aerial stunts include brandy/Baroni, a handless roundoff; somersault/side somersault/front flip with half-twist/back somersault; spotter, landing on the takeoff spot; cutaway, landing behind it; gainer-backward somersault landing ahead of the takeoff spot; layout; tuck; whip back; bounders; alternates; and Rudolph. There are others for doubles and triples.

Describe a number of PE classroom management methods that various American PE teachers use to establish and enforce rules for students to follow in their PE classes.

Two Texas elementary teachers, male and female, use the acronym "PEACE" for their PE class rules: protect equipment; enter and exit quietly; attention-follow directions the first time; cooperation-work well with others; esteem-respect others. These teachers issue behavior tickets to students breaking rules; tickets count against student conduct grades. A Wisconsin teacher writes rules on a stairway drawing for middle school, and posts them on a totem pole made by an art teacher for elementary grades. The stairway basement/pole bottom="below-the-line" behavior. Step 1/second pole=self control. Step 2/third pole face= participation. Step 3/fourth pole face=self directed learning. Step 4/fifth pole face="kind and caring". She starts classes discussing these levels for the first two school weeks. She also has students self-assess their behavior quarterly, sending self-assessments to parents. A Pennsylvania elementary teacher uses their rules: "EYES watching, EARS listening, MOUTH quiet, HANDS to yourself, BRAIN thinking, RESPECT others, USE equipment correctly, and SAFETY-stop look, and listen." Two New Jersey teachers add "Win without boasting, lose without blaming," and high-fives before leaving to respect self, others, and the environment.

Explain how the correct application of bio-mechanical principles ensures safety and effectiveness during physical exercise, including examples. Identify some bio-mechanical changes that indicate exercise movements have become ineffective and/or unsafe. State some principles/practices for choosing safe, effective exercises.

Using biomechanics correctly ensures safety. For example, lunges with knee aligned over ankle are safe; lunges extending the knee past the ankle are mechanically incorrect and unsafe. Consider individual differences, e.g., a healthy 18 year old female can safely do a squat jump, but a 66 year old female with osteoporosis cannot. Bio-mechanical changes informing ineffective, inefficient or unsafe movements include: movement patter changes, indicating fatigue and compensation with other body parts; body weight shifts, indicating fatigue or excessive difficulty; forward body flexion, indicating fatigue preventing muscles from overcoming gravitational pull; and flexed or bent joints, shortening muscles to be ineffective and inefficient, also indicating fatigued working muscles. According to the force-length curve, muscles generate their greatest force when slightly stretched or just past resting length. To choose safe, effective, and efficient exercises, incorporate walking, cycling, and other natural movement patterns. Repeat the same movements during and between lessons. Design lessons and programs in logical sequences or increments. Minimize degrees of freedom, i.e., number of joints involved. Minimize intersegmental coordination, i.e., different simultaneous arm and leg movements, such as an overhead press plus squat. Select bilateral exercises for equal, opposite workloads. Distribute forces evenly across the body to minimize impact point. Apply forces horizontally or parallel, not vertically or downward to the body.

Describe some aspects of the game of volleyball.

Volleyball teams have six players, scoring points by grounding the ball on the opposing teams court and extensive rules. Serves are from behind the courts rear boundary line with the hand/arm, over a net. The receiving team must keep the ball airborne within their court and return it to the serving team's court. A team can touch the ball up to three times before sending it over the net; no player may touch the ball twice consecutively. Grounding the ball on the opposite court is a kill, winning the rally for that team, which gets a point and the serve beginning the next rally. A team loses a rally by committing a fault. Faults include: catching and throwing the ball, double hit, four consecutive ball contacts by one team, making the ball touch the floor outside the opposite court or without clearing the net first, touching the net, and crossing the boundary line while serving. Common volleyball techniques include spiking and blocking, setting, passing, offensive and defensive roles, and specialized player positions. It is legal to touch the ball a second time if the first touch was a block.

Give some examples of instruction and learning objectives PE teachers can use to teach students to apply bio-mechanical principles to PE activities to make their movements safer and more effective.

When PE teachers instruct students how to apply biomechanical principles, students learn to produce and control force in ways that make their movements safer and more effective. For example, on the topic of effects upon objects, PE teachers can instruct students in applying the concept of force relative to how objects move in space. Learning objectives could include calculating and showing how the movements of projectiles are affected by the application of force; explaining and demonstrating how absorbing force increases their control over objects in sports activities, like collecting a soccer ball, bunting a softball, or catching a football; and explaining and demonstrating how efficient movement reduces the likelihood of injuries during various sports activities. For example, in soccer, kicking the ball using the instep rather than the toes can prevent injuries. On the topic of balance, PE teachers can instruct students in analyzing the concept of balance during complex movement patterns. As an example, a general learning objective could be for students to explore how the center of gravity affects their balance and performance during various movement activities.

Discuss some aspects of competition and achievement that students can experience in physical activities.

When children are young and in the earlier motor development stages, they may learn, practice and enjoy running, jumping, hopping, skipping, balancing, etc. individually or in groups, but not competitively. But as they grow, they will be exposed to running races to see who finishes first, experiencing their first taste of competition. Some activities that compare are hanging the longest of the bar, jump the highest and farthest, or make most baskets, as well as run the fastest. While some students may already have met goals, if they find all their peers exceed them in certain activities, competition can motivate them to increase their standards and efforts accordingly.

Describe the classroom management practices of two PE teachers, including the first teacher's student rules and consequences for violating them; and the second teacher's rules, motto and comment.

Wisconsin elementary PE teacher sends lists of expectations and rules to students' parents at the beginning of every school year. She issues students rules to enter gym, sit on their numbers, and listen for directions; show courtesy and kindness to opponents and teammates; discuss any disputes using words, involving the teacher for unresolved disputes; stop any activity upon a signal; and leave the gym from their period, she first gives an "s" warning for violations; second violation an "I", third a "T"="SIT"=students sit out for specified duration until they can verbalize how they will return " ready to learn". These progressions start over each class. Violations repeating across class periods incur parent letters. Parents sign letters permitting student tot return to PE class. An Alaska teacher uses ABCD: act safetly, be prepared and posititive, cooperate, and do your best. Also the motto "Have Fun-Work Hard-Learn". The ABCD guidelines and motto worked for him.

Explain briefly how student development of peer comparisons can negatively affect their perceptions of their own physical competence. Describe some teaching strategies to prevent such negative outcomes.

Younger elementary school student, e.g., first and second graders, frequently assume they are competent in all physical activities they perform. However, in third and fourth grades they typically begin noticing some of their peer perform certain skills better than others. Consequently, they start judging their own physical competence by comparing it to that of other students. This negative outcome is reinforced by separating individual students or groups by focusing everybody's attention on them, encouraging their perception that their abilities are being judged by others. PE teachers can use a strategy of having students practice in scattered formations, not in a circle where they tend to perceive everybody is watching them, and of not waiting in line to take turns, also exposing each student to an audience, which both make students feel uncomfortable that others are judging them. Even with positive teacher feedback, students become embarrassed over performing unsuccessfully in front of peers, damaging their perceived physical competence. Another strategy is to ask individual students or groups in advance if they are comfortable demonstrating a skill, rather than surprising them.

Nervous system includes the

brains, nerves and spinal cord and it enables thoughts and emotion and sends messages to the rest of the body.

The circulatory system includes the

heart, blood, and blood vessels and it delivers blood to and from the lungs and the rest of the body to supply oxygen and remove carbon dioxide.

What are three types of somatotypes?

