naval history final exam

Carl Vinson

"Father of the two ocean navy" he helped push the Vinson-Trammell Act, along with Senator Park Trammell of Florida. The bill authorized the replacement of obsolete vessels by new construction and a gradual increase of ships within the limits of the Washington Naval Treaty, 1922 and London Naval Treaty, 1930. Initial funding for his bill was provided by the Emergency Appropriations Act of 1934. This was necessary as during the previous administration, not a single major warship was laid down and the US Navy was both aging and losing ground to the Japanese Navy, which would repudiate the Treaties in late 1934. He later was primarily responsible for additional naval expansion legislation, the Naval Act of 1938 as well as the Two-Ocean Navy Act of 1940. The ambitious program called for by this series of laws helped the U.S. Navy as the country entered World War II, as new ships were able to match the latest ships from Japan.

Spanish Armada

"Invincible" group of ships sent by King Philip II of Spain to invade England in 1588; Defeated by smaller, more maneuverable English "sea dogs" in the Channel; marked the beginning of English naval dominance and fall of Spanish dominance.

Philip II

(1527-1598) King of Spain from 1556 to 1598. Absolute monarch instituted convoys to escort treasure home from the Americas in the 1550's. Sent the Spanish Armada against England.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

(1619-1683), appointed minister of finance by Louis XIV, charged with subsidizing a large merchant marine, building a powerful navy, and establishing an overseas colonial empire. enlarged French fleet from 20 to 300 ships, constructed naval arsenals along the coast and established 3 naval academies for officers. Established the maritime legal code the Ordannance de la Marine.

Franco-American Treaty

(1778) (a) France formally joined America in the war and (b) recognized American independence, but (c) also pledged to a military alliance (going against the Model Treaty and something America would come to regret)

Five-Power Treaty

(1922) treaty resulting from the Washington Armaments Conference that limited to a specific ratio the carrier and battleship tonnage of each nation. It created a moratorium for 10 years, during which no battleships would be built. The countries agreed to refrain from further fortification of their Pacific Possessions. The five countries were: US, Britain, Japan, France, and Italy. set up the 5:5:3 ratio

Russian civil war

(October 1917) Bolshevik Party seized power and created civil war between Bolsheviks and supporters of Tsar that Bolsheviks had executed but Bolsheviks wonmajor world powers considered a Russian communist regime a threat to world stability. Supporting the Whites, the British navy under Admiral Cowan supported Eastern European warships fighting communist navy in the Gulf of Finland. Anglo-American forces assisted White forces on the Dvina River. Japanese forces occupied Vladivostok however the Reds eventually were victorious, forcing an Allied withdrawal. The Soviet navy was stunted by lack of political support for the primarily czarist officers, leading to mass purges.

William Pitt the Younger

(PM 1783-1801, 1804-1806) strengthened the role of the Prime Minister and pursued war against revolutionary France. best known for leading Britain in the great wars against France and Napoleon. constructed 3rd coalition (GB, Austria, Russia) against France,and deployed Horatio Nelson

Percy Scott

10 July 1853 - 18 October 1924; a British Royal Navy officer and a pioneer in modern naval gunnery. During his career he proved to be an engineer and problem solver of some considerable foresight, ingenuity and tenacity. He did not, however, endear himself to the Navy establishment for his regular outspoken criticism of the Navy's conservatism and resistance to change and this undoubtedly slowed the acceptance of his most important ideas, notably the introduction of directed firing. In spite of this, his vision proved correct most of the time and he rose to the rank of admiral and amongst other honours was made baronet, a hereditary title.

The Sea Peoples

1250 BC Indo-european tribal peoples migrate into the Aegean and Levant, destroy Mycenaean empire in 1220 BC; Make major land and sea advances to Libya became major opponent of Egypt spurring their creation of a maritime defense force. 1176 BC Pharaoh Ramses assembles shipboarded army and destroy's their fleet in first major naval engagement. Essentially a land battle at sea featuring hand to hand combat by shipboard soldiers

Kublai Khan

1270 he commandeered captured Korean Sung ships and crews to force the entire Korean merchant marine into his fleet. Ferried an army to attack Japan in 1274 storm destroyed half of their 900 ships. A second attack in 1281 of 3,500 was foisted by a typhoon called "kamikaze"

Yi Sunsin

1545-1598. Chosǒn admiral who helped drive the Japanese invaders back during the Imjin Wars. Known for using turtle ships.

San Juan De Ulloa

1568-a battle between English privateers and Spanish forces. It marked the end of the campaign carried out by an English flotilla of six ships that had systematically conducted illegal trade in the Caribbean Sea, including the slave trade, imposing it even by force. he battle was a clear precursor of the war that broke out between Philip II of Spain and Elizabeth I of England in 1585.

Hugo Grotius

1609- Dutch jurist who wrote "Free Sea", a book that argued the oceans are a commercial common for all mankind not to be monopolized anywhere by one nation

Samuel Pepys

1633-1703 English MP and naval administrator; No naval experience, but rose through the bureaucracy to become Secretary of the Admiralty; He worked to make the Royal Navy more efficient; The Navy was paying above-market prices for its sub-standard provisions. He mandated minimum education requirements for naval officers. These included tests on mathematics and navigation for would-be lieutenants; He tried to raise sailors' pay in order to attract more volunteers. Failing this, he employed press gangs; He also stressed naval design, and nationalised much of the navy's infrastructure

Anglo-Dutch Wars

1652-74-Three wars between England and the Dutch for control over the shipping and trade industries that resulted in the decline of the Netherlands as an economical power and led the way for France's rise to power. Purely naval (whale vs. whale)

Fighting Instructions

1691-A set of battle guidelines from Admiral Russell which embodied formalist line ahead doctrine, alway attacking from the windward position, lined up across your number opponent for the gunnery.

William Pitt the Elder

1708-1778;British leader, won many victories in North America,Caribbean, and India. Emerged victorious as dominant power in India over the French.the wartime political leader of Britain in the Seven Years' War, especially for his single-minded devotion to victory over France, a victory which ultimately solidified Britain's dominance over world affairs.

Robert Whitehead

1866. British engineer who created the automotive torpedo. Led to numerous ship innovations, creation of torpedo boats and battleship innovations designed to counter torpedo boats such as the quick-firing gun and counter-flooding compartments

Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902)

1902-An agreement for an initial period of five years, in which the UK and Japan agreed to remain neutral if either was involved in a war with a third power. If either was involved in a war with two other countries, then the other would assist. diplomatic milestone that saw an end to Britain's splendid isolation

Anglo-German Naval treaty (1935)

1935 agreement between the UK and Germany in which the UK allowed the German navy to equal 35% of the British navy, thereby indirectly agreeing to German rearmament and angering France and other nations that feared German aggression

Key West agreement

1948 the colloquial name for the policy paper Function of the Armed Forces and the Joint Chiefs of Staff drafted by James V. Forrestal, the first United States Secretary of Defense. Its most prominent feature was an outline for the division of air assets between the Army, Navy, and the newly created Air Force. The Navy would be allowed to retain its own combat air arm "...to conduct air operations as necessary for the accomplishment of objectives in a naval campaign..." The Army would be allowed to retain aviation assets for reconnaissance and medical evacuation purposes. The Air Force would have control of all strategic air assets, and most tactical and logistic functions as well.

Battle of Lissa

20 July 1866 in the Adriatic Sea, and was a decisive victory for an outnumbered Austrian Empire force over a numerically superior Italian force. It was the first major sea battle between ironclads and one of the last to involve deliberate ramming. The Italian navy fired roughly 1450 shots during the engagement, but failed to do any serious damage to any Austrian ship while losing two battleships. One of the main reasons for this poor performance was internal rivalry between the Italian fleet commanders. showed the ability of Austrian commander Tegetthoff to divide his more numerous opponents and then destroy the isolated ironclads.

Hellenistic Empire

323 BC-23 BC a cultural empire which spread with Alexander of Macedon's conquest of the Mediterranean and parts of Asia. Some elements of this empire are the Olympics and the three great philosophers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.

Themistocles

A Greek military leader who convinced the Athenians to build a navy. This helped Athens win a major battle against Persia, the Battle of Salamis. He was ostracized around 471 BCE.

Circle Three Program

A Japanese naval construction project beginning in 1937, authorizing the building of two superbattleships, the ultimate weapons systems to outrange the enemy and the apotheosis of the navy's "big ships, big guns" tradition focusing on qualitative superiority. The project modernized several ships added a variety of warships in several classes and added 800+ planes to the naval air force.

Tenth Fleet

A U.S. naval fleet whose mission included the destruction of enemy submarines, the protection of coastal merchant shipping, the centralization of control and routing of convoys, and the coordination and supervision of all USN anti-submarine warfare (ASW) training, anti-submarine intelligence, and coordination with the Allied nations. The fleet was active from May 1943 to June 1945.[4] It used Commander-in-Chief Atlantic's ships operationally; CinCLANT issued operational orders to escort groups originating in the United States. It was also responsible for the organization and operational control of hunter-killer groups.

Battle of the Coral Sea

A battle from May 4-8, 1942, in which U.S. naval forces successfully protected the Allied base at Port Moresby, New Guinea, the last Allied outpost standing between the Japanese onslaught and Australia. The battle, which caused heavy losses on both sides, was the first naval battle in history fought exclusively in the air, by carrier-based planes. Although a tactical victory for the Japanese in terms of ships sunk, the battle would prove to be a strategic victory for the Allies for several reasons. The battle marked the first time since the start of the war that a major Japanese advance had been checked by the Allies.

Naval Battle of Paris

A conference in Paris in 1919 among the victorious WWI powers, discussing the creation of a league of nations and fighting to limit the redistribution of captured German ships as such an action would bolster the British navy significantly more then the American navy. Rather President Wilson sought to instigate a reconstruction of the German navy as to distract the British from the impending naval rivalry w/ the US.

On the History of Imperial Defense (1908)

A major work of Japanese naval theorist Sato Tetsutaro. emphasized that the key to Japan's safety was denial of power projection by hypothetical enemies (such as the United States), into waters adjacent to the Japanese home islands. would form the basis of the Japanese naval expansion into the Netherlands East Indies, using elements from naval plans developed by United States Navy Admiral Alfred T. Mahan and Royal Navy Vice Admiral Philip Howard Colomb. also began urging the Japanese government to maintain at least a 70% capital ship level over the United States, Japan's hypothetical rival

Phoenicians

A maritime civilization of the Mediterranean that developed extensive trade and communication networks as well as an early alphabetical script (1500 B.C.E). developed an empire at sea of merchant cities.

Jeune ecole

A naval strategy that emphasized the use of deft, powerfully equipped units to combat larger naval ships in enemy fleets. Also, the tactic calls for commerce raiders capable of halting all trade of an enemy nation. The French Navy developed the concept further, incorporating submarines into the tactic as well. The Sino-French War validated the potential of torpedo boats and Jeune Ecole tactics against a conventional Navy.

SALT

A pact that served to freeze the numbers of long-range nuclear missles for five years in 1972. This treaty between Nixon (U.S.), China, and the Soviet Union served to slow the arms race that had been going on between these nations since World War II.

Pax Romana

A period of peace and prosperity throughout the Roman Empire, lasting from 27 B.C. to A.D. 180. which saw Rome as the dominating power of the Mediterranean World. A large standing navy helped to patrol seas and keep the peace.

Flexible response

A policy, developed during the Kennedy administration, that involved preparing for a variety of military responses to international crises rather than focusing on the use of nuclear weapons. the buildup of conventional troops and weapons to allow a nation to fight a limited war without using nuclear weapons

Naval Review of 1897

A review of The Royal Fleet by Queen Victoria at her Diamond Jubilee

Minoan Civilization

An advanced civilization that developed on the island of Crete around 2500 B.C.E. extensive trade in Mediterranean forced to employ armed merchantmen to repel sea raiders.

Geopolitics

An interest in or taking of land for its strategic location or products

Naval Appropriation Act (1916)

An overlooked landmark piece of legislation, President Woodrow Wilson determined amidst the repeated incidents with Germany to build "incomparably, the greatest Navy in the world" over a ten-year period with the intent of making the U.S. Navy equal to any two others in the world. Ultimately, more than $500 million was to be spent on ten battleships, six battlecruisers, thirty submarines, fifty destroyers, and other support vessels, to be built over a three-year period. Opposition to heavily armored and thus expensive "Dreadnought" ships was strong in the House, but was overcome by the results of the one great naval battle of World War I between the British Royal Navy and the German High Seas Fleet, the Battle of Jutland (31 May-1 June 1916), which proved to Preparedness supporters that a heavy, great tonnage Navy armed with large guns was necessary to defend American shores and merchant ships on the seas in the event of war. President Wilson told Col. Edward House that he was anxious to hasten the day when the American Navy was larger than Great Britain's, proclaiming "Let us build a Navy bigger than hers and do what we please."

