Native American History Final Exam
Wovoka (1856-1932)
A Paiute Indian who preached a religion that promised a turn of the old ways that would reunite its practitioners with departed ancestors if they abstained from alcohol, lived in peace, and followed a prescribes ritual, including a dance in circle called the Ghost Dance. It also promised that the white man would disappear. The religion spread rapidly on the Plains. The Lakota's sent messengers who traveled by train to receive the new religion. Many Lakota's embraced the Ghost Dance as a religious response to the harsh conditions on the reservation. The Ghost Dance harmed no one and destroyed no property - they hoped to restore their world by dancing, not fighting - but non-Indians became alarmed by reports of warriors performing a strange new dance that was supposed to result in the disappearance of whites and the return of the buffalo. Agents tried to stop the dancing and began to see it as a preparation for an uprising.
Trail of Broken Treaties
A caravan of Indians traveled across the United States from the West Coast vie Minneapolis, to Washington, D.C., arriving there in November 1972 with more then 500 protesters. With them they brought the twenty points document. The protest almost resulted in violence when the Indians occupied the BIA building for six days but due to the nearing election the government didn't want open conflict with the Native Americans in the streets.
Twenty Points
A document which was brought to Washington D.C. by the members of the Trail of Broken Treaties. It proposed that the federal government reestablish a treaty making relationship with Indians and also demanded that the government review treaty violations, abolish the BIA and establish an Office of Federal Indian Relations and Community Reconstruction; provide protection for Indian religious freedom and cultural integrity; and provide funding and support for health, housing, education, employment, and economic development.
Buffalo Bill Cody (1849-1917)
Buffalo Bill Cody was a man that would be remembered as the creator of the 1883 Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show. These shows initially consisted of cowboys and gradually involved Native American Indians. These "show Indians" consisted a majority of Lakota Indians, but also incorporated veterans from the Great Plains Wars. After the Wild West show's popularity began to rise, Bill began to take his company on tours to places such as Germany, Italy, Russia and of course much of the United States. Buffalo Bill enjoyed the company of his actors and brought them all over the world. Cody's show hired "authentic" Native American Indians to reenact battles from the Indian Wars, such as Little Bighorn. It is interesting to point out that these shows portrayed Native Americans in two ways. On the one hand, during the show the Indians would be shown as "barbaric" men on the verge of extinction, after which humanitarians would begin to insist that Cody was exploiting the Indians for his own gain. However, after the shows visitors would be allowed the privilege to walk through the Indian encampment and see the Native Americans in their domestic life. In essence, Native Americans got paid for exemplifying a culture the U.S. government was intent on destroying. Activities such as Ghost Dancing and smoking the Pipe, all commonplace at the Wild West Shows, were not so common on Native Indian reservations. Buffalo Bill Shows were largely responsible for popularizing the image of Native Indians as savages on the brink of extinction, which in essence showed their warrior ways. William Cody died on January 10, 1917 just a year before the end of World War I.
Charles Eastman (1858-1939)
Charles Eastman was born in Minneapolis into the Santee Sioux. His birth name was Hakadah, which means "the pitiful last," but he later earned the name Ohiyesa, which means "the winner." Eastman is important because he was born right in the middle of a difficult period for the Indians, as they were being forcefully assimilated into America. The Minnesota Sioux uprisings of 1862 occurred only a few years after his birth and had a major impact on his family; they believed his father to be dead and subsequently moved to Canada. When Ohiyesa turned 15 his father returned. He was a new man, changing his son's name to Charles Eastman and sending him to boarding school. Getting sent to school may have ended up being the best thing for Eastman, as he exceled here and became a prominent physician, writer, and reformer. Regardless of the many accomplishments Eastman claimed during his career, he always maintained true to himself and even purchased land in Canada where he spent much of his later life in his cabin. At this time in America, many Indian children were being forced to attend school and Eastman is significant because he is just one example of potential that these kids contained no matter the ugly circumstances they were constantly apart of.