1) Ectomorph (long, narrow, thin shape with minimal muscle or fat). Good sports are long-distance running and high jump. 2) Endomorph (fat, pear-shaped, with narrow shoulders and wide hips, small ankles and wrists but more fat on the torso, arms and legs). Good sports are shot-putting and wrestling 3) Mesomorph (muscular, often wedge-shaped, with wide shoulders and narrow hips, strong limbs, and little body fat. Good sports are gymnastics and swimming.

Give 10 tips for safety and efficacy while performing strength training exercises.

1) Never hold your breath, which can cause lightheadedness, dizziness, and fainting. 2)Never lock elbows, knees, or other joints 3) When lifting barbells, always use bar collars. 4) Concentrate on lifting and lowering weights slowly with control to maximize effectiveness and prevent injury. 5) When using free weights, always have a spotter to help prevent injuries and with using correct form. 6) When using free weights, always keep both hands at equal distances from the middle of the bar. 7) Never overly bend or twist the spine. 8) While using weights standing up, always keep the knees slightly bent to prevent undue stress on the lower back. 9) When doing leg exercises with weights or resistance, always keep the knees in alignment with the toes to avoid leg injuries. 10) Always replace weights so others will not trip over them. Place weights on the correct racks so others do not mistakenly pick up the wrong weights.

Identify some of the major gross and fine motor milestones exhibited by normal babies from 6-9 months

6-9 month olds mobility expands. They crawl, grasp objects and pull them toward their bodies, and transfer toys and objects between hands. Parents can support babies in attaining physical development milestones by providing ample space for rolling, crawling and playing; and many objects they can safely grasp, shake, and put into their mouths.

Explain some ways that students can learn to practice inclusion of their peers in PE activities.

A common requirements in PE standards is for students to demonstrate positive social interactions by including diverse types of students with them in their PE activities. Student diversity includes disability. One way students can include disabled peers is for PE teachers to instruct them to be peer facilitators, enabling them both to assist and participate.

Define what a food calorie is and how it is measured. Explain the basic relationship of calories ingested to calories expended.

A food calorie, equals the approximate amount of energy required to increase the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree celsius. Because energy produces heat, we describe "burning" calories. Foods have calories called potential energy. When we digest food, build and repair body cells, engage in physical activity, and use our brains, we expend energy, or burn calories. When people take in more than they expend then they store body fat. Overeating results in extra fatty tissue and weight gain. When you burn more than you take in then you burn fat and lose weight. When no extra fat exists, the body metabolizes muscle for protein and energy, causing muscle wasting. Additional energy expending without sufficient food causes weight loss and starvation.

Identify the molecule that is the source of energy for muscular contraction. Summarize how it is accessed, depleted, and replenished. Identify three different energy systems the body uses for exercise.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a molecule with an adenosine nucleotide attached to three phosphate groups, provide energy for muscular contractions, converted via cellular respiration from food energy. Its energy store is released for muscles to access when the bond is broken between its second and third phosphate groups. When this bond is broken, the third phosphate group is released by itself, reducing ATP molecule to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) with two phosphate groups. Replacing the third phosphate group restores ADP and ATP again. The process of cellular respiration that converts food energy to ATP depends largely upon how much oxygen is available. Exercise intensity and duration affect the amount of oxygen the muscle cells demand and the oxygen supply available to them. Any of the three can be accessed selectively: alactic anaerobic energy system, lactic energy system or the aerobic energy system.

Describe some elements of individual differences that affect performance in physical education activities.

Age- all activities are not meant for students who have not attained physical maturity. Students need to understand their bodies can and cannot do as they pass through different developmental stages and periods. Should not have kids of very different ages competing against each other. Age affects strength, aerobic capacity, reaction time, flexibility and experience. Age 20 is when a person gets full strength. You are more flexible in their teens. Somatotype- body shape. This informs appropriate sport choices.

Discuss some parts of the anatomy, physiology, and function of the body's muscular system and its role in exercise.

Among cardia, smooth, and skeletal muscles, skeletal muscles are used in voluntary body movement. They are wrapped in several layers of connective tissue, which join tendons to attach to the bones. Tendons extend connective tissue around muscles, giving individual muscle fibers support and stability. Ligaments connect bones at joints, and exercise is thought to strengthen ligaments. Tendons and ligaments, combined with muscle and skin elasticity and joint structure, determine flexibility, which can be enhanced through stretching exercises. Type I (red) muscle fibers are needed for endurance activities like long-distance running and cycling, and need more aerobic energy. Type II (white) muscle fibers need less oxygen and are used in short term, maximum force exertion like sprinting, jumping, and weight lifting. Both are activated in activities needing maximal force production. Muscle fibers are activated in groups called motor units, which include motor neurons. Resistance and weight training increases muscle fiber size, and strengthens the tissues, resulting in larger muscles and great strength and endurance.

Contrast a few examples of developmentally and instructionally appropriate vs inappropriate practices in various components of PE programs.

Appropriate: 1) PE curriculum enhances all student's physical, motor, cognitive and affective fitness by balancing concepts, skills, games, educational gymnastics and rhythm and dance experiences with an observable sequence and scope determined by goals and objectives appropriate for all students. 2) Practices frequently offer students meaningful age- appropriate opportunities to practice locomotor, non-locomotor, and manipulative motor skills, developing confidence in their ability to perform these. 3) Practices design PE activities considering both physical and cognitive development by enabling students to analyze, communicate, question, integrate, apply concepts, and attain multicultural world views, thereby integrating PE into the whole educational experience. Inappropriate: 1) Curriculum is based on teacher backgrounds, preferences, and interests, mainly playing large-group or whole class games without developed learning goals and objectives 2) Limit the number of activities, games and opportunities for developing basic motor skills and concepts.. 3) Do not give students opportunities to integrate PE with classroom, art, music and other school experiences; and do not enable students' learning to move while moving to learn.

Summarize how physiological abilities are changed by age, physical activity, and exercise over the lifespan. Provide some statistics indicating age-related changes in certain physiological functions related to physical activity.

As we age and grow, our physiological abilities change as well. Some physiological differences over the lifespan is strength, flexibility, body composition, and body weight; the skeletal, cardiovascular, and pulmonary as well. Example, heart rate is 120-140 beats per minute (BPM) at birth; 80-10 bpm at one; 57-60 bpm for male, 62-62 for female adolescents; 75-80 for adults; and slightly lower after age 60, with maximum heart rate declining by 0.8 bpm per year. When crying new borns can reach 170 bpm. Children have 30-40 bpm faster heart rates than adults at the same workload levels. Cardiac output, the amount of blood the heart pumps out in one minute, is the main factor limiting endurance exercise in older adults. Maximum CO depends on age and physical condition. CO is higher in adults than children. CO declines 58% from age 25-85, by 1% each year.

Give some examples of how diverse cultures, from outside and within America, value and view physical activity.

Asian cultures often have a holistic view of physical activity and sports. They value the connection between mind and body, and practice various sports and disciplines to develop spiritual awareness as well as physical skills. Yoga, tai chi, and the many martial arts are examples of Asian traditions combining physical and spiritual discipline this way. Asian kids previously accustomed to these traditions may view playing sports or games in PE for fun as irrelevant and spiritually unsatisfying, view playing them for aggressive competition as against their values of cooperation and group harmony, and view competing in sports for individual attention and fame as inappropriate. Americans and Asians view physical activity differently.

Discuss some society's influences on health and fitness practices, including the concepts of BMI vs other factors, fitness vs. health, and recommended exercise amounts.

BMI is a popular tool. It is helpful to measure underweight, overweight, obese or a healthy weight; however, it is not always completely accurate. It doesn't take muscle mass vs fat into account. BMI is only one facet of a health profile. Discuss other risk factors like waste size, physical activity dietary/nutritional content, smoking, drinking, etc. Presidential fitness testing, weight-lifting standards, and other performance-based models asses fitness levels, not health. It is recommended to exercise 30-60 minutes daily. 20 minutes several days weekly has equal health benefits as 60 minutes daily.