West Country

Area of England with extensive maritime culture, breeding harder sailors used to raids and pillaging, adopting a warriors mentality, themselves becoming salty sea-dogs. Iron Islanders

FDR

Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1913 a large and efficient naval force. As assistant secretary, worked to expand the Navy and founded the United States Navy Reserve. personally ordered the preservation of the navy's Aviation Division after the war. negotiated with Congressional leaders and other government departments to get budgets approved. He opposed the Taylor "stop-watch" system, which was hailed by shipbuilding managers but opposed by the unions. In March 1917, after Germany initiated its submarine warfare campaign, he asked Wilson for permission, which was denied, to fit the naval fleet out for war. He became an enthusiastic advocate of the submarine and of means to combat the German submarine menace to Allied shipping: he proposed building a mine barrier across the North Sea from Norway to Scotland. In 1918, he visited Scotland, England, Wales, and France to inspect American naval facilities. He wanted to provide arms to the merchant marine; knowing that a sale of arms was prohibited, he asked Wilson for approval to lease the arms to the mariners. Wilson ultimately approved this by executive order, and a precedent was set for him to take similar action in 1940.

Dardanelles campaign

At suggestion of a young Winston Churchill - first lord of the Admiralty - this campaign was launched in 1915 to open the Dardanelle Straits up to allied powers and attack Constantinope(Turks on Central Powers' side). Thus it was hoped to be able to support and supply the Russian through the Black Sea. Errors in planning led to failure of the this campaign and allied forces withdrew in 1916. ALSO KNOWN AS THE GALLIPOLI CAMPAIGN. Many Australian and New Zealand troops fought in this campaign.

Sato Tetsutaro

August 1866 - 4 March 1942) was a Japanese military theorist and an admiral in the Imperial Japanese Navy. Saw combat in both the Sino and Ruso Japanese Wars. his works included "On the History of Imperial Defense" (1908). called "the Mahan of Japan", as his writings emphasized that the key to Japan's safety was denial of power projection by hypothetical enemies (such as the United States), into waters adjacent to the Japanese home islands.

Oliver Hazard Perry

August 23, 1785 - August 23, 1819-an American naval commander, served in the West Indies during the Quasi War with France, the Mediterranean during the Barbary Wars, in the Caribbean fighting piracy and the slave trade, but is most noted for his heroic role in the War of 1812 during the Battle of Lake Erie. During the War of 1812 against Britain, Perry supervised the building of a fleet at Erie, Pennsylvania,is leadership materially aided the successful outcomes of all nine Lake Erie military campaign victories, and the fleet victory was a turning point in the battle for the west in the War of 1812

Lusitania

British passenger ship holding Americans that sunk off the coast of Ireland in 1915 by German U-Boats killing 1,198 people. It was decisive in turning public favor against Germany and bringing America into WWI.

Adm. Ernest J. King

Commander in Chief, United States Fleet (COMINCH) and Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) during World War II. As COMINCH-CNO, he directed the United States Navy's operations, planning, and administration and was a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. blamed for the heavy American losses during the Second Happy Time. Others however blamed the belated institution of a convoy system, partly due to a severe shortage of suitable escort vessels, without which convoys were seen as more vulnerable than lone ships.

Duke of Medina Sidonia

Commander of Spanish Armada, a landsman with no naval experience. Expected the use of inexperienced sailors and land reinforcements to help defeat English. Was tactically unsound and defeated by British.

London Naval Conference (1930)

Conference held in 1930 to discuss disarmament and review the treaties of the Washington Conference. Representatives from Britain, U.S., France, Italy, and Japan agreed to regulate submarine warfare and to place limits on new construction of cruisers, destroyers, submarines, and other warships

Some Principles of Maritime Strategy

Corbett's magnum opus written in 1911, wherein he examined the small naval wars of 1854 to 1905. argued that only great naval powers could develop a coherent maritime strategy. Believed only they were capable of commanding the sea with a navy strong enough to deter war in Europe and protect the homeland. Advancing a theory of fighting limited wars.

Dromon

Developed by Byzantine Empire to efficiently maximize limited naval manpower, 2 banks of oars, 100 oars, 2 sails.

Penteconter

Development on galleys. Late 700 BC Phoenicians add a study bronze sheathed underwater ram at the bow for piercing enemy hulls and a second bank of oars. Varied in size to accomodate up to 40 rowers

Task Force 77 Korea

During the Korean War, this unit performed a number of combat deployments, where it provided air support and performed interdiction missions as part of the UN forces. They had carrier stations in both the Sea of Japan (East Coast Task Force) and the Yellow Sea (West Coast Task Force, designated Task Force 95), the latter consisting of carriers of the Royal Navy (RN), Royal Australian Navy (RAN), and USN escort carriers due to its proximity to the People's Republic of China. Seventeen USN, one RAN and five RN aircraft carriers served in United Nations carrier operations at some point in time during the Korean War. During the Korean War, Rear Admiral G.R. Henderson, USN, commanded Carrier Division Five (CARDIV FIVE) and served as Commander, Task Force 70 (CTF 70) and Commander, aboard Princeton. Subsequent commanders of CARDIV FIVE moved back and forth between Yokosuka, Japan and the Korean Theater, serving as CTF 70 or CTF 77 on multiple occasions.

Fluyt

Dutch sailing vessel that allowed them to control the Baltic trade. designed to facilitate transoceanic delivery with max space and crew efficiency. inexpensive and carried cannons, Dutch world, advanced form of merchant ships / vessels, shallow drafts; development of large ships gives Dutch leadership in world trade; part of golden age of Netherlands in the 17th century.

"New Look"

Eisenhower's new defense policy during the Cold War. Since he felt less threatened by the new USSR leader, Khrushchev (better than Stalin), Eisenhower cut down on the cost of containment by instead building hydrogen bombs and long-range missiles. This began the arms race

Richard Hakluyt

English promoter of exploration. known for promoting the British colonisation of North America by the English through his works, notably Divers Voyages Touching the Discoverie of America (1582) and The Principal Navigations, Voiages, Traffiques and Discoueries of the English Nation (1589-1600).

Matthew Fontaine Maury

Father of modern oceanography; was placed in charge of the U.S. Naval Hydrographic Office and began a career compiling data on the seas. He founded the naval depot of charts published the first wind currents charts of the North Atlantic in 1847 and constructed the first bathymetric chart on the north Atlantic contours.

The American way of war at sea

First American naval policy of war under sail, first introduced by congressional congress: A distrust of fleets, a reluctance to challenge a strong opposing navy, a penchant for attacking enemy trade and commerce ships, and a desire to minimize expenditures

Battle of the Atlantic

Germany's naval attempt to cut off British supply ships by using u-boats. Caused Britain and the US to officially join the war after their ships were sunk. After this battle, the Allies won control of the seas, allowing them to control supply transfer, which ultimately determined the war. 1939-1945

Cheng Ho

He was an admiral who oversaw the last of seven voyages of China's Great Fleet across the Indian Ocean between 1405 and 1433. During the seventh voyage, he brought back many rare treasures and established relations with more than 20 different realms and sultanates from the Indies to East Africa. After his death in 1434, China's navy began to decline, and by 1500 it became illegal to build large seagoing vessels, as new emperors opposed naval expeditions as wasteful extravagance.

The Nelson Touch

Horatio Nelson's policy wherein his trusted Admirals could used their honed melee tactics to exploit tactical advantages to by individual initiative against the French fleet in the Summer of 1805. Led to overwhelming British victory over line ahead tactics used by French.

Harold Stark

In August 1939, Stark became Chief of Naval Operations with the rank of Admiral. In that position, he oversaw the expansion of the Navy during 1940 and 1941, and its involvement in the Neutrality Patrols against German submarines in the Atlantic during the latter part of 1941. It was at this time that he authored the Plan Dog memo, which laid the basis for America's Europe first policy. He also orchestrated the Navy's change to adopting unrestricted submarine warfare in case of war with Japan;[2] Stark expressly ordered it at 17.52 Washington time on 7 December 1941, not quite four hours after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.

British blockade

Led by the British, a prolonged naval operation conducted by the Allied Powers during and after World War I in an effort to restrict the maritime supply of goods to the Central Powers, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey. It is considered one of the key elements in the eventual Allied victory in the war. A longtime staple of British naval strategy this was an example of old ideas employed in a new era of sea warfare.

Dive bombing

In the 1930's this was an emerging tactic of the Japanese aviation force, an air attack that saw the pilot hurtle down towards a target to increase bombing accuracy, enabled the destruction of an enemy's carrier force. Mass aerial attacks shifted the use of carriers in concentrated warfare.

Adm. Andrew B. Cunningham

In the Second World War, as Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean Fleet, he led British naval forces to victory in several critical Mediterranean naval battles. These included the attack on Taranto in 1940, the first completely all-aircraft naval attack in history, and the Battle of Cape Matapan in 1941. He controlled the defence of the Mediterranean supply lines through Alexandria, Gibraltar, and the key chokepoint of Malta.

Mycenaean civilization

Indo-European peoples settled on the Greek peninsula and were very influenced by the Minoans. known as the first Greeks. They took over as the commercial masters of the Mediterranean after the Minoan downfall. They were not self sufficient and depended on trade. developed the war galley, chief participant in Trojan War.

National Security Act

Passed in 1947 in response to perceived threats from the Soviet Union after WWII. It established the Department of Defense and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and National Security Council.

Gulf War (1991)

Iraq, led by Saddam Hussein, invaded neighboring Kuwait in August 1990. The United Nations subsequently approved the use of force to evict the Iraqi forces. Canada joined the American-led coalition that defeated the Iraqi forces between January 17 and February 28, 1991. Wanted control of Kuwait's vast oil fields and greater access to the Persian Gulf. The United States saw Saddam's move as illegal but also a threat to its ally Saudi Arabia and to the oil resources of the region. Under the US and the UN banner the Iraqi forces were crushed and Kuwait was free. PG 1058

Casablanca Conference

Jan. 14-23, 1943 - FDR and Chruchill met in Morocco to settle the future strategy of the Allies following the success of the North African campaign. They decided to launch an attack on Italy through Sicily before initiating an invasion into France over the English Channel. Also announced that the Allies would accept nothing less than Germany's unconditional surrender to end the war.

The Great Gamble

Japan's decision to preemptively attack the United States as opposed to waiting and reacting to a potential US attack, resulting in the Dec. 7th, 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor.

Suetsugo Nobomasa

Japanese naval commander assigned to the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff Office. In 1914, he was sent to Great Britain as a naval attaché during World War I and was promoted to commander. He became a strong advocate on the increased use of submarines by the Imperial Japanese Navy, which he felt could be deployed to an advantage in an attrition strategy against the United States Navy provided that issues with long-distance operations could be overcome.He subsequently served on the Japanese delegation to the Washington Naval Treaty negotiations in 1921, although he was a prominent member of the Fleet Faction. During his period in staff assignments at the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff, he worked on revisions to the Japanese battle plans and strategies, especially targeting the United States Navy, and to opposing the efforts of the Treaty Faction, especially after the signing of the London Naval Treaty

Inchon

Korean port from which American forces launched a successful attack against the North Korean army during the Korean War.

U.S. Naval Institute

On October 9, 1873, 15 naval officers gathered at the U.S. Naval Academy's Department of Physics and Chemistry building in Annapolis to discuss the implications of a smaller, post-Civil War Navy and other matters of professional interest. This organization was established as a forum for the exchange of ideas, to disseminate and advance the knowledge of sea power, and to preserve U.S. naval and maritime heritage.

Toyotomi Hideyoshi

One of the three great unifiers that was the successor of Oda Nobunaga. gradually extended his power outward to the southern islands of Shikoku. General under Nobanga; suceeded as leading military power in Japan; continued efforts to break power of daimyos; constucted a series of military alliances that made him the military master of Japan in 1590; died in 1598.

Washington Treaty (1922)

Secretary Hughes laid out a plan for declaring a ten-year hiatus on construction of battleships and even for scrapping some of the huge ships already built. He proposed that the scaled-down navies of America and Britain should have the same number of battleships and aircraft carriers; the ratio being 5:5:3 (Japan's navy would be smaller than America's and Britain's). -- There where two reason for which the conference was called: Firstly, Japan and the UK could not afford the costs of the arms race and the United States wanted to reduce its own costs. Secondly there was growing tension between Japan and the United States in Asia and the United States wanted to avoid conflict which could involve many countries

John F. Lehman

Secretary of the Navy in the Reagan administration where he promoted the creation of a 600-ship Navy. He developed a strategic concept to counter the threat of Soviet incursion into Western Europe. The plan called for a military response to any Russian invasion in Europe by attacking and invading the Soviet Far East along the Pacific, a much less defended front. Forces would sever the trans Siberian railroad and fight westward toward Moscow.