Fish-Ins
Fish-ins were acts of civil disobedience which began in the 1960s in the effort to secure and protect the fishing rights guaranteed to Indians in federal treaties during the 1850s. Historically, salmon were once as important a part of the lives of coastal tribes as buffalo were to the Plains Indians. In a time when Americans were more concerned with land ownership and farming than water rights, treaties in the 1850s included a stipulation that Indians could continue to fish in the "usual and accustomed places." Later on, the state of Washington implemented laws requiring a fishing license, limiting amount of fish which could be taken, and restricting fishing to certain seasons. Native Americans refused to adhere to these rules maintaining the validity of historic treaties and attempted to garner media attention while continuing to fish and, at times, allowing themselves to be arrested. The issue was taken on by AIM after its formation in 1968 and the protests would lead to significant legal victories in the 1970s and 1980s in which U.S. District Judge George Boldt upheld the fishing rights guaranteed by the 1850s treaties marking another victory for the Red Power Movement.
George Armstrong Custer (1839-1876)
George Armstrong Custer was the captain of the 7th Calvary Regiment in U.S. Army during the American Indian Wars. When gold was discovered in the Black Hills, the U.S. government forced the Native Americans back to the reservations. Custer was in charge of making sure that all Indians were out of Black Hills so that Americans could settle. Custer is famously known for his "last stand" in the Battle of the Little Bighorn against Lakota and Cheyenne tribes. Custer made a hasty decision to attack the tribe unlike Sitting Bull, who had thoroughly planned the attack against the U.S. Army. This led to Custer's men being defeated -- and killed -- in a short time. Custer's last stand is famous because the settlers portrayed him as a hero who devoted his life to fighting against the Indians. However, the Indian's story portrays Custer as a man who wanted to become a famous hero who vanquished the Indians.1874 he led a military expedition into the Black hills to confirm that there was gold
Harvey Hotels (est. 1878)
Harvey Hotels (also called Harvey Houses) were the first chain of restaurant-hotels in America, opened by Fred Harvey in the late 1800s. Fred Harvey immigrated to the US from England in 1851 and recognized the trend of Americans moving west as well as the lack of accommodations to travelers along the way. He capitalized on his observation and built hotels and restaurants along railroads in the West, attracting travelers with speedy services and reasonable prices. Harvey Hotels were also a tourist response to Indians, and they sold Indian-made goods in their hotels. Navajo Indians made jewelry, silver work, and weavings that were sold in the hotels as souvenirs for travelers. There were 8 locations of hotels in New Mexico alone, and several others throughout the West, particularly in Arizona, California, and Kansas. Fred Harvey built luxury hotels too, one at the Grand Canyon and one in Albuquerque. Not only were Harvey Hotels an advertisement for people to move west, but they were also a way for the awareness of the presence of American Indians to be spread among Americans.
Foxwoods Casino (est. 1992)
In 1992, the Mantucket Pequots opened the Foxwood casino in Connecticut. Since the 1630s when the English destroyed the Pequot land, the Pequots experienced financial hardships. Searching for ways to revive their economy, they began the casino for bingo and gambling. Located near numerous major cities, Foxwoods Casino became one of the most successful casinos. The money produced from the casinos was used to help the Pequots through health care, education, and housing. The multi-billion dollar annual revenue allowed the Pequots to become the strongest in political power of that region by becoming the highest taxpayers and largest employers. The Foxwoods Casino resembles the redemption and restoration of the Pequot Tribal Nation.
Black Hills
Located in Western South Dakota, it is a sacred place to the Sioux Indians who believe that they emerged from them. Many wars and treaties were fought over this land, especially after the discovery of gold in 1873.
Dawes Act
Named after Massachusetts Senator Henry Dawes, the Dawes Allotment Act's main goal was to reduce reservation size and allot lands as private property to individual Indians, instead of communal property like it had previously been. Both pro- and anti-Indian groups agreed that allotment could be a possible solution to the Indian "problem." The Act passed through Congress with speed and began implementation in 1887. The Dawes Act issued allotments of 160 acres to heads of families and lesser amounts to younger members. In turn, this gave millions of acres of excess land to the government in which they could sell. This also made it possible for the government to now tax the lands that are privately owned by Indians. The Dawes Act previously decreed that the government would hold the title for the land for 25 years before it could be resold to help ensure Indians learned to treat their land as real estate. The Burke Act of 1906 made it possible to sell lands earlier if Indians were "competent" to manage their undertakings. All in all, the Dawes Act greatly reduced the size of reservations and pushed Native Americans into mainstream society. Of all the lands that were previously under Indian control, only 7 percent of land remained in Native control by the end of the Dawes Act. This helps show the massive loss of Native lands, basically forcing them to assimilate into "White" society.