Identify some of the major gross and fine motor milestones exhibited by normal babies from 3-6 months

Babies develop more strength and agility. They start to roll over, pull their bodies forward using arms and hands, grasp edges of cribs and furniture to pull themselves up, reach for objects and grasp them, bring objects to their mouths with their hands, and shake and otherwise play with objects they hold.

Describe some safety practices to observe before and during exercise programs for improving body composition.

Before you start talk with your dr to ensure types and amounts of exercise that are safe for your health. Then consult a personal trainer who can access body composition and develop an individual training program. Always warm up for 10-15 minutes first. Do stretches to prevent injury. Do not eat large meals before exercising, but eat smaller meals 2-3 hours before, or a snack 30-60 minutes before. Drink plenty of water before, during and after working out.

Define body composition and what improving it can include. Identify which type of exercises can improve body composition and explain why. Give a few examples of exercises that can improve upper-body composition.

Body composition is the ratio of fatty tissue to non-fatty tissue, especially lean muscle tissue, in the body. For the overweight, improving body composition entails both decreasing their total proportion of body fat and increasing their total proportion of lean muscle tissue. For people underweight, it can include both gaining some body fat and al more muscle tissue. Normal weights and without excess fatty tissue but lacking muscular development, involves increasing the proportion of lean muscular tissue in the body. While isolation exercises work only one joint at a time, compound exercises use movements that require multiple joints at a time. Compound exercises are best at improving body composition. Compound pushing exercises improve upper-body composition through resistance movements of the arms and shoulders. Horizontal loaded resistance include pushups, weighted flat, incline, and decline bench press (work pecs, triceps, serratus, and lateral deltoid muscles). Vertical loaded resistance include the shoulder press and military press (work the anterior deltoid, upper pectoral, and trapezius muscles).

Identify some health risks associated with physical inactivity. Cite a few facts research has found related to living sedentary lifestyles.

Cardiovascular disease, hypertension (high blood pressure, depression and anxiety, risks of certain cancers, death and other health conditions. Women are more likely to be inactive. As people age they become less active. White adults are more likely to be physically active than hispanic and black adults.

Relate some general guidelines for exercising in ways that are safe and effective for purposes like losing weight and/or improving overall physical fitness

Counsel kids to moderate their eagerness to obtain results quickly or they will strain their muscles or overwork their entire bodies. They need to begin at lower intensity and not repeat initial workouts obsessively. Begin slowly, paying attention to their bodies. When they feel ready, they can increase their intensities, speeds, repetitions and duration gradually. Incorrect form can also be a hazard. They should work out in front of mirrors to observe and modify their body positions as need. Teachers and trainers can also fix form. Get correct form before increasing the speed or repetitions. Do not focus overly on body parts. Regular exercise combined with healthy nutrition is more effective in shaping bodies

Describe a gymnasium activity appropriate for grades k-6 that develops endurance, including developmentally appropriate equipment.

Creative dance activities builds endurance and develops spatial awareness and concepts. Equipment needed include audio player, recorded music, and pathway signs. Teachers review space concepts of direction and pathways. Teachers call out forward, backward, and sideways directions for students to take while moving around the gym, then combine pattern and direction. For example, walking backward, skipping sideways, galloping forward, etc. Teachers draw the patterns on signs and post on walls. Teachers point out pictures and have students move using these, first using two body parts and then three. For example, straight, zigzag, small curves, larger curves, small spirals, larger spirals. Teachers lead students around the gym in a large spiral pathway. Have students move in pairs to pathways they choose. Have some pairs demonstrate. Have students combine three or more pathways and directions to create movement stories. Remind students to pay attention to others movements to avoid collisions. Have students demonstrate their stories. Use music with strong beats during story creation and presentation. To make it harder, have students add shapes (squares, rectangular, circular, triangular, figure-eight, or favorite letter, etc) into their stories.

Discuss some aspects of the relationship between diet and exercise

Diet and exercise are interdependent. For example, it is hard to have energy, effort or results from exercising after eating nothing but junk food. While people who do eat healthy diets but never exercise may find it hard tot maintain optimal weights. About 5% of people losing weight from diet alone maintain the loss. Weight loss requires negative balance of calories, by either burning more calories from exercising, eating fewer calories or a combination of the two. Snacks containing complex carbohydrates and some protein afford energy before exercising. Afterward, water, milk and juice rehydrate; carbohydrates replenish energy; and protein supports muscle repair and growth. 15% protein, 55% carbs, and 30% fat are optimal for exercising.

Explain some ways that public schools can be sensitive to the diverse cultural and religious beliefs held by various students' parents regarding sexuality and family.

Each school district is also responsible for maintaining a balance between aligning its curriculum with the state standards and also taking into account and fulfilling the diverse needs of its student population. School districts have the duty of collaborating with their community-based cultural and religious organizations to build cultural and religious sensitivity as a continuing endeavor. As an example, the state of New Jersey's Department of Health and Senior Services has developed a network for cultural competence, with a website where educators can locate and contact groups with resources promoting cultural knowledge and responsiveness.

Summarize Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, including the positive vs negative emotional developments associated with resolution of each stage's nuclear conflict

Erikson says infancy central conflict of trust vs mistrust. Infants whose needs are met fully and consistently develop trust in the world. If not, they develop mistrust. The positive out come from resolving conflict is hope. Toddlers face autonomy vs shame and doubt. Those developing self-control feel security and confidence, those that do not develop inadequacy and self-doubt instead. The positive outcome is will Preschoolers encounter initiative vs guilt. Successfully exerting power over the environment develops capability and leadership; destructiveness and/or experiencing disapproval causes guilt and lack of initiative. The positive outcome is purpose. School age children confront industry vs inferiority. Successful social interactions and academic efforts with positive feedback develop belief in their abilities, while failure causes inferiority and inadequacy. The positive outcome is competence. Adolescents confront identity vs role confusion. Success develops independence and sense of self; failure, confusion and insecurity. The positive outcome is fidelity. Young adults address intimacy vs isolation. Success develops relationships; failure, loneliness. Love is the positive outcome. Middle age involves generatively vs stagnation. Success brings feelings of contribution and involvement; failure, feeling unproductive and uninvolved. The positive virtue is care. Old age involves integrity vs despair. Success brings satisfaction and peace; failure, bitterness and regret. The positive outcome is wisdom.

Identify some long-term effects of physical training upon mental health and cardiovascular health

Exercising regularly can both prevent and relieve depression, cardiovascular health, lower blood pressure and pulse. It also predicts heart health. People that exercise lower their long-term risks of heart attacks, strokes, and cardiovascular disorders.

Discuss how some common practices by elite male and female athletes during adolescence can cause health risks.

Experts have found that boys wrestling competitively have used diet, exercise, dehydration, and other means to lose weight to qualify in lower weight classes, often beginning by 8 years old. The American Medical Association and American College of Sports Medicine have discouraged this practice. Girls have started delayed periods while training intensively in gymnastics than in swimming, tennis, or speed skating. Dancing and running had similar but smaller effects compared to gymnastics. Gymnasts are usually smaller in size than peers. Female runners and gymnasts risk lifelong deficiencies in bone mineral density from interactions of steroid hormones, calcium intake, and other nutritional deficits.

Discuss some principles of cardiorespiratory endurance that PE teachers should teach their students.