Bletchley Park

Site of the UK's main decryption establishment and cipher school.regularly penetrated the secret communications of the Axis Powers - most importantly the German Enigma and Lorenz ciphers. The official historian of World War II British Intelligence has written that the "Ultra" intelligence produced here shortened the war by two to four years, and that without it the outcome of the war would have been uncertain

Marquis of Santa Cruz

Spanish Naval Commander who landed armies in Portugal that they might take control of that land. Ended Portuguese uprising in two skirmishes near Azores 1582-83. First open-ocean battles in history. Led to Spanish creation of more galleys and the separation of the navy from the army.

Spanish Civil War

The Republican navy was used to blockade Franco nationalist fascists in Morocco. Franco appealed to sympathizers within the Spanish navy to help him land in Spain and blockade Republican ports. In 1937-38 Britain, France, Germany, and Italy created a joint naval patrol to prevent foreign intervention, yet German pocket battleships and Italian subs attacked Republican shipping and ports. Anglo-French antisubmarine measures proved effective but were too late to prevent a Franco victory in 1939. Of significance was the German armed forces combat experience gained for the war that was approaching

ABC ships

The Garfield administration, which came to power in 1881, proved more sympathetic to the idea of revamping the dilapidated Navy than the previous administration. After many months of indecision, the government decided to go ahead with the completion of the earlier Amphitrite class, and additionally approved the construction of a new group of four all-steel warships, consisting of one 4,300-ton protected cruiser, two 3,000 cruisers and one dispatch vessel. Named for major US cities

Yamamoto Isoroku

The Japanese navy admiral who planned the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 and the attack on Midway in 1942.He died when American codebreakers identified his flight plans and his plane was shot down. His death was a major blow to Japanese military morale during World War II.

Benjamin Tracy

US Secretary of the Navy from 1889 to 1893 noted for his role in the creation of the "New Navy", a major reform of the service, which had fallen into obsolescence after the Civil War. Like President Harrison, he supported a naval strategy focused more on offense, rather than on coastal defense and commerce raiding. A major ally in this effort was naval theorist Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, who had served as a professor at the new Naval War College (founded 1884). In 1890, Mahan published his major work, The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783—a book that achieved an international readership. Drawing on historical examples, Mahan supported the construction of a "blue-water Navy" that could do battle on the high seas. also supported the construction of modern warships. On June 30, 1890, Congress passed the Navy Bill, a measure which authorized the construction of three battleships. T

Meiji Era

The period of time from 1867 to 1912, where the Japanese were under a new form of government. The leader tried to end Japan's problems by modernizing, and sending statesmen to Europe and North America to study foreign ways. This helped strengthen economic and military power.

Unrestricted submarine warfare

The use of submarines to sink without warning any ship (including neutral ships and unarmed passenger liners) found in an enemy's waters. Following Germany's resumption of this practice following the Battle of Jutland on February 1, 1917, during the First World War, countries tried to limit or even abolish submarines. Instead, the London Naval Treaty required submarines to abide by prize rules.

Prince of Wales/HMS Repulse

These two British battle cruisers involved in WWII became the first capital ships to be sunk solely by air power on the open sea, a harbinger of the diminishing role this class of ships was subsequently to play in naval warfare.

Using a few to conquer many

Under naval treaty limitations, the US had greater fleet size. during the treaty era (1923-36) Japan's navy's strategic and tactical planning and warship and weapons development were focused on dealing with this difference in size. They hoped to emphasize better weapons and planning with a focus on quality as opposed to quantity. This included the development of a superior naval aviation system, outranging, and the construction of better equipped battleships.

Charles A. Lockwood

Vice-Admiral and Flag Officer of the United States Navy. He is known in submarine history as the commander of Submarine Force Pacific Fleet during World War II. He devised tactics for the effective use of submarines, making the members and elements of "silent service" key players in the Pacific victory.

Peloponnesian War

War between Athens and Spartan Alliances. The war was largely a consequence of Athenian imperialism in the Aegean region. It went on for over 20 years. Ultimately, Sparta prevailed but both were weakened sufficiently to be soon conquered by Macedonians, later leading to the Hellenistic Empire and Alexander the Great.

Barbary States

War between US and these North African nations at isssue was African pirates' demand for tribute from American merchant vessels in the Mediterranean Sea. If ships of a given country failed to pay, pirates would attack the ship and take their goods, and often enslave crew members or hold them for ransom. When Thomas Jefferson became President he refused to pay tribute and sent a United States Naval fleet to the Mediterranean; they bombarded the various fortified pirate cities, ultimately extracting concessions of fair passage from their rulers.

The Influence of Sea Power upon History

Written by Alfred Thayer Mahan in 1890. It details the role of sea power during the 17th and 18th century, and discusses the various factors needed to support and achieve sea power, with emphasis on having the largest and most powerful fleet. This ideology eventually led to the naval arms race before WWI.

Plan Dog

a 1940 American government document written by Chief of Naval Operations Harold Rainsford Stark, and has been called "one of the best known documents of World War II".[1] Confronting the problem of an expected two-front war against Germany and Italy in Europe and Japan in the Pacific, the memo set out the main options and suggested fighting a defensive war in the Pacific while giving strategic priority to defeating Germany and Italy. The memo laid the basis for the later American policy of Europe first.

NSC-68

a 58-page top secret policy paper by the United States National Security Council presented to President Harry S. Truman on April 14, 1950. It was one of the most important statements of American policy that launched the Cold War. In the words of scholar Ernest R. May, it "provided the blueprint for the militarization of the Cold War from 1950 to the collapse of the Soviet Union at the beginning of the 1990s." This paper and its subsequent amplifications advocated a large expansion in the military budget of the United States, the development of a hydrogen bomb, and increased military aid to allies of the United States. It made the containment of global Communist expansion a high priority. It rejected the alternative policies of friendly détente and rollback against the Soviet Union

Dennis Healey

a British Labour Party politician who served as Secretary of State for Defence from 1964 to 1970, Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1974 to 1979 and Deputy Leader of the Labour Party from 1980 to 1983.

John Arbuthnot Fisher

a British admiral known for his efforts at naval reform. primarily celebrated as an innovator, strategist and developer of the navy rather than a seagoing admiral involved in major battles. When appointed First Sea Lord in 1904, he removed 150 ships then on active service which were no longer useful and set about constructing modern replacements, creating a modern fleet prepared to meet Germany during World War I saw the need to improve the range, accuracy and rate of fire of naval gunnery, and was an early proponent of the use of the torpedo, which he believed would supersede big guns for use against ships. As Controller, he introduced torpedo boat destroyers as a class of ship intended for defence against attack from torpedo boats or submarines. As First Sea Lord, he was responsible for the construction of HMS Dreadnought, the first all-big-gun battleship, but he also believed that submarines would become increasingly important and urged their development. He was involved with the introduction of turbine engines to replace reciprocating engines, and the introduction of oil fuelling to replace coal.

Adm. Sandy Woodward

a British admiral who commanded the British Naval Task Force in the South Atlantic during the Falklands War.he commanded the Hermes aircraft carrier group, Task Force 317.8, in the Falklands War under the Commander-in-Chief Admiral Sir John Fieldhouse.[3] (The task force containing the amphibious ships which launched the actual invasion TF 317.0 was commanded by Commodore Michael Clapp, with Task Force 317.1 being the landing force itself.) He worked out the timetable for the campaign, starting from the end and working to the start. Knowing that the Argentine forces had to be defeated before the (Southern Hemisphere) winter made conditions too bad, he set a latest date by which the land forces had to be ashore, that in turn set a latest date by which control of the air was achieved, and so on. Possibly the best known single incident was the sinking of the ARA General Belgrano. He knew that General Belgrano (and particularly her Exocet armed escorts) were a threat to the task force and he ordered that she be sunk. Admiral Sir George Zambellas credited "inspirational leadership and tactical acumen ... [as] a major factor in shaping the success of the British forces in the South Atlantic".

Sempill Mission

a British aeronaval technical mission sent to Japan in September 1921, with the objective of helping the Imperial Japanese Navy develop its aeronaval forces. It started training operation at the air base of Kasumigaura. The Japanese were trained on several new aircraft, such as the Gloster Sparrowhawk, in various techniques such as torpedo bombing and flight control. Propelled the Japanese towards the construction of the greatest naval aviation force on the planet.

Mers-el-Kebir

a British naval bombardment of the French Navy (Marine nationale) at its base on the coast of French Algeria on 3 July 1940. The raid resulted in the deaths of 1,297 French servicemen, the sinking of a battleship and the damaging of five other ships. The combined air-and-sea attack was conducted by the Royal Navy in response to the Second Armistice at Compiègne between Germany and France on 22 June, which had seen Britain's sole continental ally replaced by a collaborationist government administrated from Vichy. demonstrated to the world and to the United States in particular, Britain's commitment to continue the war with Germany at all costs and without allies if need be

Force H

a British naval formation during the Second World War. It was formed in 1940, to replace French naval power in the western Mediterranean removed by the French armistice with Nazi Germany. The force occupied an odd place within the naval chain of command. Normal British practice was to have naval stations and fleets around the world, whose commanders reported to the First Sea Lord via a flag officer. It was based at Gibraltar but there was already a flag officer at the base, Flag Officer Commanding, North Atlantic. The commanding officer did not report to the Flag Officer but direct to the First Sea Lord, Admiral of the Fleet Sir Dudley Pound.

Adm. Louis Mountbatten

a British naval officer and statesman, an uncle of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, and second cousin once removed of Elizabeth II. During the Second World War, he was Supreme Allied Commander, South East Asia Command (1943-46). He was the last Viceroy of India (1947) and the first Governor-General of the independent Dominion of India (1947-48), from which the modern Republic of India emerged in 1950. From 1954 until 1959 he was First Sea Lord, a position that had been held by his father, Prince Louis of Battenberg, some forty years earlier. Thereafter he served as Chief of the Defence Staff until 1965, making him the longest serving professional head of the British Armed Forces to date. During this period Mountbatten also served as Chairman of the NATO Military Committee for a year.

Battle of the Falkland Islands

a British naval victory over the Imperial German Navy on 8 December 1914 during the First World War in the South Atlantic. The British, after a defeat at the Battle of Coronel on 1 November, sent a large force to track down and destroy the victorious German cruiser squadron. As a consequence of the battle, the German East Asia Squadron, Germany's only permanent overseas naval formation, effectively ceased to exist. Commerce raiding on the high seas by regular warships of the Kaiserliche Marine was brought to an end.

Matthew Perry

a Commodore of the United States Navy and commanded a number of ships. He served in several wars, most notably in the Mexican-American War and the War of 1812. He played a leading role in the opening of Japan to the West with the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854. very concerned with the education of naval officers and helped develop an apprentice system that helped establish the curriculum at the United States Naval Academy. With the advent of the steam engine, he became a leading advocate of modernizing the US Navy and came to be considered The Father of the Steam Navy in the United States.

Alfred von Tirpitz

a German Großadmiral (grand admiral), Secretary of State of the German Imperial Naval Office, the powerful administrative branch of the German Imperial Navy from 1897 until 1916. took the modest Imperial Navy and, starting in the 1890s, turned it into a world-class force that could threaten the British Royal Navy. His navy, however, was not strong enough to confront the British successfully in the First World War; the one great engagement at sea, the Battle of Jutland, ended in a draw with both sides claiming victory. He turned to submarine warfare, which antagonised the United States.

Karl Doenitz

a German admiral who played a major role in the naval history of World War II. Dönitz succeeded Adolf Hitler as the head of state of Germany. He began his career in the Imperial German Navy before World War I. In 1918, while he was in command of UB-68, the submarine was sunk by British forces and Dönitz was taken prisoner. While in a prisoner of war camp, he formulated what he later called Rudeltaktik, Wolf-pack tactics whereby submarine teams would coordinate by radio. At the start of World War II, he was the senior submarine officer in the Kriegsmarine. In January 1943, he achieved the rank of Großadmiral (grand admiral) and replaced Grand Admiral Erich Raeder as Commander-in-Chief of the Navy.

Eight-Eight Plan

a Japanese naval strategy formulated for the development of the Imperial Japanese Navy in the first quarter of the 20th century, which stipulated that the navy should include eight first-class battleships and eight armoured cruisers or battlecruisers. originated in post-Russo-Japanese War period with the 1907 Imperial Defense Policy, which was a settlement reached by the competing Army and Navy factions of the Japanese government. Japan's military focus shifted away from the defeated Imperial Russia and towards the United States as the primary threat to Japan's future security.