Navajo Code Talkers
Navajo code talkers are the most recognized American Indian code talkers of U.S. military history. Their resounding success in facilitating the victory against Japan in the Pacific War led to their popularity. Ever since then, the Navajo code talkers have overshadowed other American Indian code talkers, such as the Choctaw of World War I and the Comanche of World War II. This disproportionate recognition can be seen in how, after having the Navajo code declassified in 1968, the Navajo received congressional recognition for their service in 2001, while other code talkers remained unrecognized. The Navajo code talkers were important to the Pacific War, but the Choctaw, Comanche, Meskwaki, Hopi, and many other tribes were also crucial contributors to the war efforts in World War I and II. This lack of representation captures America's long standing history of limited representation and recognition of American Indian tribes for their contributions to the U.S.. With changing perceptions though, these tribes are slowly gaining the respect and credit for their service in the military. The Code Talkers Recognition Act of 2008, is evidence of this change, in which it would recognize American Indian code talkers for their service by awarding them a gold medal.
Red Cloud
Oglala Sioux chief who led Red Clouds war against the US after they disrespected the first Treaty of Laramie in 1851. He refused to sign the Treaty of Fort Laramie until the US had removed their military bases along the Bozeman Trail.
Dine College
Opened in 1968, Dine College was chartered by the Navajo Nation. It was the first college both operated by Native Americans and intended for Native Americans. It bears strong symbolic significance, as for decades boarding schools took Indian children away from their homes and erased their culture by teaching Christianity and Euro-American values. Dine College gave Navajo parents a chance to send their children to a school within their own nation to be educated in their own culture. It bestows Associate's degrees and certificates and stresses education in Navajo culture for students so that they can become successful members of the Navajo Nation. The college's educational philosophy is "Sa'ah Naaghai Bik'eh Hozhoo", which emphasizes a harmony with the natural world and fulfillment in the cycles of life. By educating American Indian students in both career fields and cultural practices, Indians' heritage is preserved and the nation thrives from the work of its educated youth. It is run entirely by the Navajo Nation, from their picking of Board Members to curriculum planning. It has been accredited as an institute of higher education since the late 1980s and operates satellite campuses outside its Tsaile, AZ main campus all across the Southwest. Projects out of the college include research upon American Indian language, recovering destroyed histories, preserving contemporary history through oral recording, and facilitating cultural exchanges on a global scale.
American Indian Movement (AIM)
The American Indian Movement was founded in the summer of 1968 to protect Indians from police harassment in Minneapolis. It unified urban and reservation Indians with the fundamental goal of Indian self-determination and the return to tribal sovereignty. They attracted the media spotlight in the 1970s as they became involved in confrontations around the U.S. In November, 1972, protesters occupied the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) building in Washington for six days. This ended peacefully but protesters were unsuccessful in having their Twenty Points proposal implemented by the Nixon administration. In 1973, AIM took part in a 71 day seige at Wounded Knee (where the Massacre of Big Foot's Band had occurred in the 1890s) to free Pine Ridge from the control of the federal government, particularly the BIA. This also ended with false promises from the government. In its early years, AIM polarized Indian communities between the young, radical, militants and the older, more pacifist and conservative Indians. AIM has been criticized for having no long-lasting impact, but it was credited for raising awareness and unifying Indian tribes in the fight to preserve their cultures and ways of life. AIM still exists today but is less militant and visible in the media.
The Battle of Little Bighorn
The Battle of the Little Bighorn, fought on June 25, 1876, near the Little Bighorn River in Montana Territory, pitted federal troops led by Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer (1839-76) against a band of Lakota Sioux and Cheyenne warriors. Tensions between the two groups had been rising since the discovery of gold on Native American lands. When a number of tribes missed a federal deadline to move to reservations, the U.S. Army, including Custer and his 7th Calvary, was dispatched to confront them. Custer was unaware of the number of Indians fighting under the command of Sitting Bull (c.1831-90) at Little Bighorn, and his forces were outnumbered and quickly overwhelmed in what became known as Custer's Last Stand.
NAGPRA
The Native American Grave Protection and Repatriation Act was signed into law by President GWB in 1990. The act required all institutions which received federal funds to inventory their collection of Indian artifacts and human remains, share the lists with Indian tribes, and return the items to the tribes requested (at the appropriate time). In 2010 the Department of the Interior added a new regulation to the NAGPRA which allowed tribes to claim remains if they were found on their land even if they weren't scientifically theirs. Although disputes still remain about the Kennewik Man, generally people agree that Indian remains should no longer be put in museums or used as tourist attractions.