Explain to students that cardiorespiratory fitness is considered the most important component of physical fitness because it indicates effective functioning of their hearts, lungs, and blood vessels. Tell kids that the heart is a pump with two sides: the right side (supplies blood to lungs) and the left side (sends blood to different body systems. The vascular system provides body tissues with blood, which carries oxygen and carbon dioxide through the bloodstream. Cardiorespiratory fitness lowers the risk of cardiovascular disease (America's highest cause of death). It also reduces body fat and raises energy. PE teachers should encourage students to do all they can do to avoid dying of cardiovascular disease (especially if they have family history of heart disease or diabetes). Cardiovascular disease screening measure total cholesterol, LDL, HDL, and triglycerides. Encourage kids to exercise aerobically, to improve cardiorespiratory fitness, 3-5 days a week, 60-85% of max hr, for 20-60 min. Good exercises include walking, jogging, cycling, swimming, rowing, in-line skating, spinning, step aerobics, and dancing aerobically to music.

Summarize some factors that influence children's cognitive development.

Factors that influence cognitive development can be divided into two main categories: biological and environmental. Biological: Sense organs influence cognitive development by receiving environmental stimuli. Intelligence, heredity and motor and mental maturation are other biological factors. Environmental factors: Include learning opportunities, economic status, play and family and society are environmental influences providing intellectual stimulation.

Describe some examples of how students can develop positive social behaviors for cooperation and fairness through PE activities

Fair play is universal in sports. Following rules of the game, not cheating by breaking those rules, treating their peers fairly by not taking advantage of weaknesses, unfairly using their strengths, or making fun of their shortcomings or difficulties are all taught through PE. Sports have rules and structure to promote fairness. Some examples of making things fair: not choosing team members because of friendships; not rejecting students because of disabilities or height, slower, weaker, or have less experience; and not excluding diverse cultural, ethnic, or socioeconomic backgrounds. Students must develop and refine skills for cooperating with others, respecting and listening other others, helping others participate, and work jointly as a team to develop cooperative skills that will help their social skills outside of PE (schools, families, communities, current/future jobs, and everyday lives).

Identify five components of health-related physical fitness and define each one.

Five major components: 1) Cardiorespiratory endurance-circulatory system (the heart and blood vessels), respiratory system (lungs, trachea, bronchi, pharynx, larynx, and diaphragm, to supply the muscles and the rest of the body with oxygen during continuing physical activity over time. 2) Muscular strength- the greatest amount of force that any given muscle can generate during a single attempt. 3) Muscular endurance- how long a given muscle is able to continue to perform an exercise or activity without becoming fatigued. 4) Flexibility- ability to move the joints of the body through the full range of motion. When bending, turning, twisting, stretching, reaching, contracting, extending, etc. 5) Health body composition-ratio of lean muscle tissue to fatty tissue in the body. The amount of muscle should be greater in proportion to the amount of fat, though there should be at least enough fat to enable normal body functions.

Define flexibility, including tow parts, as a component of fitness. Identify several benefits of flexibility training.

Flexibility is the ability to move the body freely. It encompasses two parts: range of motion (ROM), which is extent of direction and distance that one's joints are able to move; and mobility, which is the ability of muscles to move with restrictions around the joints. Benefits: 1) Improving range of motion 2) Decreasing risks for becoming injuring during physical activities by making muscles pliable, less stiff and less prone to pulls, tears, ruptures, sprains, etc 3) Decreasing the soreness of muscles following exercise by keeping muscles more relaxed and looser. 4) Enhancing overall athletic performance by using less energy for body movement through having more flexible muscles and joints. 5) Improves sports performance 6) Facilitates activities of daily living like objects or children, squatting down, reaching high shelves, getting out of bed, and turning fully to see behind oneself when backing up or parking a car.

Describe some benefits and characteristics of physical fitness training for developing flexibility.

Flexibility not only improves muscular and aerobic training and sports performance and prevents athletic injuries, but also facilitates everyday life activities and prevents age-related mobility loss. Flexibility training releases muscle tension that builds up during workouts and reduces stress in working muscles; balances joint tension, improving posture; and makes muscles more pliable, decreasing injury risk. Stretching exercises should follow each workout, four to seven days weekly. Intensity should create slight muscular tension without causing pain. Static stretching, done seated, is easy, safe, and doable virtually anywhere without equipment or assistance; but limited in efficacy for competitive athletes or increasing flexibility in multiple ranges of motion. Dynamic stretching, done standing, uses reciprocal inhibition of opposing muscles to develop active range of motion (rom). It should be used as warm-ups for movement based sports and activities, it should be taught and learned gradually with appropriate movements to prevent trauma.

Describe some major milestones of gross and fine motor development demonstrated by normal children 4-5 years. Identify what parents can do to support children's achieving the milestones.

From ages 4-5 children gain more confidence in their abilities. They start to walk backwards, jump on one foot, perform somersaults, cut paper using child safe scissors, print some of the letters of the alphabet, and cop crosses, squares, and other simple shapes. Parents can support children by providing environments encouraging them to explore safely, space, resources, and time to balance, jump run roll balls, and play, draw, assemble puzzles, string beads, and practice new skills.

Identify several major milestones in the typical gross and fine motor development of most babies between the ages of 9-12 months and 1-2 years.

From the ages 9-12 months, most babies demonstrate the major milestones of sitting up without support, standing up without help, and walking without assistance. They also demonstrate advances in fine motor skills development. They being to pick up objects and throw them. They demonstrate the ability to roll a ball. Their ability to pick up small objects between their thumb and one finger also typically develops during this period. Between ages 1-2, children develop more independence. Their motor skills start to emerge for performing tasks that require body balance and hand-eye coordination. Most children in this developmental stage can walk backwards, walk up and down stairs without help, pick up objects while standing (without squatting or sitting), sway and otherwise move along with music, use their whole arm to paint or color, scribble using crayons or markers, and turn handles and knobs.

Identify some factors that influence physical growth and development

Genetically inherited traits can influence physical development for better or worse. Example, some kids get natural inherit strength speed, agility or relative lack of, and earlier or later maturation; while others inherit chromosomal syndromes with abnormal intellectual, emotional and learning disabilities. Good nutrition enhances physical development. Malnutrition causes delayed physical, cognitive and behavioral development; stunted growth; or obesity and diabetes. Exercise not only promotes physical development but also cognitive development. Environmental factors like lack of sensory and intellectual stimulation, social isolation, and poor sanitation can hamper children's health, growth and social and cognitive development. Exposure to hazardous substances and unsafe conditions in their play areas can jeopardize children's safety, well-being, and development.

Describe some changes in strength over the lifespan, including highlights in puberty, male vs female, age-related declines, and strength training effects.

Girls by puberty usually have strength spurts the same year as growth spurts. Boys strength spurts are a year or more behind height spurts until puberty. In puberty, boys gain muscle mass, while girls gain fatty tissue. Muscle develops to around 40 percent of boys total body weight during puberty. Adult women have around 63.5 percent the absolute body strength of adult men. Between 25-50 years old, muscle mass starts decreasing. This decrease escalates after age 50. By age 80, people have lost half their muscle mass. While pediatric experts say bodybuilding and powerlifting are unsafe for prepubescent children, weight training is safe and can enhance sport performance and motor fitness skills. Adolescence is the critical period when muscle mass increases the most and resistance training improves strength and endurance. Training slows strength decline in older. Even elderly can improve their strength. Resistance training manages fat-to-muscle ratios.

Explain some ways adapted physical education (APE) for students with disabilities can improve over historical practices and generally how regular PE activities can be adapted. Give examples of alternatives for students with disabilities to practice and demonstrate functional physical fitness.