Lebanon

a Lebanese political crisis caused by political and religious tensions in the country that included a U.S. military intervention. The intervention lasted around three months until President Camille Chamoun, who had requested the assistance, completed his term as president of Lebanon. American and Lebanese government forces successfully occupied the port and international airport of Beirut. With the crisis over, the United States withdrew.

John Paul Jones

a Scottish-born American sailor and the United States' first well-known naval fighter in the American Revolutionary War. He made many friends and enemies among America's political elites, and his commerce raiding actions in British waters during the Revolution earned him an international reputation which persists to this day. As such, he is sometimes referred to as the "Father of the American Navy,"

Battle of Cape Matapan

a Second World War naval engagement fought from 27-29 March 1941. The cape is on the south-west coast of the Peloponnesian peninsula of Greece. Italian signals were intercepted and broken by the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) at Bletchley Park. British ships of the Royal Navy and Royal Australian Navy, under the command of Admiral Andrew Cunningham, intercepted and sank or severely damaged several ships of the Italian Regia Marina under Squadron-Vice-Admiral Angelo Iachino.

Adm. Sergei G. Gorshkov

a Soviet naval officer during the Cold War who oversaw the expansion of the Soviet Navy into a global force. 1948, he became Chief of Staff of the Black Sea Fleet, soon he assumed its full command. He was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Soviet Navy by Nikita Khrushchev in 1956, and under Leonid Brezhnev oversaw a massive naval build-up of surface and submarine forces, creating a force capable of challenging Western naval power by the late 1970s. often associated with the phrase "'Better' is the enemy of 'Good Enough'"

U-110

a Type IXB U-boat of Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine that operated during World War II. She was captured by the Royal Navy on 9 May 1941 and provided a number of secret cipher documents to the British. It's capture, later given the code name "Operation Primrose", was one of the biggest secrets of the war, remaining so for seven months. President Franklin D. Roosevelt was only told of the capture by Winston Churchill in January 1942.

Stephen B. Luce

a U.S. Navy admiral. He was the founder and first president of the Naval War College, between 1884 and 1886. Appointed Mahan to a position at the college, his lectures there served as the basis for his work The Influence of Sea Power upon History

David Dixon Porter

a United States Navy admiral and a member of one of the most distinguished families in the history of the U.S. Navy. Promoted as the second U.S. Navy officer ever to attain the rank of admiral, after his adoptive brother David G. Farragut, he helped improve the Navy as the Superintendent of the U.S. Naval Academy after significant service in the American Civil War.

Adm. Hyman G. Rickover

a United States Navy admiral who directed the original development of naval nuclear propulsion and controlled its operations for three decades as director of Naval Reactors. In addition, he oversaw the development of the Shippingport Atomic Power Station, the world's first commercial pressurized water reactor used for generating electricity. Known as the "Father of the Nuclear Navy", his profound effects on the Navy and its most powerful warships were of such scope that he "may well go down in history as one of the Navy's most important officers." with his unique personality, political connections, responsibilities, and depth of knowledge regarding naval nuclear propulsion, he became the longest-serving naval officer in U.S. history with 63 years of active duty service.[

Alfred Thayer Mahan

a United States Navy officer, geostrategist, and educator. His ideas on the importance of sea power influenced navies around the world, and helped prompt naval buildups before World War I. Several ships were named for him, including the lead vessel of a class of destroyers. His research into naval History led to his most important work, The Influence of Seapower Upon History, 1660-1783, published in 1890

Vinson-Trammell Act (1934)

a bill that expanded the US Navy up to the limits imposed by the London Naval Treaty of 1930. It authorized the construction of the first American battleships in 17 years" (six battleships were authorised under the 1934 Act - BB55 to BB60), based on the provisions of the London Naval Treaty of 1930

Battle cruiser

a capital ship built in the first half of the 20th century. They were similar in size, cost, and armament to battleships, but they generally carried less armour in order to obtain faster speeds. The first were designed in the United Kingdom in the first decade of the century, as a development of the armoured cruiser, at the same time as the dreadnought succeeded the pre-dreadnought battleship. The goal of the design was to outrun any ship with similar armament, and chase down any ship with lesser armament; they were intended to hunt down slower, older armoured cruisers and destroy them with heavy gunfire while avoiding combat with the more powerful but slower battleships. However, as more and more were built, they were increasingly used alongside the better-protected battleships.

Kato Tomosaburo

a career officer in the Imperial Japanese Navy, cabinet minister, and Prime Minister of Japan from 12 June 1922 to 24 August 1923. During the Russo-Japanese War, he served as chief of staff to Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō on the battleship Mikasa, assisting in Japan's victory at the Battle of Tsushima. During this time, he suffered from a very weak stomach, and was vomiting as he issued orders throughout the battle, despite having taken large amounts of medication.

Fuso (1884)

a central-battery ironclad built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) in the 1870s. She was built in the United Kingdom because such ships could not yet be constructed in Japan. The ship participated in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95 where she was damaged during the Battle of the Yalu River in 1894 and participated in the Battle of Weihaiwei in early 1895. She collided with two Japanese ships during a storm and sank in 1897. She was refloated the following year and repaired.

Pax Britannica

a century-long period beginning with Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo in 1815 and ending with the outbreak of World War I in 1914 during which Britain's economic and diplomatic influence contributed to economic openness and relative peace. Enforced this peace through their superior naval power.

Chester W. Nimitz

a fleet admiral of the United States Navy. He played a major role in the naval history of World War II as Commander in Chief, United States Pacific Fleet (CinCPac), for U.S. naval forces and Commander in Chief, Pacific Ocean Areas (CinCPOA), for U.S. and Allied air, land, and sea forces during World War II. was the leading U.S. Navy authority on submarines. Qualified in submarines during his early years, he later oversaw the conversion of these vessels' propulsion from gasoline to diesel, and then later was key in acquiring approval to build the world's first nuclear-powered submarine, USS Nautilus, whose propulsion system later completely superseded diesel-powered submarines in the U.S. Commander of the US naval forces in the Pacific and brilliant strategist of the island hopping campaign

Ohio-class submarine

a class of nuclear-powered submarines currently used by the United States Navy. The navy has 18 submarines: 14 ballistic missile submarines (SSBN) and four that were later converted to guided missile submarines (SSGN). named after the lead submarine of this class. The 14 Trident II SSBNs together carry approximately fifty percent of the total US active inventory of strategic thermonuclear warheads. Although the Trident missiles have no pre-set targets when the submarines go on patrol,[citation needed] the warships, when required, are capable of quickly being assigned targets by using secure and constant radio communications links at sea, including very low frequency (VLF) systems. he largest submarines ever built for the U.S. Navy. Two classes of the Russian Navy's submarines have larger total displacements: the Soviet-designed Typhoon-class submarines have more than twice the total displacement, and Russia's Borei-class submarines have roughly 25 percent greater displacement, but the these carry more missiles than either

USS United States

a class of ten nuclear-powered aircraft carriers in service with the United States Navy. The lead ship of the class is named for World War II United States Pacific Fleet commander Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, the U.S. Navy's last fleet admiral. With an overall length of 1,092 ft (333 m) and full-load displacement of over 100,000 long tons,[1] they have been the largest warships built and in service

William V. Pratt

a close friend of William Sims, an officer on the staff of Admiral Benson, helped the Navy Department overcome a dual fear of both Japanese and German naval expansion/aggression, and implement Sim's destroyer convoy system. served as a technical advisor during the negotiations that led to the Washington Naval Limitations Treaty of February 1922. He commanded a battleship division in 1923-1925. Assignments followed to the General Board and as President of the Naval War College. In 1927, he returned to sea as Commander Battleship Divisions, Battle Fleet. A year later, he became Commander Battle Fleet in the rank of Admiral and in 1929-1930 was Commander in Chief United States Fleet.

Cuban Missile Blockade

a commercial, economic, and financial embargo imposed by the United States on Cuba. An embargo was first imposed by the United States on sale of arms to Cuba on the 14th of March 1958, during the Fulgencio Batista regime. Again on October 19, 1960 (almost two years after the Batista regime was deposed by the Cuban Revolution) the U.S. placed an embargo on exports to Cuba except for food and medicine after Cuba nationalized American-owned Cuban oil refineries without compensation. On February 7, 1962 the embargo was extended to include almost all imports

War Plan Orange

a contingency war plan against Japan developed between 1900-1940. The plan assumed that Japan would strike first. The plan listed Japanese objectives as removing the US from the Pacific, strike by surprise, and fight a war of attrition. The US would defeat the Japanese fleet and impose an economic blockade. shaped the Navy for a Pacific battle against Japan in WWII.

Sea Power

a country's naval strength, especially as a weapon of war.

India-Pakistan War

a culmination of skirmishes that took place between April 1965 and September 1965 between India and Pakistan. This conflict became known as the Second Kashmir War fought by India and Pakistan over the disputed region of Kashmir, the first having been fought in 1947. War in 1971 was a military conflict between India and Pakistan. Indian, Bangladeshi and international sources consider the beginning of the war to be Operation Chengiz Khan, Pakistan's December 3, 1971 pre-emptive strike on 111 Indian airbases. Lasting just 13 days, its considered one of the shortest wars in history.

Battle of Midway

a decisive naval battle in the Pacific Theater of World War II. Between 4 and 7 June 1942, only six months after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor and one month after the Battle of the Coral Sea, the United States Navy under Admirals Chester Nimitz, Frank Jack Fletcher, and Raymond A. Spruance decisively defeated an attacking fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy under Admirals Isoroku Yamamoto, Chuichi Nagumo, and Nobutake Kondo near Midway Atoll, inflicting devastating damage on the Japanese fleet that proved irreparable.

Battle of the Philippine Sea

a decisive naval battle of World War II that eliminated the Imperial Japanese Navy's ability to conduct large-scale carrier actions. It took place during the United States' amphibious invasion of the Mariana Islands during the Pacific War. The battle was the last of five major "carrier-versus-carrier" engagements between American and Japanese naval forces, and pitted elements of the United States Navy's Fifth Fleet against ships and aircraft of the Imperial Japanese Navy's Mobile Fleet and nearby island garrisons. The outcome is generally attributed to American improvements in pilot and crew training and tactics, war technology (including the top-secret anti-aircraft proximity fuze), and ship and aircraft design.[N 1][N 2] Although at the time the battle appeared to be a missed opportunity to destroy the Japanese fleet, the Imperial Japanese Navy had lost the bulk of its carrier air strength and would never recover.

Flying boat

a fixed-winged seaplane with a hull, allowing it to land on water. It differs from a float plane as it uses a purpose-designed fuselage which can both float, granting the aircraft buoyancy, and give aerodynamic sheath. may be stabilized by under-wing floats or by wing-like projections from the fuselage. Their advantage lay in using water instead of expensive land-based runways, making them the basis for international airlines in the interwar period. They were also commonly used for maritime patrol and air-sea rescue.`

David Farragut

a flag officer of the United States Navy during the American Civil War. He was the first rear admiral, vice admiral, and admiral in the United States Navy. He is remembered for his order at the Battle of Mobile Bay (in which he was victorious) usually paraphrased as "Damn the torpedoes, full speed ahead" in U.S. Navy tradition. commanded the Union blockade of Southern ports, helped capture the the Confederate city of New Orleans and provided support for General Ulysses S. Grant's siege of Vicksburg

Guerre de course

a form of naval warfare used to destroy or disrupt logistics of the enemy on the open sea by attacking its merchant shipping, rather than engaging its combatants or enforcing a blockade against them. an important part of naval strategy from the Early Modern period through the Second World War. Initially used by British and Dutch against 15th century Spanish treasure fleets.

Togo Heihachiro

a gensui or admiral of the fleet in the Imperial Japanese Navy and one of Japan's greatest naval heroes. He was termed by Western journalists as "the Nelson of the East". commanded the Japanese naval forces at the destruction of the Imperial Russian Navy's Baltic Fleet at the Battle of Tsushima in May 1905.

Cruise missile

a guided missile used against terrestrial targets that remains in the atmosphere and flies the major portion of its flight path at approximately constant speed. Cruise missiles are designed to deliver a large warhead over long distances with high accuracy; that is, small circular error probability. Modern cruise missiles are capable of traveling at supersonic or high subsonic speeds, are self-navigating, and are able to fly on a non-ballistic, extremely low-altitude trajectory. They are distinct from unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) in several ways: the cruise missile is a single use weapon which is always sacrificed in the mission; it is not intended to provide aerial reconnaissance; and the warhead is integrated directly into the hull of the vehicle and cannot be separated.

Atlantic Economy

a historical term indicating trade among three ports or regions. routes were historically also shaped by the powerful influence of winds and currents during the age of sail. For example, from the main trading nations of Western Europe it was much easier to sail westwards after first going south of 30 N latitude and reaching the so-called "trade winds"; thus arriving in the Caribbean rather than going straight west to the North American mainland. Returning from North America, it is easiest to follow the Gulf Stream in a northeasterly direction using the westerlies. tied into the idea of mercantilism, which thought it was a good idea for European countries to have a lot of colonies that traded only with them. Goods that were traded were rum, slaves, sugar, tobacco, gold, spices, fish, lumber and manufactured goods.