The Siege at Wounded Knee
The Siege at Wounded Knee was the 71 day occupation of the town of Wounded Knee, South Dakota on the Pine Ridge Reservation by about 200 Oglala Lakota and American Indian Movement (AIM) activists. In large part, the siege was a culmination of the frustration caused by American Indian poverty and discrimination on and off of reservations. A defining characteristic of this event was that it was armed, in which the occupiers of Wounded Knee were fighting off Dick Wilson's Guardians of the Oglala Nation (GOONs) and the U.S. government. Looking past the armed conflict, the siege was a critical life experience for many of the Wounded Knee occupants. For Mary Crow Dog and other women, the siege was a chance for them to revitalize their strength and role in American Indian society. The occupation of Wounded Knee allowed American Indian women to reverse, at a debatable degree, their social standing after years of pressure to assimilate into American society. Specifically for Mary Crow Dog, the Siege of Wounded Knee was what gave her a life purpose and a personal identity. In the end, the siege changed some things, but it has still left many issues unresolved. For this reason, the benefits of the Siege at Wounded Knee have been argued. Supporters and members of AIM claim that the siege revitalized American Indian culture. Opponents assert that the siege was a public statement by AIM and not their commitment to change. Regardless of one's opinions, the Siege of Wounded Knee continues to affect America. It serves as a constant reminder of the poverty, discrimination, and factionalization that Americans Indians still suffer from.
Grandfather Payote
The legend of Grandfather Peyote acquires its origins among the Brule Sioux tribes. The story begins when the peyote plant was introduced to Indian people while an elderly woman and her granddaughter went on a vision quest, after having a dream of finding a medical herb that would saver her people from an unknown illness. During this vision quest a spirit, Grandfather Peyote, came to them, supplying the medicine that would give their village power and strength to recover and also taught them how to use it accordingly. With this, the elderly woman and her granddaughter returned home to guide their community on how to use the sacred and holy herb in the proper manner. From then on, the Sioux and Cheyenne would use the peyote plant as an essential part of their religious ceremonies, accompanying sweat lodges, solitary vigils, and flesh offerings. The plant is also used as a sacrament in the Native American Church that was introduced in the 1920s and used as a "unifying force" that brought tribes together and helped all Indians during their struggles. Although it is a natural psychedelic, Mary Crow Dog insists that it is only to be used during holy ceremonies and not as a drug to get high off of. Instead "peyote will give you a voice, a song of understanding, a prayer for good health or for your people's survival," (Lakota Woman, 100-101)
Treaty of Fort Laramie, 1886
This was the second treaty by the same name and was one of the most controversial and significant treaties in the history of US-Indian relationships. It ended the war (Red Cloud's War), planted to seed for another war, and provided the legal foundation for Sioux claims to the Black Hills for more than 100 years. The same confusion and dishonesty that had effected Euro-Indian relations took place during this treaty.
Manifest Destiny
Was the belief that Ameicans had a God-given right to occupy all land west to the Pacific and a duty to extend the blessings of American democrcy to the peoples already living there, whether Mexican or Indian. Manifest destiny was a philosophical perspective that advocated aggressive and rapid expansion into the west by the United States. However, there were a number of beliefs that Americans held at the time that reinforced this idea. American exceptionalism is the view that the American people are unique in history in their values, traditions, and society. In essence this belief is that Americans are culturally superior to others. Also contributing to the philosophy of manifest destiny was the desire for an egalitarian, agrarian nation by Thomas Jefferson during his presidency. He believed that the best way for all citizens to remain equal in a democracy was land ownership. Another cause of manifest destiny was the doctrine of discovery. Historian Robert J Miller writes that, "The Doctrine of Discovery states that Europeans who "discover" new lands have the sole right to negotiate with the Native inhabitants for the legal title to that land." Europeans based their right to negotiate land from Indians on this doctrine. One result of manifest destiny was the expansion of the United States to the west coast. However, the human cost of this movement was great. With American expansion into Indian lands, starvation and diseases spread rapidly among native people. Expansion also brought the United States into armed conflict with many Native American tribes.