Historically, students with disabilities have often been excused from PE classes or assigned timekeeper, scorekeeper, or other sedentary roles. This reinforced assumptions that persons with disabilities must be physically passive and contributed to obesity and shorter lifespans for disabled individuals. APE goal is over 50% moderate to vigorous physical active equals the pe goal. Alternative activities should not be sedentary. Educators should work with students, parents, administrators, other professionals, and community members to develop APE programs. For example, a non-ambulatory student could demonstrate sufficient upper-body strength for throwing basketball at an eight-foot high basket, or a student with limited motor, physical, and cognitive skills could demonstrate sufficient aerobic endurance for playing a modified soccer game for 10 minutes before having to stop and rest.

Describe an example of a strength-training routine to build muscular strength and endurance in the arms. Identify an example of an exercise to build muscular strength and endurance in the upper body.

In lifting weight, one can work each arm individually both arms together using dumbbells. One thing to remember is that training each arm individually can result in slightly different levels of muscular strength and endurance in each arm. Start with weights 20 pounds or less, lift them 12 times; Do two or three sets of 12. As this becomes easier, start adding heavier weights and reps. Increasing the weight builds muscular strength. Increasing the sets builds muscular endurance. Pushups are great for building upper body strength. These build the pectoral muscles in chest, the triceps and the deltoid muscles at the front of the shoulders. Even a small amount of pushups can be hard for someone lacking upper body strength. Perform 10 reps of 1-2 sets. Increase by two reps per week. Building upper body strength enables more forceful arm extension for bench pressing, swimming, throwing and more pushups.

Identify some positive developmental outcomes that effective physical education supports in the psychomotor, cognitive, and affective domains respectively.

In the psychomotor domain, effective PE enhances student movement skills for participating in sports and other activities, and for being a spectator as well. It gives you skills for applying cultural and intellectual pursuits to use leisure time and skills for preserving the natural environment. In cognitive domain, effective PE supports higher-order thinking processes through motor activity, enhances academic performance, provides understanding of the human body and knowledge of health and illness and of exercise, enhances understanding of the roles of sports and physical activity in America and supports knowledgeable consumerism with good and services. In affective domain, effective PE supports a healthy response to physical activity. It adds to student aesthetic appreciation of beauty. It contributes to student self esteem and self actualization. It helps direct their lives for setting goals. It also informs cooperative play and social interactions. It teaches students fair play, good sportsmanship and courtesy.

Provide some contrasting descriptions of practices that are developmentally and instructionally inappropriate vs appropriate regarding effective development, fitness concepts, and physical fitness tests in PE classes and programs

Inappropriate: Teacher exclusion of activities that help students develop social skills, and overlooking opportunities to help children understand emotions they experience from PE participation. Requiring participation in fitness activities without helping students understand why. Testing twice yearly, only as required by states/districts or to qualify students for awards, requiring testing without students understanding why or what their results imply, and requiring testing without sufficient conditioning or preparation. Appropriate: Purposely designing and implementing activities through the year, enabling students to collaborate, cooperate, and develop emerging social skills and positive self-concepts; and helping every student fell and appreciate joy and satisfaction from participating regularly in physical activity. Designing activities that aid students in understanding and valuing significant physical fitness concepts and how these contribute to healthy lifestyles. Conducting ongoing fitness assessment to help students understand, maintain/improve, and enjoy physical well-being, sharing results privately with students and parents to develop knowledge, competence and understanding, and preparing students for tests as part of ongoing PE programs.

Describe some individual differences that can affect physical education performance, including motor abilities that affect skill development and performance, with some examples.

Individual differences include biological, physiological, and environmental factors affecting performance. Example, muscular tissue composition will influence individual strength, flexibility and endurance. The same as kids that participate in formal school will develop verbal and reasoning skills, children that participate in PE and sports will develop their fine motor skills further. But the rates will vary based off of maturation and growth differences. Perceptual-motor abilities affecting individual skill performance include: control precision (hockey-puck handling), rate control (racecar driving), aiming (texting), response orientation and choice reaction time (football quarterbacking), reaction time (sprinting), manual dexterity (basketball-dribbling), finger dexterity (typing), arm-hand steadiness (performing surgery) and wrist and finger speed (speed stacking). Physical proficiencies affecting performance include: explosive strength (standing long jumps), static strength (weight lifting), trunk strength (pole vaulting), extent flexibility (yoga), dynamic flexibility (squat-thrusts), limb movement speed (javelin throwing), static balance, (gymnastics), object-balancing, multi-limb coordination (stick-shift driving), gross body coordination (hurdling), stamina (marathons), and dynamic strength.

Describe some factors that influence social and emotional development

Intrinsic factors- within the individual child. Example, difficult temperament is observed in some children during infancy and early childhood. Some babies are fussier, harder to calm or soothe, and less inclined to happy dispositions, others are naturally easygoing, contented and equable. Health Problems- developmental delays, or disorders. Family- some families are risk factors. For example, a mother with depression during pregnancy, postpartum, and or during the child's life. Substance abuse, violence and family poverty are all risks for a child's social and emotional development. Environmental- live in community that is unsafe, lacking in resources, and/or deficient in policies to support families and children are a higher risk of developmental problems.

Describe some aspects of the roles of PE teachers and activities in promoting student respect for peers.

It is important to teach both effective skills and objectives in addition to information, skills, and strategies. Values attitudes, feelings and interpersonal behaviors affect student motivation. NASPE National PE standard includes "responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings". Never show favoritism. Don't exclude students of higher or lower skills from healthy PE activities. Include ways to teach respect for self and others, cooperation, teamwork, skills, and techniques.

Compare and contrast the typical growth patterns of girls and boys in height and weight during adolescence

Just before puberty, boys and girls both typically experience a preadolescent dip in growth, when previous growth slows to a all-time lows. They experience sudden (dramatic) growth spurts during middle stages of puberty. Girls typically have growth spurts about two years earlier than boys. Female growth spurts do not last as long as male growth spurts and girls typically do not gain as much total height as boys. While boys begin growth spurts later than girls, they grow for longer durations, gaining more total height, which accounts for average heights of male than females. Height growth becomes slower in later stages of puberty. Once girls are about 15 and boys 17 their growth stops. Adolescents gain significant weight, attaining 50% of their adult body weights. While boys tend to reach their fastest rates of gaining height and weight around the same age, girls tend to gain weight fastest about 6 months later on average than when they gain height fastest. While boys and girls undergo slowing of weight gain similarly to reductions in height growth rates during the later stages of puberty.

Identify eight of the major human body systems and some of the their functions.

Lymphatic-fluids that leak from the small blood vessels) and contain white blood cells supporting the immune system Cardiovascular-transports nutrients containing oxygen and other necessities throughout the bloodstream, transports gaseous wastes for elimination, and supports immune functions. Urinary- regulates balance of fluids, electrolytes, and pH; and removes nitrogenous wastes from blood. Digestive- breaks food down into proteins, sugars, amino acids and other body's metabolic processes, growth, replenishment and repair. Respiratory system- performs gas exchanges by taking in, warming and moistening environmental air, delivering oxygen, and expelling carbon dioxide. Nervous system- provides sensory input, interprets the sensory information, evokes and signals responses, and coordinates muscle functions. Endocrine- secretes hormones that regulate the body's growth, metabolism and general functionality. Includes the hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, and adrenal glands, and pancreas. Reproductive- produces hormones enabling reproduction and creates nurtures and delivers offspring. Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, and mammary glands in females, and testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate and penis in males.

Discuss some considerations about how relationships between pubertal changes and physical education and activity can influence adolescent growth.

Major influences include: Physiological differences (broad range) Adolescent growth (exercise training and nutritional conditions) Wrestling, dance and gymnastics usually grow more slowly than the average for their peers.

Training some aspects of progress through the hierarchy of neural systems that control the body's motor movements.