Mobile Riverine Force

a joint US Army and US Navy force that comprised a substantial part of the Brown Water Navy. It was modeled after lessons learned by the French experience in the First Indochina War and had the task of both transport (of soldiers and equipment) and combat. The primary base was at Đồng Tâm Base Camp, with a floating base at the base of the Mekong River. It played a key role in the Tet Offensive.

Aircraft carrier

a large warship that carries planes and has a long flat deck for take-offs and landings. invented by the British during WWI initially as scouting vessels. Their use in attacking forced the 3 major navies to accept it as the arbiter of naval power as capital ship. Unique for its mobility and range it proved dominate in the Pacific theatre.

Mitsubishi A6M

a long-range fighter aircraft, operated by the Imperial Japanese Navy from 1940 to 1945. was considered the most capable carrier-based fighter in the world, combining excellent maneuverability and very long range.gained a legendary reputation as a dogfighter, By 1943, inherent design weaknesses and the failure to develop more powerful aircraft engines meant that the Zero became less effective against newer Allied fighters, which possessed greater firepower, armor, and speed, and approached the Zero's maneuverability. During the final year of the War in the Pacific, the Zero was also adapted for use in kamikaze operations. During the course of the war, Japan produced more Zeros than any other model of combat aircraft.

Battle of Tsushima (1905)

a major naval battle fought between Russia and Japan during the Russo-Japanese War. It was naval history's only decisive sea battle fought by modern steel battleship fleets, and the first naval battle in which wireless telegraphy (radio) played a critically important role. It has been characterized as the "dying echo of the old era - for the last time in the history of naval warfare ships of the line of a beaten fleet surrendered on the high seas." The destruction of the Russian navy caused a bitter reaction from the Russian public, which induced a peace treaty in September 1905 without any further battles. conclusively demonstrated that battleship speed and big guns with longer ranges were more advantageous in naval battles than mixed batteries of different sizes.

Battle of the Yellow Sea (1904)

a major naval engagement of the Russo-Japanese War, fought on 10 August 1904. In the Russian Navy, it was referred to as the Battle of 10 August. The battle foiled an attempt by the Russian fleet at Port Arthur to break out and form up with counterparts from Vladivostok, forcing them to return to port. Four days later, the Battle off Ulsan similarly ended the Vladivostok group's sortie, forcing both fleets to remain at anchor.

The Sail

a means for redirecting the power of the wind to propel a craft on water. examples from ancient Egypt are depicted around 3200 BCE, where reed boats sailed upstream against the River Nile's current. Allowed you to sail against current, and provided means of propulsion beyond human or animal power.

Guadalcanal

a military campaign fought between 7 August 1942 and 9 February 1943 on and around the island of Guadalcanal in the Pacific theater of World War II. It was the first major offensive by Allied forces against the Empire of Japan. On 7 August 1942, Allied forces, predominantly United States (US) Marines, landed on the islands of Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and Florida in the southern Solomon Islands, with the objective of denying their use by the Japanese to threaten Allied supply and communication routes between the US, Australia, and New Zealand. a significant strategic combined arms Allied victory in the Pacific theater. Along with the Battle of Midway, it has been called a turning-point in the war against Japan. The Japanese had reached the peak of their conquests in the Pacific. The victories at Milne Bay, Buna-Gona, and Guadalcanal marked the Allied transition from defensive operations to the strategic initiative in the theater, leading to offensive operations

Washington Naval Conference (1921-1922)

a military conference called by the administration of President Warren G. Harding and held in Washington, D.C. from 12 November 1921 to 6 February 1922. it resulted in three major treaties: Four-Power Treaty, Five-Power Treaty and the Nine-Power Treaty and a number of smaller agreements. They agreed to limit production of war ships, to not attack each other's possessions, and to respect China's independence These treaties preserved peace during the 1920s but are also credited with enabling the rise of the Japanese Empire as a naval power leading up to World War II.

Adm. James Holloway III

a naval aviator. He made two carrier tours to Korea, flying Grumman F9F-2 Panther jets on combat missions against the North Korean and Chinese Communists. He assumed command of Fighting Squadron 52 (VF-52) when his commanding officer was shot down. He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and three Air Medals during the Korean War, and shared in a Navy Unit Commendation awarded to the aircraft carrier Valley Forge. He took command of the 7th Fleet in 1972 during the Vietnam War, and personally led a cruiser-destroyer gunfire strike force during the Battle of Haiphong Harbor. During Operation Linebacker II, he directed the massive carrier strikes against Hanoi which were a part of the intensive joint air effort which led to the Vietnam cease-fire in 1973. Under his command, the 7th Fleet subsequently performed the airborne mine clearing operations in North Vietnam ports in accordance with the terms of the Paris Peace Accords.

Battle of Salamis

a naval battle fought between an alliance of Greek city-states under Themistocles and the Persian Empire under King Xerxes in 480 BC which resulted in a decisive victory for the outnumbered Greeks. The battle was fought in the straits between the mainland and Salamis, an island in the Saronic Gulf near Athens, and marked the high-point of the second Persian invasion of Greece. To block the Persian advance, a small force of Greeks blocked the pass of Thermopylae, while an Athenian-dominated Allied navy engaged the Persian fleet in the nearby straits of Artemisium.

Battle of Jutland

a naval battle fought by the British Royal Navy's Grand Fleet under Admiral Sir John Jellicoe, against the Imperial German Navy's High Seas Fleet under Vice-Admiral Reinhard Scheer during the First World War. It was the largest naval battle in that war and the only full-scale clash of battleships. The German plan was to use Vice-Admiral Franz Hipper's fast scouting group of five modern battlecruisers to lure Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty's battlecruiser squadrons into the path of the main German fleet. Submarines were stationed in advance across the likely routes of the British ships. Consequences: - German tactical victory; British strategic victory - Poor British C3I - Gunnery and armor; torpedoes and aircraft - Battle cruisers vs. fast battleships. Stalemate at sea. Apparent that material strategy doesn't win wars.

Battle of Trafalgar

a naval engagement fought by the Royal Navy against the combined fleets of the French and Spanish Navies, during the War of the Third Coalition (August-December 1805) of the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815). the most decisive naval battle of the war, conclusively ending French plans to invade England. The British victory spectacularly confirmed the naval supremacy that Britain had established during the eighteenth century and was achieved in part through Nelson's departure from the prevailing naval tactical orthodoxy. Nelson instead divided his smaller force into two columns directed perpendicularly against the enemy fleet, with decisive results.

Fleet in Being

a naval force that extends a controlling influence without ever leaving port. Were the fleet to leave port and face the enemy, it might lose in battle and no longer influence the enemy's actions, but while it remains safely in port, the enemy is forced to continually deploy forces to guard against it. It can be part of a sea denial doctrine, but not one of sea control. Introduced by Admiral Herbert in British fight against French in 1690

Erich Raeder

a naval leader in Germany who played a major role in the naval history of World War II. initiated the construction of pocket battleships, cruisers, and torpedo boats. Used U-boats to extensively raid commerce ships. Limited by Hitler's concentration on the army. Forced to resign after the bungling of the Battle of the Barents Sea

"Revolt of the Admirals"

a number of retired and active-duty United States Navy admirals who publicly disagreed with President Harry S. Truman and Secretary of Defense Louis A. Johnson in their emphasis on strategic nuclear bombing executed by the United States Air Force as the primary means by which the nation and its interests were defended. The episode occurred in 1949 during a time wherein, the administration was attempting to severely reduce military expenditures.The Truman administration essentially won the conflict with the Navy, and civilian control over the military was reaffirmed. Military budgets following the hearings prioritized the development of Air Force heavy bomber designs, accumulating a combat ready force of over 1,000 long-range strategic bombers capable of supporting nuclear mission scenarios. These were deployed across the country and at dozens of overseas bases. The Air Force portion of the total defense budget significantly grew, while the Navy's and Army's portion of the total defense budget was reduced

Nanshin

a political doctrine in the Empire of Japan which stated that Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands were Japan's sphere of interest and that the potential value to the Japanese Empire for economic and territorial expansion in those areas was greater than elsewhere. This political doctrine was diametrically opposite that of the "Northern Expansion Doctrine" (北進論 Hokushin-ron?) largely supported by the Imperial Japanese Army, which stated the same except with regards to Manchuria and Siberia. After the military setbacks at Nomonhan on Mongolian front, the Second Sino-Japanese War, and negative Western attitudes towards Japanese expansionist tendencies, this policy superseded to procure colonial resources in South East Asia and neutralize the threat posed by Western military forces in the Pacific. The Army favored a "counterclockwise strike" while the Navy favored a "clockwise strike". Represented Japan's need for natural resources and the inter-military tensions between Army and Navy

Lend Lease

a program under which the United States supplied Free France, the United Kingdom, the Republic of China, and later the USSR and other Allied nations with food, oil, and materiel between 1941 and August 1945. This included warships and warplanes, along with other weaponry. It was signed into law on March 11, 1941 and ended in September 1945. In general the aid was free, although some hardware (such as ships) were returned after the war. In return, the U.S. was given leases on army and naval bases in Allied territory during the war.

Julian S. Corbett

a prominent British naval historian and geostrategist of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, whose works helped shape the Royal Navy's reforms of that era. One of his most famous works is Some Principles of Maritime Strategy, which remains a classic among students of naval warfare. a good friend and ally of naval reformer Admiral John "Jacky" Fisher, the First Sea Lord. He was chosen to write the official history of British Naval operations during World War I.

operations research

a scientific method of providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding the operations under their control. During WWII, teams developed improved methods of firing, camouflage, and instituted the convoy system. Improved methods of training and bomber techniques.

Okinawa

a series of battles fought in the Japanese Ryukyu Islands, and included the largest amphibious assault in the Pacific War during World War II. The 82-day-long battle lasted from 1 April until 22 June 1945. After a long campaign of island hopping, the Allies were approaching Japan, and planned to use a large island only 340 mi (550 km) away from mainland Japan, as a base for air operations for the planned invasion of Honshu, the Japanese mainland. The pitched fighting and mass casualties led directly to the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, as a means of avoiding the planned ground invasion of the Japanese mainland.

Cod wars

a series of confrontations between the United Kingdom and Iceland regarding fishing rights in the North Atlantic. Each of the disputes ended with Iceland's victory.[2][3][4] The final confrontation concluded in 1976 with a highly favourable agreement for Iceland, as the United Kingdom conceded to a 200-nautical-mile (370-kilometre) Icelandic exclusive fishery zone following threats that Iceland would withdraw from NATO, which would have forfeited NATO's access to most of the GIUK gap, a critical anti-submarine warfare chokepoint during the Cold War. As a result, British fishing communities lost access to rich areas and were devastated, with thousands of jobs lost

Punic Wars

a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage from 264 BC to 146 BC. conflicts of interest between the existing Carthaginian Empire and the expanding Roman Republic. Example of maritime power (Carthage) against land power (Rome). Eventually Rome conquered Carthage's empire, completely destroyed the city, and become the most powerful state of the Western Mediterranean.

Shinshu-maru

a ship of the Japanese Imperial Army during World War II. She was the world's first landing craft carrier ship to be designed as such, and a pioneer of modern-day amphibious assault ships. a significant advance in amphibious warfare, having incorporated numerous innovative features, and as such she was shrouded in a veil of secrecy throughout her existence. She could carry 29 Daihatsu-class landing craft, 25 Shohatsu-class landing craft and four armoured gunboats, to be launched from a floodable well deck. She also could carry aircraft in a hangar within her superstructure; these aircraft could be launched by catapult to support amphibious assaults, but could not return to the ship, and must land on captured airfields instead.

Sea control ship

a small aircraft carrier developed and conceptualized by the United States Navy under Chief of Naval Operations Elmo Zumwalt during the 1970s. The SCS was intended as an escort vessel, providing air support for convoys. It was canceled after budgetary cuts to the US Navy. The SCS was to be equipped with a mix of Rockwell XFV-12 fighter aircraft and anti-submarine warfare helicopters.[2] It was tasked with carrying out anti-submarine warfare operations.

Escort carrier

a small and slow type of aircraft carrier used by the Royal Navy, the Imperial Japanese Navy and Imperial Japanese Army Air Force, and the United States Navy in World War II. They were typically half the length and a third the displacement of larger fleet carriers. While they were slower, carried fewer planes and were less well armed and armored, they were cheaper and could be built quickly, which was their principal advantage.In the Battle of the Atlantic, they were used to protect convoys against U-boats. Initially they accompanied the merchant ships and helped to fend off attacks from aircraft and submarines. As numbers increased later in the war, they also formed part of hunter-killer groups that sought out submarines instead of being attached to a particular convoy.