Motivation, emotions, and memory are included in the highest level of motor control hierarchy. Command neurons formulate the intention to move the body and its parts. This is sent to the hierarchy's middle level in the cerebral cortex's sensorimotor cortex, subcortical nuclei's basal ganglia, cerebellum, and brainstem. The high interconnected structures in this level determine postures and movements needed to perform an action. Midlevel neurons receive input from receptors in the eyes, vestibular system, skin, joints, and muscles regarding current surroundings and body posture. The middle level uses this complex of data to produce a motor program, which sends this program information along descending pathways, originating in the sensorimotor cortex and brainstem, to the lowest hierarchy level, the motor neurons and interneurons.

Identify concepts that interact with movement concepts

Movement concepts are interrelated and interactive with concepts of space, direction and speed.

Identify six factors that influence the development of children's motor skills

Muscle tone, strength endurance balance, motor planning and sensory integration

Identify six factors that influence the development of children's motor skills, giving definitions and examples for each.

Muscle tone- during contraction and at rest varies among children. Hypotonia is low muscle tone, causing floppiness, weakness and poor balance. Children with down syndrome and cerebral palsy often have hypertonia. Strength-muscular contractions against resistance. Children with weak muscles may have difficulty achieving motor development milestones. Endurance- Enables children to sustain exertion overtime, including muscle tone, strength, cardiovascular and pulmonary function and motivation. Children with low endurance may be able to step up one stair but not go up a flight of stairs. Balance while stationary and while moving results from vestibular equilibrium interacting with sensory information, including sight, proprioception, muscle tone, and strength. Motor planning coordinates systems controlling perception, movement intensity, speed and sequencing in the complex and frequently intuitive process of executing steps in physical activities. Sensory Integration- interpreting environmental sensory input correctly and responding wit appropriate motor activity. Children's response thresholds vary along a continuum among ranges of understimulation, average stimulation, and overstimulation.

Define muscular strength and muscular endurance differently and give an example of each. Identify generally what kinds of exercise activities develop muscular strength and endurance.

Muscular strength equals how much force one can produce within one effort. Example, the amount of weight an individual can bench press Muscular endurance equals how many times one can repeat a movement before muscles become too fatigued to work. Example, the number of times that individual can bench press that weight repeatedly before fatiguing. The two are not necessarily equal in the same person. Some people can lift a lesser amount of weight, but can repeat if many times, meaning lower muscular strength and higher muscular endurance. People can develop muscular strength and muscular endurance through strength training (lifting weights or using resistance, by both executing many reps of the same action, gradually increasing the number of reps and gradually increasing the weight or resistance). You can develop strength and endurance in all muscle groups of the body or concentrate on a specific muscle or group.

Give a national PE and sports organization's definition of developmentally appropriate practices and programs in PE, as well as its definition of instructionally appropriate education and the result of combining the two. Additionally define this result.

NASPE and COPEC identifies quality PE as both developmentally and instructionally appropriate for the actual children involved. This council defines developmentally appropriate PE practices as acknowledging the changing abilities of children for moving, and as promoting those changes. Developmentally appropriate PE programs are defined as addressing developmental status, body size, age, fitness levels, previous experiences with movement, and other student characteristics. NASPE and COPEC define instructionally appropriate education as including both research-based and experience-based best known practices in programs that give all children maximal opportunities to learn and succeed. NASPE defined a physically educated individual as someone who has learned the necessary skills for performing varied physical activities, participates regularly in physical activity, is physically fit, knows the benefits and implications of engaging in physical activities and values physical activity and what it contributes to healthy lifestyles.

Describe some aspects of inter-limb coordination and gait development as toddlers and children develop the locomotion skill of walking

Newborns may have inter-limb coordination (crawling, swimming, and stepping reflexes). After developing crawling, babies go through several transitional upright stages of pulling up, balancing while standing, and sideways cruising while holding onto furniture for support. This leads to toddling to eventual adult-like walking around elementary age. There is a dramatic gait change around this time. When babies first start to walk, their feet are spaced widely apart, with toes pointed outward. They hold their legs nearly straight, not bending their knees. They typically bend their elbows upward, with the palms of their hands facing the ceiling. They either set each foot down all at once or walk on their toes, instead of rolling the foot heel to toe. As their bodies and brains mature, their body proportions change, their balance improves and they gain additional experience, their gait patterns gradually change until by around seven years old, they walk the way adults do.

Identify some disease conditions that can result from physical inactivity, and some health benefits of physical activity.

Obesity and type 2 diabetes are two common results of physical inactivity. While obesity contributes to type 2 diabetes, there are individuals who are not even overweight, but due to their sedentary lifestyle combined with poor nutritional habits and other behaviors (drinking, smoking, genetics) have developed it as well. Sitting for most of one's waking hours is as harmful to health as habits like smoking. Even when exercising and hour a day, sitting for the rest has harmful effects. These same people have higher risk for emotional, stress, hypertension, heart attacks, strokes, type 2 diabetes, cancer, mental and emotional disorders, poorer quality of life and early mortality. Physical activity can aid in weight control, lower risk of heart disease and cancer, strengthen the muscles and bones, and enhance mental health. While active people are not immune to disease, it lowers their risks of many diseases.

Identify and summarize nine fundamental processes of physiological life

Organization (loss of organization i.e integrity, causes death) , metabolism (chemical reactions in the body. e.g. breaking substances down to simpler components and releasing energy) , responsiveness (internal and external environments and reacting to them), movement (Molecules, blood, diaphragms, and muscles move), reproduction (transmitting life across generations by creating new organisms), differentiation (unspecialized cells become specialized like tissues and organs), respiration (oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between cells and environment), digestion (breaking down food), and excretion (removal of waste from the body).

Identify a purpose and a philosophy of fitness testing in PE. Identify a way of assessing cardiorespiratory endurance in elementary.

PE programs not only develop student physical skills and cognitive understanding about physical activity and healthy lifestyles, but also the significance of health-related fitness. A philosophy of fitness testing includes purposeful measurement is a necessary part of quality PE. Assessment and measurement should be a part of your instruction. Cardiorespiratory endurance can be tested in elementary schools using a mile or half-mile run (pacer test). Measurements are number of PACER laps run and time in minutes taken to complete a mile. Some schools require this at the begin and end of the year/semester as a baseline for progress.

Summarize the four stages of cognitive development identified by Piaget in his theory.

Piaget described infants as being in the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development, perceiving the world through received sensory stimuli and responding and interacting through motor activities. They learn to repeat actions to reproduce their results, eventually developing intentional activities. They develop object permanence and form mental concepts about environment. Pre-operational stage, toddlers and preschoolers think intuitively, not logically, with animistic and magical thinking. They are egocentric, unable to see things from another's perspective, both literally/physically and figuratively/mentally. They concentrate on one aspect of a situation at a time and cannot reverse operations or conserve quantities. In the concrete operations stage, middle children develop the ability to perform logical mental operations, but only with concrete objects or events. They can reverse operations, categorize items and conserve quantities of liquids, solids, and numbers, no matter the context. In the formal operational stage, pre-adolescents, adolescents, and adults can perform mental operations with abstract concepts; without concrete objects or events; understand intangible ideas like puberty; and accept multiple alternatives, possibilities, consequences and ambiguities.

Define and explain the principles of overload

Principle of overload means the body only responds beyond its normal level if new stimuli or additional pressures are introduced. This is true for gaining strength, improving athletic ability or losing weight. Everyone will not respond to the same exercises the same. We each have different body chemistry and some will have to work harder and some are more predisposed to succeed in certain sports or workouts.

Explain when and how the alactic anaerobic, lactic, anaerobic, and aerobic energy systems are used to provide energy to the muscles during different kinds of exercise

Short term (10 seconds or less), high intensity, explosive exercise recruits the alactic (not producing (alactic acid) anaerobic (not using oxygen) energy system like the 100 sprint or one weightlifting set. High-intensity exercise for up to 90 seconds example is one ice hockey shift or an 800 meter sprint. This uses lactic anaerobic energy system. The system functions when alactic anaerobic system is depleted and the aerobic system cannot handle the exercise intensity's demands. It does not use oxygen. Continuous/long term (beyond 2-5 minutes) lower intensity aerobic exercise examples are running marathons. It accesses the aerobic energy system which depends upon how efficiently oxygen can be sent to and processed by the muscles. Oxygen is available and no lactic acid is produced.

Discuss some research observations related to the effects of individual differences on learning in physical education.

Situational interest can help motivate students to become engaged in the process of learning. Student interest has greater influence on student learning behavior, as well as on student intentions for future participation. Teachers still lack clarity in understanding the roles they can play in helping to stimulate and develop students' interest. When people interact with the environment, two kinds of interest emerge: situational and individual. Both kinds have two phases. Situational interest has a phase when interest is activated, and an ensuing phase when interest is sustained. Individual interest has a phase when interest emerges, and an ensuing phase when interest is defined.

Identify some forms of physical activity that contribute to a healthy lifestyle, and some recommended amounts.

Some types of activities are brisk walking (must elevate the heart rate), walking places instead of driving if safe, intramural, outdoor sports, ride bicycles, swim, dance, nature walks, vacuum house, wash car, cut the grass, do gardening, clean up their rooms, and help their parents with housework. Something that keeps you from playing video games, on the computer or watching TV. It is recommended at least an hour of moderate activity a day for teens. Adults at least half an hour a day.

Describe several principles, techniques, and safety practices involved in performing stretching exercises.

Stretching is equally important part of fitness as strength and aerobic capacity, but is often overlooked. Stretching before and after performing other conditioning exercises promotes flexibility and prevents stiffness, soreness, and even injuries. Before stretching, warmup. Stretch your whole body not just parts. Hold stretch for 15-30 seconds or more. Do not bounce. Should not feel pain but mild tension. If you feel pain, stop and when you resume, do not stretch as far, hard or as quick. When you stretch make sure you breathe normally.

Describe some behaviors that students in grades 5-6 should develop through participating in sports, games, fitness and other PE activities.

Students in grades 5-6 should allow self-confidence by identifying PE activities that are personally challenging to them, identifying the skills they need to develop and/or refine personally succeed, and choosing and practicing specific skills they need to improve. They should demonstrate safety for themselves and others and apply the appropriate etiquette in specific sports and activities (taking turns, avoiding fouls, avoiding excessive force, helping up fallen opponents, not teasing, etc)

Give some examples of how students can learn to be considerate of others and support them through participating in PE activities.

Students should strive for excellence rather than exhibiting adversarial hostility. American sports emphasize good sportsmanship and fair play. Students should view other teams and individuals as worthy opponents rather than enemies and the object of play as a challenge to exceed opponents strategies and performance rather than a mission to destroy them or pound them into the ground. Good sportsmanship includes being a winner by respecting opponents efforts and acknowledging the competition they offer and being a good loser by giving winners the credit they deserve for superior strategy and performance. This strategy will promote mutual respect and enable healthy competition rather than antisocial or destructive behavior. Another area of sportsmanship is helping others. Example, when another player gets knocked down, helping them up. Supporting teammates teaches students to be supportive in friendships and workplace, family, and intimate relationships.

Relate some information about how student substance abuse affects students' overall health.

Substance abuse by teenagers can affect their health in a myriad of catastrophic ways, including injuries from auto accidents caused by driving under the influence. Alcohol abuse and intoxication are particularly implicated in driving fatalities among adolescents. Many teens die from drug overdoses, and others survive but suffer permanent health damage, including loss of teeth, skin damage, damage to the liver, lungs, heart,

Describe some safety practices that PE teachers should instruct students while engaging in exercise to increase cardiorespiratory endurance.

Teachers should start out slow with activities that kids enjoy and gradually pick up the pace. To improve cardiorespiratory endurance should elevate the heart rate for and extended duration of time, but at a safe level. Safe activity ideas include: walking, bicycling or swimming. Sweating during exercise causes dehydration and affect the heart. Encourage lots of water. It is also important to pay attention to the heat index. The effect of humidity can raise the actual temperature. When exercising outdoors, modify your activities with heat in mind. Humidity also prevent perspiration from evaporating, and evaporation helps to cool off our bodies and the result can be over heating, heat exhaustion and heat prostration. Clothing needs to be suited for the weather.

Identify two types of exercises, with variations, to build muscular strength and endurance in the lower body and legs. Name two sports that do this as well.

The best lower-body and leg exercises are squats and lunges. These increase strength and endurance in the gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, gluteus minimus and tensor facieae latae muscles of the buttocks; hamstrings (back legs); quadriceps (front of legs); and the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles in the calves. Variations would be holding dumbells to add resistance. To build muscular strength and endurance in legs and buttocks do five sets of 10 squats/lunges per set every day. Trainers recommend boxing, and martial arts to also increase muscular strength and endurance.

Identify three main forms of muscular endurance, including examples of activities for each one that would be appropriate for middle school (grades 6-8) students.

The continuous tension is a form of muscular endurance that puts demands on the muscles to be under continuing tension for extended durations of time. Some activities for middle school include tug-of-war, isometric muscle contractions, extremely slow muscle contractions, isolation exercises, compound exercises without lockouts, beginning weight lifting, and supervised mountain climbing or wall climbing. The repetitive dynamic contraction form of muscular endurance requires repeated muscle contractions oer time periods. Activities would be running, bicycling, swimming, rowing, skating, and weight training involving many repetitions and/or supersets using the same muscle. The prolonged, intense contractions with short rest periods form of muscular endurance involves contractions for longer durations with brief recovery periods between bouts. Activities would be playing football, handball, ice hockey, and weight training that involves circuit training (going from one exercise or machine to another, performing multiple sets of repetitions, and performing multiple different exercises to work the same muscle.

Describe some aspects of the roles of the cardiopulmonary system in exercise.

The heart's right side receives blood from the veins. When the muscle contracts, it pumps blood from its right ventricle, through the pulmonary arteries, to the lungs. Blood gets fresh oxygen in the lungs from air the individual has exhaled and releases carbon dioxide into pulmonary capillaries. The blood then travels through the pulmonary veins, to the hearts left atrium, to the left ventricle. When it contracts, it pumps blood to the aorta to the entire body. The differential between oxygen inhaled and exhaled is the measure of oxygen consumption. Its maximum, VO2max, equals maximal aerobic capacity, frequently regarded as cardiorespiratory fitness.

Explain some of the effects of media influences on individual people's body images, body conditions, and health.

The media has great power to influence people's thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes; so they are often used as effective tools for marketing, public interest, and other purposes. Because people see the same things differently and have lower self-esteem than others they are not the same amount of vulnerable to the media. Some are not able to make favorable comparisons between themselves and images they see in the media. This makes their image of themself even lower. The images promoted in media is usually air-brushed, manipulated and unrealistic. People that already think low of themself are more likely to feel worse if they do not realize this and find they do not measure up to the standards. TV advertising also contributes to obesity. Children are targeted by junk food advertising and unable to judge advertising critically or even realize they are the target. Watching TV also supports sedentary and inactive lifestyles causing weight gain.

Give some examples of various influences of our culture and media upon personal growth, development, health and fitness behaviors.

The media has profound effects on individual and group perceptions and behaviors. The following are a few examples: Unrealistic body images (taller heights, lower weights, larger chest, smaller waist and hip measurements, and greater muscular development than average individuals). This causes children to have lower self esteem, negative body images, and unhealthy behaviors . Irresponsible marketing (They target children that are underdeveloped in critical thinking skills)-unhealthy foods Unrealistic physical activity (professional athletes)- this causes youth to aspire for status that the odds are against them.