Frigate

a small, fast military ship, warships carrying their principal batteries of carriage-mounted guns on a single deck or on two decks. generally used for ships too small to stand in the line of battle (17th century) in the definition adopted by the British Admiralty, they were rated ships of at least 28 guns, carrying their principal armaments upon a single continuous deck — the upper deck — while ships of the line possessed two or more continuous decks bearing batteries of guns. The 19th century battleship evolved from this ship as opposed to from ships of the line.

Continental Power

a state with extensive power and control on land

Thalassocracy

a state with primarily maritime realms—an empire at sea (such as the Phoenician network of merchant cities) or a sea-borne empire.

600-ship navy

a strategic plan of the United States Navy during the 1980s to rebuild its fleet after cutbacks that followed the end of the Vietnam War. The plan, which originated with Republican leaders, was an important campaign plank of Ronald Reagan in the 1980 presidential election, who advocated a larger military and strategic confrontation with the Soviet Union.The actual number of ships peaked at 594 in 1987, before declining sharply after the end of the Cold War in 1989-1991. The program included: Recommissioning the Iowa-class battleships Keeping older ships in service longer A large new construction program Stepped up production of Nimitz-class aircraft carriers

Hit and Hold

a strategy of two allied nations. to concentrate on defeating the main enemy fighting force, the maritime state provides funds, arms, and general supplies, to sustain the main army of the allied continental force, while also isolating the enemy state from outside help or support by an attempt to neutralize the enemy sea force through blockade or battle.

Yamato

a superbattleship at the heart of the Circle 3 program, part of the Japanese navies focus on "big ships, big guns". Symbolic of Japan's new confidence in facing an unrestricted race in naval armaments should the treaty system collapse. the heaviest battleships ever constructed, displacing 72,800 tonnes at full load and armed with nine 46 cm (18.1 inch) 45 Caliber Type 94 main guns, which were the largest guns ever mounted on a warship. Neither ship survived the war.

USS Forrestal

a supercarrier named after the first Secretary of Defense James Forrestal. Commissioned in 1955, she was the first completed supercarrier, and was the lead ship of her class. Unlike the successor Nimitz-class, the Forrestal and her class were conventionally powered. The other carriers of her class were the USS Saratoga, USS Ranger and USS Independence. She superseded the World War II Japanese carrier Shinano as the largest aircraft carrier ever built in terms of full load displacement and was the first to specifically support jet aircraft.

Ship Money

a tax of medieval origin levied intermittently in the Kingdom of England until the middle of the 17th century. Assessed typically on the inhabitants of coastal areas of England, it was one of several taxes that English monarchs could levy by prerogative without the approval of Parliament. The attempt of King Charles I from 1634 onwards to levy this tax during peacetime and extend it to the inland counties of England without Parliamentary approval provoked fierce resistance, and was one of the grievances of the English propertied class in the lead-up to the English Civil War.

Falklands War

a ten-week war between Argentina and the United Kingdom over two British overseas territories in the South Atlantic: the Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. It began on Friday, 2 April 1982, when Argentina invaded and occupied the Falkland Islands (and, the following day, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands) in an attempt to establish the sovereignty it had claimed over them. On 5 April, the British government dispatched a naval task force to engage the Argentine Navy and Air Force before making an amphibious assault on the islands. The conflict lasted 74 days and ended with the Argentine surrender on 14 June 1982, returning the islands to British control. In total, 649 Argentine military personnel, 255 British military personnel, and three Falkland Islanders died during the hostilities. Patriotic sentiment ran high in Argentina, but the outcome prompted large protests against the ruling military government, hastening its downfall. In the United Kingdom, the Conservative Party government, bolstered by the successful outcome, was re-elected the following year.

Typhoon-class submarine

a type of nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine deployed by the Soviet Navy in the 1980s. With a submerged displacement of 48,000 tonnes, They are the largest class of submarine ever built, large enough to accommodate decent living facilities for the crew when submerged for months on end.

Minoru Genda

a well-known Japanese military aviator and politician. He is best known for helping to plan the Pearl Harbor attack. responsible for much of the training, especially in the new tactics of shallow-water torpedo use, effective use of level-bombing by tactical aircraft, and coordinating several aircraft carriers simultaneously. realized the potential of massing aircraft carriers to project air power. Most naval strategists and tacticians of the time conceived of single carriers launching raids on enemy targets, or sailing with a fleet to provide air cover against enemy bombers. He understood the potential of massed air raids launched from multiple aircraft carriers steaming together. An air power advocate from the time he attended the Japanese Naval Academy, he urged Japan's pre-war military leaders to stop building battleships (which he believed would be better used as "piers" or scrap iron) and concentrate on aircraft carriers, submarines, and supporting fast cruisers and destroyers. Above all, he thought that modern and large naval air fleet would be necessary for survival if Japan was ever to fight a war with the United States and the United Kingdom as well as their allies.

Walt Whitman Rostow

an American economist and political theorist who served as Special Assistant for National Security Affairs to US President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1966-69. Prominent for his role in the shaping of US foreign policy in Southeast Asia during the 1960s, he was a staunch anti-communist, noted for a belief in the efficacy of capitalism and free enterprise, strongly supporting US involvement in the Vietnam War.

William Halsey

an American fleet admiral in the United States Navy. At the start of the War in the Pacific (1941-45) He commanded the task force centered on the carrier Enterprise in a series of raids against Japanese-held targets. He was made commander, South Pacific Area and led the Allied forces over the course of the Battle for Guadalcanal (1942-43) and the fighting up the Solomon chain (1942-45). In 1943 he was made commander of the Third Fleet, the post he held through the rest of the war.

Adm. Elmo Zumwalt

an American naval officer and the youngest man to serve as Chief of Naval Operations. As an admiral and later the 19th Chief of Naval Operations, Zumwalt played a major role in U.S. military history, especially during the Vietnam War.command was not a blue-water force, like the Seventh Fleet; it was a brown-water unit: he commanded the flotilla of Swift Boats that patrolled the coasts, harbors, and rivers of Vietnam. Among the swift-boat commanders were his son, Elmo Russell Zumwalt III, and later future Senator and U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry. Among his other forces were Task Force 115, the Coastal Surveillance Force, Task Force 116, the River Patrol Force, and Task Force 117, the joint Army-Navy Mobile Riverine Force.

Harry Yarnell

an American naval officer whose career spanned over 51 years and three wars, from the Spanish-American War through World War II. Among his achievements was proving, in 1932 war games, that Pearl Harbor was vulnerable to a naval aerial attack. His findings were dismissed by his superiors until the Imperial Japanese Navy's Pearl Harbor attack was just as he predicted.

Yamamoto Gombei

an admiral in the Imperial Japanese Navy and the 16th (20 February 1913 - 16 April 1914) and 22nd (2 September 1923 - 7 January 1924) Prime Minister of Japan. 1893, became the real leader of the navy; initiating numerous reforms, attempting to end favoritism toward officers of his own Satsuma province, attempting to end officers from profiteering from military office, and attempting to attain roughly equal status with the army in the Supreme War Council. He also pushed for an aggressive strategy toward China in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-95). As Minister of the Navy during the Russo-Japanese War, he showed strong leadership and was responsible for appointing Tōgō Heihachirō as commander-in-chief of the Combined Fleet.

William Sims

an admiral in the United States Navy who fought during the late 19th and early 20th centuries to modernize the navy. During World War I he commanded all United States naval forces operating in Europe. He also served twice as president of the Naval War College. To protect merchant ships crossing the Atlantic he invented and employed a 230-mile barrier of mines in the North Sea and the "convoy system"

William S. Sims

an admiral in the United States Navy who fought during the late 19th and early 20th centuries to modernize the navy. Redirected both British and American naval strategy away from battlefleet stalemate toward defeating Germany's modern guerre de course. He focused on the German U-Boat force as opposed to the coalition of Germany, Austria, and Japan, creating a convoy escort system for commerce and troop ships keeping them safe through sub infested waters. His strategies helped neutralize the threat of U-boats.

Adm. Arleigh Burke

an admiral of the United States Navy who distinguished himself during World War II and the Korean War, and who served as Chief of Naval Operations during the Eisenhower and Kennedy administrations.

line ahead tactics

an attacking Naval method where ships followed each other in a line to attack an enemy. Refined by the Iberians, led to development of the term "ship of the line"

Thomas Macdonough

an early-19th-century American naval officer noted for his roles in the first Barbary War and the War of 1812. a member of "Preble's Boys", a select group of U.S. naval officers who served under the command of Commodore Preble during the First Barbary War. He achieved fame during the War of 1812, commanding the American naval forces that defeated the British navy at the Battle of Lake Champlain, part of the larger Battle of Plattsburgh, which helped lead to an end to that war

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party. In 1949, the United States, Canada, and ten European nations formed this military mutual-defense pact. In 1955, the Soviet Union countered with the formation of the Warsaw Pact, a military alliance among those nations within its own sphere of influence.

Suez "debacle"

an invasion of Egypt in late 1956 by Israel, followed by the United Kingdom and France. The aims were to regain Western control of the Suez Canal and to remove Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser from power. After the fighting had started, political pressure from the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Nations led to a withdrawal by the three invaders. The episode humiliated Great Britain and France[18] and strengthened Nasser.

Suez Crisis

an invasion of Egypt in late 1956 by Israel, followed by the United Kingdom and France. The aims were to regain Western control of the Suez Canal and to remove Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser from power.[17] After the fighting had started, political pressure from the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Nations led to a withdrawal by the three invaders. The episode humiliated Great Britain and France[18] and strengthened Nasser.

USS Monitor

an iron-hulled steamship. Built during the American Civil War, she was the first ironclad warship commissioned by the Union Navy. most famous for her central role in the Battle of Hampton Roads on 9 March 1862, where, under the command of Lieutenant John Worden, she fought the casemate ironclad CSS Virginia (built on the hull of the former steam frigate USS Merrimack) to a standstill. The unique design of the ship, distinguished by its revolving turret which was designed by American inventor Theodore Timby, was quickly duplicated and established the monitor type of warship.

Foxhall Parker

an officer in the United States Navy during the American Civil War. rom 1861 to 1862, he was executive officer of the navy yard at Washington, D.C. During the Civil War, he cooperated with the Army of the Potomac, protecting Alexandria, Virginia, after the First Battle of Bull Run. His capable manipulation of the forces at his command went far toward restoring order and confidence at Washington. In 1866, he received the rank of captain. In 1872, as commodore and chief of staff of the North Atlantic Fleet, he drew up a code of signals for steam tactics. In 1877/8 he was in charge of the Boston Navy Yard. He became superintendent of the United States Naval Academy in 1878 and was one of the founders of the United States Naval Institute.

Quasi War

an undeclared war fought almost entirely at sea between the United States of America and the French Republic from 1798 to 1800. After the toppling of the French crown during the French Revolutionary Wars, the United States refused to continue repaying its debt to France on the grounds that it had been owed to a previous regime. French outrage led to a series of attacks on American shipping, ultimately leading to retaliation from the Americans and the end of hostilities with the signing of the Convention of 1800 shortly thereafter.

Fleet Faction

an unofficial and informal political faction within the Imperial Japanese Navy in the 1920s and 1930s of officers opposed to the conditions imposed by the Washington Naval Treaty.wanted nullification of the Washington Naval Treaty and unlimited naval growth to build the most powerful navy possible, thus challenging the naval supremacy of the United States and there British Empire. With increasing Japanese militarism in the 1930s, the growing conflict with the United States over China, and the blatant disregard for the terms of the Treaty by all major powers, it gradually gained the upper hand. On 29 December 1934, the Japanese government gave formal notice that it intended to terminate the treaty. Its provisions remained in force until the end of 1936, but it was not renewed.

Treaty Faction

an unofficial and informal political faction within the Imperial Japanese Navy in the 1920s-1930s of officers supporting the Washington Naval Treaty. It argued that Japan could not afford an arms race with the western powers, and hoped through diplomacy to restore the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. It argued that the current treaty limitations would serve Japan for the time being. In the 1920s, it was supported by the civilian government, and was predominant. However, the even more restrictive London Naval Treaty of 1930 divided it into two parts. The "Anti-London Treaty Faction" pushed for military and economic expansion into the South Pacific, and thus became more closely aligned with the "Fleet Faction".

maritime power

any great power with a large navy who has extensive control and influence on the seas. Early examples include the city-state of Athens. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, examples include Great Britain and the Dutch Republic.

Ito Yuko

became the first Commander-in-Chief of the Combined Fleet and won several naval battles against the Chinese Empire's Beiyang Fleet led by Admiral Ding Ruchang, notably at the Battle of the Yellow Sea. On 11 May 1895, he became Chief of the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff. In 1898, and was ennobled with the title of shishaku (viscount) on 5 August 1898 under the kazoku peerage system. He was promoted to full admiral on 28 September 1898. During the Russo-Japanese War he continued to serve as head of the Navy General Staff . After the war, he became marshal admiral on 31 January 1905, and his title of nobility was raised to that of hakushaku (count) in 1907. At the same time, he was awarded the Order of the Golden Kite (1st class) and the Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the Chrysanthemum.

Containment

best known as the Cold War policy of the United States and its allies to prevent the spread of communism. A component of the Cold War, this policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet Union to increase communist influence in Eastern Europe, China, Korea, Africa, and Vietnam. Containment represented a middle-ground position between detente and rollback. The basis of the doctrine was articulated in a 1946 cable by U.S. diplomat George F. Kennan during the post-WWII administration of U.S. President Harry Truman.

Raymond Spruance

commanded U.S. naval forces during two of the most significant naval battles that took place in the Pacific theater, the Battle of Midway and the Battle of the Philippine Sea. The Battle of Midway was the first major victory for the United States over Japan and is seen by many as the turning point of the Pacific war. The Battle of the Philippine Sea was also a significant victory for the US. His victory at Midway represented the importance of tactics

Adm. Malcolm Cagle

commanding officer of VF-88 and went on to a distinguished career in naval aviation, including command of the Franklin D. Roosevelt (CVA 42) in the Mediterranean in 1964-1965. He also wrote several books, including the definitive Sea War in Korea with Frank Manson (1957), as well as a score of articles in the Naval Institute Proceedings. These included the highly significant "Sea Power and Limited War" (July 1958) and the comprehensive "Task Force 77 in Action Off Vietnam" (May 1972; he participated in the Vietnam War as a carrier division and then task force commander). He also had a key role in establishing the aviation magazines Foundation and Wings of Gold.

Libya (1986)

comprised air strikes by the United States against Libya on Tuesday, 15 April 1986. The attack was carried out by the U.S. Air Force, U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps via air strikes, in retaliation for the 1986 Berlin discotheque bombing. There were 40 reported Libyan casualties, and one U.S. plane was shot down.

Task Force 77 Vietnam

conducted carrier strike operations from the Gulf of Tonkin and South China Sea for nine years, from 1964 to 1973. Twenty-one of the Navy's 23 operational carriers made at least one cruise with the Task Force and served over 9,100 days on the line. The nickname "Tonkin Gulf Yacht Club" came to be associated with US carrier operations off Vietnam. Rolling Thunder air strikes, armed reconnaissance, and photo reconnaissance missions were conducted against selected targets and lines of communication (LOC) in North Vietnam, while operational procedures were developed by the operating units, 7th Air Force and Carrier Task Force 77, that permitted the full range of coordination for all air operations in the Rolling Thunder program. As the U.S. Navy entered heavy combat in Southeast Asia between 1965 and 1968, a chain of command evolved which reflected the complex character of the war.

Flota

convoy system adopted by the Spanish Empire from 1566 to 1790, linking Spain with its territories in America across the Atlantic. The convoys were general purpose cargo fleets used for transporting a wide variety of items, including agricultural goods, lumber, various metal resources, luxuries, silver, gold, gems, pearls, spices, sugar, tobacco, silk, and other exotic goods from the Spanish Empire to the Spanish mainland. Passengers and goods such as textiles, books and tools were transported in the opposite direction. The West Indies fleet was the first permanent transatlantic trade route in history.

Pax Americana

describes a period of relative peace in the Western world since the end of World War II in 1945, coinciding with the dominant military and economic position of the United States. The term was modelled on the Pax Romana of the Roman empire. During this period, no armed conflict has emerged among major Western nations themselves, and no nuclear weapons have been used, although the United States and its allies have been involved in various regional wars.

Tortoise Ships

designed by Yi Sunsin; a type of large Korean warship that was used intermittently by the Royal Korean Navy during the Joseon dynasty from the early 15th century up until the 19th century. It was used alongside the panokseon warships in the fight against invading Japanese naval ships. The ship's name derives from its protective shell-like covering. This design is often recognized as the first armored ship in the world

Balance of Power

distribution of military and economic power that prevents any one nation from becoming too strong

Gulf of Tonkin incident

drew the US more directly into the Vietnam war. It involved two separate confrontations involving North Vietnam and the United States in the waters of the Gulf of Tonkin. The original American report blamed North Vietnam for both incidents, but eventually became very controversial with widespread claims that either one or both incidents were false, and possibly deliberately so. On August 2, 1964, the destroyer USS Maddox, while performing a signals intelligence patrol as part of DESOTO operations, was pursued by three North Vietnamese Navy torpedo boats of the 135th Torpedo Squadron.[ Maddox fired three warning shots and the North Vietnamese boats then attacked with torpedoes and machine gun fire. Maddox expended over 280 3-inch and 5-inch shells in what was claimed to be a sea battle. One US aircraft was damaged, three North Vietnamese torpedo boats were allegedly damaged, and four North Vietnamese sailors were said to have been killed, with six more wounded. There were no U.S. casualties.Maddox "was unscathed except for a single bullet hole from a Vietnamese machine gun round"

Trireme

first specially built true warship; initiated by Phoenicians adopted by most navies between 540 and 525 BC; 120 ft long propelled by 170 rowers at three banks of superimposed oars.

Naval War College

founded by Stephen Luce in 1884, engaged in wargaming various scenarios from 1887 on, and in time became a laboratory for the development of war plans. Nearly all of the U.S. naval operations of the twentieth century were originally designed and gamed here

Second London Naval Conference (1935)

intended to limit the growth in naval armaments until its expiration in 1942. The absence of Japan (a very significant naval power) prevented agreement on a ceiling on the numbers of warships. The treaty did limit the maximum size of the signatories' ships, and the maximum calibre of the guns which they could carry. First of all, capital ships were restricted to a 35,000 long tons (35,562 t) standard displacement and 14-inch (356 mm) guns.

Battle of Leyte Gulf

is generally considered to be the largest naval battle of World War II and, by some criteria, possibly the largest naval battle in history. It was fought in waters near the Philippine islands of Leyte, Samar and Luzon, from 23-26 October 1944, between combined American and Australian forces and the Imperial Japanese Navy. On 20 October, United States troops invaded the island of Leyte as part of a strategy aimed at isolating Japan from the countries it had occupied in Southeast Asia, and in particular looting the vast supply of oil on Leyte. It was the first battle in which Japanese aircraft carried out organized kamikaze attacks.

Elephant

land power

guerre d'escadre

large warships designed to fight fleet engagements against fleets of a similar size

Ramses III

last powerful pharaoh , a great military commander who had to fight back the attack by the sea people in 1176, but drained the treasury doing so. This caused the government workers to revolt, causing the world's first labor strike

Port Arthur (1904-1905)

marked the commencement of the Russo-Japanese War. It began with a surprise night attack by a squadron of Japanese destroyers on the Russian fleet anchored in, Manchuria, and continued with an engagement of major surface combatants the following morning; further skirmishing would continue until May 1904. The battle itself ended inconclusively, though the war itself ended in a decisive Japanese victory.

U-Boats

military submarines operated by Germany, particularly in the First and Second World Wars. Although at times they were efficient fleet weapons against enemy naval warships, they were most effectively used in an economic warfare role (commerce raiding), enforcing a naval blockade against enemy shipping. The primary targets of the campaigns in both wars were the merchant convoys bringing supplies from Canada, the British Empire, and the United States to the United Kingdom and (during the Second World War) to the Soviet Union and the Allied territories in the Mediterranean.

line abreast tactics

naval ramming formation, where ships sailed side by side. Used by French and English Navy's between 1512 and 1546. Used by Spanish and Portugese Navy's to board in close quarter combat. Used by Austrian Admiral Von Tegethoff to defeat Italians at Lissa in Seven Weeks War 1866.

Tet Offensive

one of the largest military campaigns of the Vietnam War, launched on January 30, 1968, by forces of the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese People's Army of Vietnam against the forces of the South Vietnamese Army of the Republic of Vietnam, the United States, and their allies. It was a campaign of surprise attacks against military and civilian command and control centers throughout South Vietnam. The North Vietnamese launched a wave of attacks in the late night hours of 30 January in the I and II Corps Tactical Zones of South Vietnam. The offensive was countrywide and well coordinated, eventually more than 80,000 North Vietnamese troops striking more than 100 towns and cities, including 36 of 44 provincial capitals, five of the six autonomous cities, 72 of 245 district towns, and the southern capital.[12] The offensive was the largest military operation conducted by either side up to that point in the war. Although the offensive was a military defeat for North Vietnam, it had a profound effect on the US government and shocked the US public, which had been led to believe by its political and military leaders that the North Vietnamese were being defeated and incapable of launching such an ambitious military operation, whereupon the U.S. public support for the war declined and the U.S. sought negotiations to end the war.

Impressment

refers to the act of taking men into a military or naval force by compulsion, with or without notice. Navies of several nations used forced recruitment by various means. The large size of the British Royal Navy in the Age of Sail meant this was most commonly associated with Britain. It was used by the Royal Navy in wartime, beginning in 1664 and during the 18th and early 19th centuries as a means of crewing warships.

Whale

sea power

John D. Long

served as the Secretary of the Navy from 1897 to 1902, a period that included the primarily naval Spanish-American War. helped secure the position of Assistant Secretary for Theodore Roosevelt, a brash and aggressive New Yorker. He and Roosevelt did not get along: in addition to personality differences, Roosevelt pushed a view to aggressively modernize and expand the Navy against the elder statesmen's more studied and conservative approach. He preferred to expand the Navy gradually.

Carronade

short and light maritime cannon. It was used from the 1770s to the 1850s. Its main function was to serve as a powerful, short-range, anti-ship and anti-crew weapon. initially considered very successful, but they eventually disappeared as rifled naval artillery changed the shape of the shell and led to fewer and fewer close-range engagements.

Xerxes

son of Darius; became Persian king. He vowed revenge on the Athenians. He invaded Greece with 180,000 troops in 480 B.C. eventually defeated by the Greeks.

Persian Gulf confrontation (1987-1988)

the American military protection of Kuwaiti-owned tankers from Iranian attacks in 1987 and 1988, three years into the Tanker War phase of the Iran-Iraq War.[1] It was the largest naval convoy operation since World War II. The U.S. Navy warships that escorted the tankers, part of U.S. Naval Forces Central Command, were the operations' most visible part, but U.S. Air Force AWACS radar planes provided surveillance and U.S. Army special-operations helicopters hunted for possible attackers.Other U.S. Navy vessels participated in Operation Earnest Will. They were then under the command of the U.S. Navy's Seventh Fleet which had primary responsibility for combat operations in the Persian Gulf region. The numerous ships used in Operation Earnest Will mostly consisted of Battleship Battle Groups, Carrier Battle Groups, Surface Action Groups and ships from the Pacific's Third and Seventh Fleets and the Mediterranean-based Sixth Fleet. They generally operated in and near the Gulf for parts of their normal six-month deployments. This was the first tactical operation of the United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) that involved Navy SEALs, Special Boat Units, and 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne) ("Nightstalkers") aviators all working together.

HMS Dreadnought

the United Kingdom's first nuclear-powered submarine, built by Vickers Armstrongs at Barrow-in-Furness. Launched by Queen Elizabeth II on Trafalgar Day 1960 and commissioned into service with the Royal Navy in April 1963, she continued in service until 1980. The submarine was powered by a S5W reactor, a design made available as a direct result of the 1958 US-UK Mutual Defence Agreement.

Great White Fleet

the United States Navy battle fleet that completed a circumnavigation of the globe from December 16, 1907, to February 22, 1909, by order of United States President Theodore Roosevelt. It consisted of 16 battleships divided into two squadrons, along with various escorts. Roosevelt sought to demonstrate growing American military power and blue-water navy capability. Hoping to enforce treaties and protect overseas holdings, the United States Congress appropriated funds to build American sea power. Beginning with just 90 small ships, over one-third of them wooden, the navy quickly grew to include new modern steel fighting vessels. The hulls of these ships were painted a stark white

Operation Market Time

the United States Navy's effort to stop troops and supplies from flowing by sea from North Vietnam to South Vietnam during the Vietnam War. A brown water Navy/Coast Guard operation during the Vietnam War. It was an effort to blockade and protect the South Vietnamese coast line. The US patrol forces were supposed to stop the NVA night runs into S.Vietnam to supply the VC and NVA there. operated day and night, fair weather and foul, for eight and a half years, succeeded in denying the North Vietnamese a means of delivering tons of war materials into South Vietnam by sea.