Comment on some considerations that PE teachers must address designing PE curriculum that is culturally relevant for schools in urban communities

The national association for Sport and Physical education (NASPE) has put importance for PE teacher preparation for cultural diversity. Race, social class, gender and sexuality are all examples of cultural diversity. Challenges of PE teachers include communicating with limited english language students, local relevance, and curricula.

Discuss whether training can be specific, general, either, or both, to promote motor learning for sports.

The nature of learning is more specific, in that the mind functions in a very detailed manner by adapting to the particular information it experiences. Improving any individual mental process seldom improves any other individual one. Movement is very closely related to sensory stimuli. For students to acquire motor skills, the most important factor in practice is practicing the actual target skill itself, rather than related skills or other skills. For motor skills to become permanent behavior changes, the stimuli presented must duplicate the energy systems and movements used in a designate sport activity. Actually performing a sport itself is the best training for learning the motor skills involved in that sport.

Name several of the major body systems

The nervous, circulatory, respiratory, skeletal, digestive, and lymphatic system.

Define the principle of specificity and give examples

The principle of specificity in exercise means one must exercise the specific body part, muscle(s), or sport movements and techniques that one wants to improve. To strengthen the upper body, one must do exercises targeting the upper body, and the same for lower body; one will not help the other. If you want to prepare for football, you must practice the skills of football. Conditioning will help overall endurance and strength but will not help you with playing the actual game.

Give definitions and explanations of the principles of progression and of use/disuse in exercise science.

The progression principle means, one must progress at a certain, individual rate to get results. People must push past thei comfort zones to improve, but not too much to cause injury. The principle of progression and overload balance delicately; progression indicates specific times of being unready for overload, or benefiting from it. The principle of us/disuse means one must use muscles to sustain muscular strength (use it or lose it). The reversibility principle- disuse, muscles lose definition. Moderately high year round fitness is better than seasonal detraining and retraining.

Summarize some ways in which different body systems interact in producing movement during physical activity.

The skeletal system gives our bodies their structural framework. The bones interact with the muscles to allow our body parts to move when the muscles contract. The brain controls contractions of the muscles to regulate the positions of the bones. The brain interacts with the cardiovascular system to regulate the heart rate and blood pressure, increasing these during physical activity. The brain interacts with the respiratory system, controlling breathing rates and monitoring respiratory volume and blood gas levels. The respiratory system provides oxygen to and removes carbon dioxide from blood during breathing, whose rate increases during exercise. The integumentary system's skin receptors send temperature and other sensation information to the brain. The autonomic nervous system controls sweat gland secretions and peripheral blood flow during exercise.

Identify some short-term effects of physical training upon mental health and cardiovascular health

Training energetically accesses the body's glycogen stores to supply energy. Glycogen depletion then triggers the release of endorphins, hormones that bring feelings of well-being and euphoria in short term. Exercise also increases blood circulation in the short term.

Define adapted physical education (APE) as a professional support service for meeting student needs, including differentially defining what it is and is not. Identify examples of students who should receive APE.

Under the federal individuals and disabilities education act (IDEA), students with qualifying disabilities receive special education and related services and have IEP's. If a student's disability requires adaptations to participate in PE, the student must receive APE. PE and APE are not related services, but instead are direct educational services according to federal law. In defining APE, the IDEA includes motor fitness, physical fitness, fundamental motor patterns and motor skills, individual and group games and sports, lifetime sports, aquatics skills, and dance skills. These are the same skills as in PE, but individualized in design to meet the unique needs of students with disabilities. PT, OT, and TR may be recommended too, but are not substitutes for or interchangeable with APE.

Explain how physical activity can prevent many injuries and inactivity can contribute to them. Also report some psychological and behavioral risks of inactivity for children and adolescents.

Up to half of all hip fractures could be prevented by engaging regularly in moderate physical activity. Physical activity that bears weight strengthens the bones and prevents them from becoming porous, brittle and more prone to breaking. Regular exercise improves coordination, balance and flexibility. These can lower your chances of falling during everyday life, as well as during sports or recreation. People that are physically inactive have more accidents and injuries than people who are more active. Children also have higher risk of stress, anxiety and lower self-esteem and are more likely to smoke and take drugs. Sedentary workers are more absent from work.

Identify some positive developmental outcomes that effective physical education supports in the psychomotor, cognitive, and affective domains respectively.

Weight training (strength/resistance training) can use measured weights; exercise bands, exercise balls or other resistance gear or one's own body weight. Resistance training improves neurological control of muscle functions and enlarges muscle fibers. This promotes muscular strength and muscular endurance by increasing the maximum force a muscle contraction can produce, and endurance by increasing the maximum amount of weight one can lift repeatedly and/or the maximum number of repetitions one can lift the same weight. Cardiorespiratory endurance is not simply aerobic training, as it requires overload, accessing both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems through circuit/interval/other training. Stage training involves: 1) Developing baseline aerobic fitness at 65-75% of max heart rate, gradually increasing intensity and duration up to 30 min, 2-3 times a week. 2) Raising intensity to 65-85% percent of max hr/14-16 rpe, or raising the level of intensity from challenging to difficult. 3) Short high intensity exercises (like sprinting) alternating with active recovery (like jogging), at 65-95% max hr/17-19 rpe, or boosting the intensity from difficult to impossible. Transiting fro stage 2 to 3 can take 2-3 months or more.

Explain how aerobic exercise can improve body composition, including effective types of exercise, an example, and recommended training schedules.

While strength training increases muscle and decreases fat, aerobic training decreases fat. Visceral fat (around the organs and abdomen), is a serious health risk than subcutaneous fat (found elsewhere). High-intensity exercise reduces more visceral fat than moderate exercise. Hiit involves exercising at high intensity and develops endurance. It includes running, sprinting, climbing stairs, running up and down stadium steps, or any other aerobic exercise performed at high intensity. Examples, are running track, road, path, or treadmill 70-95 percent of your max for 30 sec to 5 min; resting for after and then repeating the interval for a total of 22 min at least 3 days a week.

The muscular system maintains

body posture, creates body movements with the support of the bones, generates heat, and consumes energy. Includes all of the many muscles in the body. In addition to the head, neck, chest, back, arm, hand, leg, and foot muscles, the heart is also muscle, which pump to and from the lungs and the rest of the body to supply oxygen and remove carbon dioxide.

The skeletal system includes the

bones of the skeleton, cartilages, ligaments, and connective tissues and it protects the organs, supports the body, and works with the muscles in body movement.

Define and explain principal of adaptation

means the body adapts to exercise, so that with regular practice, certain activities become easier. To continue improving, one must vary one's workouts with different training and/or routines. The body adjusts to the demands made of us.

The immune system is composed of

parts of many other systems including, parts of the lymphatic, cardiovascular, respiratory, and gastrointestinal system etc. It works to protect and defend the body against disease organisms, infections and other foreign elements. White blood cells (leukocytes), tonsils, adenoids, thymus, and spleen.

The integumentary system includes

the hair, nails, and skin, which is the body's largest sensory organ. It provides sensation, including pain, heat, cold, pressure, and pleasure; regulates loss of blood and other fluids; makes vitamin D, and protect deeper tissues. The skin protects the tissues from injury and fluid loss.

The lymphatic system includes

the lymph nodes and vessels and produces white blood cells for the immune system and transports lymph between tissues and the bloodstream.

The skeletal system provides

the structural framework of bones to support the body, it protects the soft organs from harm, works with muscles to produce body movement, stores calcium in the bones and makes red blood cells in the bone marrow.