Tactics

the actual means used to gain an objective set out by a strategy

Essex-class carriers

the backbone of the U.S. Navy's combat strength during World War II from mid-1943 on. Designed to carry a larger air group, and unencumbered by the latest in a succession of pre-war naval treaty limits, this kind of ship was over sixty feet longer, nearly ten feet wider in beam, and more than a third heavier. A longer, wider flight deck and a deck-edge elevator (which had proven successful in the one-of-a-kind USS Wasp (CV-7)) facilitated more efficient aviation operations, enhancing the ship's offensive and defensive air power.

material strategy

the belief that weapons determine strategy. technology transformed warships so rapidly that navies had to keep pace by constant discussion, experimentation, and changes in weapons/ship design/training. Britain was forced to alter and replace the ships that had achieved British naval supremacy, while countries like France, Russia, and the U.S. neglected to keep up instead focusing on the growth of the Army. Newer nations like Germany, Italy, and Japan started navies from scratch, their construction based on the newest innovations

HF/DF

the common name for a type of radio direction finder introduced in World War II. refers to a radio band that can efficiently communicate over long distances; for example, between U-boats and their land-based headquarters. was primarily used to catch enemy radios while they transmitted, although it was also used to locate friendly aircraft as a navigation aid. The basic technique remains in use to this day as one of the fundamental disciplines of signals intelligence, although typically incorporated into a larger suite of radio systems and radars instead of being a stand-alone system.

Byzantine Empire

the continuation of the Roman Empire in the East during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinople. Their navy protected overseas trade and colonies and repelled attacks from the Aegean. Developed the 2 banked dromon and the napalm-like Greek Fire

Battle of Actium

the decisive confrontation of the Final War of the Roman Republic, a naval engagement between Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra on 2 September 31 BC, on the Ionian Sea in the Roman province of Epirus Vetus in Greece. Octavian's fleet was commanded by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, while Antony's fleet was supported by the power of Queen Cleopatra of Ptolemaic Egypt. Octavian's victory enabled him to consolidate his power over Rome and its dominions.

Nemesis

the first British ocean-going iron warship. Launched in 1839, she was used to great effect in the First Opium War under Captain William Hutcheon Hall. The Chinese referred to her as the "devil ship" A British officer wrote that the outbreak of the First Opium War "was considered an extremely favourable opportunity for testing the advantages or otherwise of iron steam-vessels."

Benjamin Stoddert

the first Secretary of the Navy, found himself in the Quasi-War. he concluded that the best way to defeat the French campaign against American shipping was by offensive operations in the Caribbean, where most of the French cruisers were based. he adopted a policy of going to the source of the enemy's strength. American successes during the conflict resulted from a combination of Stoddert's administrative skill in deploying his limited forces and the initiative of his seagoing officers. under his leadership, the reestablished United States Navy acquitted itself well and achieved its goal of stopping the depredations of French ships against American commerce. Oversaw the creation of the first navy yards and the building of 74's

automobile torpedo

the first self-propelled torpedo produced in quantity by the United States Navy, which referred to it as the Howell Mark I torpedo. It was conceived by Lieutenant Commander John A. Howell, United States Navy, in 1870, using a 60 kg (130 lb) flywheel spun at a very high speed (10000 to 12000 rpm) to store energy and drive propellers.Because it had no complicated engine and fuel system, the Howell was much cheaper and easier to build than its main competitor, the Whitehead. In addition, unlike the Whitehead, the Howell was wakeless, not giving away the position of the firing vessel.

Continental System

the foreign policy of Napoleon I of France in his struggle against Great Britain during the Napoleonic Wars. As a response to the naval blockade of the French coasts enacted by the British government on 16 May 1806, Napoleon brought into effect a large-scale embargo against British trade. British control of the oceans led to replacement trade with North and South America, as well as large scale smuggling in Europe. The loss of Britain as a trading partner also hit the economies of France and its allies. Angry governments gained an incentive to ignore the Continental System, which led to the weakening of Napoleon's coalition.

Battle of the Yalu (1894)

the largest naval engagement of the First Sino-Japanese War, and took place on 17 September 1894, the day after the Japanese victory at the land Battle of Pyongyang. The Japanese maneuvered in close line-ahead with concentrated power to split the ragged Chinese formation and sink 5 cruisers. This enabled the Japanese army landing at Port Arthur, leading to their overland march into Manchuria forcing the Chinese submission

James V. Forrestal

the last Cabinet-level United States Secretary of the Navy and the first United States Secretary of Defense. he was a supporter of naval battle groups centered on aircraft carriers.

Two-power standard (1889)

the leading component of the the Naval Defence Act 1889, which was instituted on May 31, 1889, to increase the United Kingdom's naval strength. called for the Royal Navy to be as strong as the world's next two largest navies combined (at that point, France and Russia) by maintaining a number of battleships at least equal to their combined strength. That led to a new ship building programme, which authorised ten new battleships, 38 cruisers, and additional vessels.

Wonsan

the longest naval blockade in modern history, lasting 861 days. UN naval forces, primarily from the United States, successfully kept the strategically important city from being used by the North Korean Navy.The blockade also served to divert communist troops from the front line. North Korean resistance used artillery to oppose the American fleet, although this was mostly ineffective, and the city was heavily damaged by UN naval aircraft and warships

Grand Fleet

the main fleet of the British Royal Navy during the First World War. formed in August 1914 from the First Fleet and elements of the Second Fleet of the Home Fleets and it included 35-40 state-of-the-art capital ships. It was initially commanded by Admiral Sir John Jellicoe. He was succeeded by Admiral Sir David Beatty in 1916. The Grand Fleet was based first on Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands and later at Rosyth on the Firth of Forth and took part in the biggest fleet action during the war - the Battle of Jutland.

Task Force 58

the main striking force of the United States Navy in the Pacific War from January 1944 through the end of the war in August 1945. The task force was made up of several separate task groups, each typically built around three to four aircraft carriers and their supporting vessels. The support vessels were screening destroyers, cruisers, and the newly built fast battleships. With the arrival of the fleet carriers the primary striking power of the navy was no longer in its battleship force, but with the aircraft that could be brought to battle by the carriers.

Galley

the most maneuverable vessel for fighting at sea during antiquity, powered by oars but equipped with an auxiliary mast and square sail. originated among the seafaring civilizations around the Mediterranean Sea in the early first millennium BC and remained in use in various forms until the early 19th century in warfare, trade and piracy. They were the warships used by the early Mediterranean naval powers, including the Greeks, Phoenicians and Romans.

JN-25 code

the name given by codebreakers to the chief, and most secure, command and control communications scheme used by the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) during World War II. It was an enciphered code, producing five-numeral groups for transmission. It was significantly changed on 1 December 1940, and again on 4 December 1941,[9] just before the attack on Pearl Harbor. It was the 1941 edition that was sufficiently broken by late May 1942 to provide the critical forewarning of the Japanese attack on Midway.

Esek Hopkins

the only Commander in Chief of the Continental Navy during the American Revolutionary War. He was also an accomplished merchant captain and privateer. given orders to protect the coast, but instead sails to the Bahamas to raid British trading; censured and dismissed from the service. guerre de course vs. guerre d'escadre

Kato Tomosaburo

the outstanding statesmen of the Japanese Navy. Chief of Staff of the Combined Fleets, successfully coordinated Japanese naval affairs at the Washington Naval Conference (1922) leading to his selection as prime minister of Japan in summer of 1922. Worked with Anglo-American factions to agree on limits on fleet size.

Strategy

the overall campaign plan, which may involve complex operational patterns, activity, and decision-making that lead to tactical execution. a plan for military operations and movements during a war or battle

Dreadnought

the predominant type of battleship in the early 20th century. The first of its kind, the Royal Navy's ___________, made such a strong impression on people's minds when launched in 1906 that similar battleships built subsequently were referred to generically as "____________", and earlier battleships became known as "pre-__________________". ___________________ design had two revolutionary features: an "all-big-gun" armament scheme, with more heavy-calibre guns than previous ships, and steam turbine propulsion. As ____________________ became a symbol of national power, the arrival of these new warships was a crucial catalyst in the intensifying naval arms race between the United Kingdom and Germany. With the launch of a single ship, ___________________, the scales of naval power were reset overnight.

First Air Fleet

the primary carrier fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN), a grouping of naval aircraft and aircraft carriers that at the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor, was the world's largest aircraft carrier fleet. With the Kidō Butai as its primary carrier battle group, the IJN would reign supreme for the first six months of America's entry to World War II. Represented the Japanese focus on air power and outranging their opponent.

Dead reckoning

the process of calculating one's current position by using a previously determined position, or fix, and advancing that position based upon known or estimated speeds over elapsed time and course. the primary method of determining longitude available to mariners such as Christopher Columbus and John Cabot on their trans-Atlantic voyages. Tools such as the Traverse board were developed to enable even illiterate crew members to collect the data needed

"High-low" mix

the theories of John Boyd, the "high-low mix" in which a large number of less expensive aircraft, coupled with a small number of extremely capable "silver bullet" aircraft, had the effect of a much larger force. Boyd's concept of quick action is based on the repeated application of the Boyd loop, consisting of the steps Observe: make use of the best sensors and other intelligence available Orient: put the new observations into a context with the old Decide: select the next action based on the combined observation and local knowledge Act: carry out the selected action, ideally while the opponent is still observing your last action.

Hosho

the world's first commissioned ship that was designed and built as an aircraft carrier, and the first aircraft carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN). Commissioned in 1922, the ship was used for testing carrier aircraft operations equipment, techniques, such as take-offs and landings, and carrier aircraft operational methods and tactics. The ship provided valuable lessons and experience for the IJN in early carrier air operations.

USS Nautilus

the world's first operational nuclear-powered submarine. The vessel was the first submarine to complete a submerged transit of the North Pole on 3 August 1958. It was authorized in 1951 and launched in 1954. Because her nuclear propulsion allowed her to remain submerged far longer than diesel-electric submarines, she broke many records in her first years of operation, and traveled to locations previously beyond the limits of submarines. In operation, she revealed a number of limitations in her design and construction. This information was used to improve subsequent submarines.

Slave Trade

took place across the Atlantic Ocean from the 15th through 19th centuries. The vast majority of those who were enslaved and transported to the New World, mainly on the triangular trade route and its Middle Passage, were West Africans from the central and western parts of the continent. The South Atlantic and Caribbean economic system centered on producing commodity crops, making goods and clothing to sell in Europe, and increasing the numbers of African slaves brought to the New World. This was crucial to those western European countries which, in the late 17th and 18th centuries, were vying with each other to create overseas empires

Taranto

took place on the night of 11-12 November 1940 during the Second World War between British naval forces, under Admiral Andrew Cunningham, and Italian naval forces, under Admiral Inigo Campioni. The Royal Navy launched the first all-aircraft ship-to-ship naval attack in history, employing a small number of obsolescent Fairey Swordfish biplane torpedo bombers from the aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious (R87) in the Mediterranean Sea. The attack struck the battle fleet of the Regia Marina at anchor in the harbour using aerial torpedoes despite the shallow depth of the water. The devastation wrought by the British carrier-launched aircraft on the large Italian warships was the beginning of the ascendancy of naval aviation over the big guns of battleships.

Cuban Missile Crisis

was a 13-day (October 16-28, 1962) confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union concerning American ballistic missile deployment in Italy and Turkey with consequent Soviet ballistic missile deployment in Cuba. Along with being televised worldwide, it was the closest the Cold War came to escalating into a full-scale nuclear war. In response to the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion of 1961, and the presence of American Jupiter ballistic missiles in Italy and Turkey, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev decided to agree to Cuba's request to place nuclear missiles in Cuba to deter future harassment of Cuba. An agreement was reached during a secret meeting between Khrushchev and Fidel Castro in July 1962 and construction of a number of missile launch facilities started later that summer.

Polaris

was a two-stage solid-fueled nuclear-armed submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) built during the Cold War by Lockheed Corporation for the United States Navy. It was designed to be used for second strike countervalue (CEP not good enough for first strike counterforce) as part of the Navy's contribution to the United States arsenal of nuclear weapons, replacing the Regulus cruise missile. Known as a Fleet Ballistic Missile (FBM), was first launched from the Cape Canaveral, Florida, missile test base on January 7, 1960.

Operation Rolling Thunder

was the title of a gradual and sustained U.S. 2nd Air Division (later Seventh Air Force), U.S. Navy, and Republic of Vietnam Air Force (VNAF) aerial bombardment campaign conducted against the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) from 2 March 1965 until 1 November 1968, during the Vietnam War. This tactical movement relentlessly bombed Viet Cong-occupied land, decimating the landscape of hundreds of miles of land. However, the intricate and enormously large network of tunnels the guerrilla soldiers had built were largely unharmed, and it failed to stop the Viet Cong from continuing to press on.