NBB 302 Exam 2
Saccadic suppression
When you make a saccadic eye movement your visual system shuts down, so you can't see during saccades; aka we process info only during fixations; avoids sensation of world moving; useful because if didn't happen, would be like the whole world is jumping to the side
Prefrontal cortex
Working memory (executive area) is predominately in the ___
Indirect
___ pathway of the basal ganglia: striatum to external segment of the globus pallidus which goes to both the subthalamic nucleus and the output nuclei, then goes from the output nuclei to the thalamus; three inhibitions so actually inhibits the thalamus
Anterior
___ pole lesions produce anterograde amnesia
Temporal
___ pole lesions produce severe retrograde amnesia (not anterograde); long term memory stored at least in part here
Localizationist
___ view of emotions: the amygdala is involved in fear (but also in other things), the insular cortex is involved in disgust (true but also does other things), the anterior cingulate gyrus is involved in sadness (true but the area probably isn't that large), the orbitofrontal cortex is involved in anger (part of it is activated but much, much smaller area); oversimplified
Posterior parietal
_____ cortex interconnected with the premotor cortex is important for sensory guided actions; inputs sent up to the premotor cortex
Selective attention
Ability to focus awareness on one stimulus, thought, or action while ignoring other irrelevant stimuli, thoughts, or actions; related to sensory stimulus as well as what you're thinking about
Hippocampus
Circuitry is very structured and well understood; receives vast amount of info from many areas of cortex; processes that info and sends outputs back to the cortex areas it receives info from; medial temporal lobe
Consolidation
Memory ___: initial rapid phase mediated by hippocampus; slower permanent phase involves neocortex; memories stored in cortex: cortical stimulation; temporal pole lesions lead to severe retrograde amnesia because the temporal lobe is, in part, the home for long-term memory
Hypokinetic
Reduction in movement; basal ganglia diseases: Parkinson's disease; lack of movement (akinesia), slow movements, and tremors; ex. Sit like a statue or resting tremors (pill rolling); logical hypothesis: BG initiates movement and speeds up movements
Bottom-up
Reflexive attention; ex. A loud bang or quick movement in periphery will force focus
Consolidation
Stabilize memory (months to years)
Valence
Goodness and badness of an emotion; pleasant or unpleasant; a dimension of emotion
Brainstem
The circuitry of eye movements is in the ___; a lot of parts here involved
Divided (limited) attention
The cocktail party effect is an example of ____; stimuli are not being filtered out completely, still coming in just not salient; if interesting enough can break through (like hearing your name); filtering out doesn't destroy the stimuli; unattended info isn't completely prevented from getting to higher-processing areas; someone mentioned your name and you can switch attention; not just early selection; unattended info is attenuated
Attention
The concentration of consciousness (on one thing at a time)
Neocortex
The entire ___ projects to the striatum in the basal ganglia
Basal ganglia
The five nuclei of the ___: subthalamic nucleus, caudate nucleus, substantia nigra, globus pallidus, and putamen
Extrapyramidal tracts
The four three descending pathways to the spinal cord aside from the corticospinal tract; name is oversimplified but used clinically
Basal ganglia
The hallmark of ___ disease is involuntary movements and behaviors; hypokinetic, hyperkinetic, and additional disorders
Dopaminergic
The substantia nigra pars compacta projects ___ projections to the striatum; this excites the direct path and inhibits the indirect path, so it disinhibits the thalamus vía both paths
Hippocampus
The ___ plays an important role in spatial memory and spatial learning
Super-recognizers
1-2% of people are ___; can recognize the adult celebrity from childhood pictures and things like that
Fear conditioning
A lot of info going into the amygdala in terms of the conditioned stimulus; also US getting into the amygdala; amygdala integrates info from many sources; neural activity changes during ___
Pop vector hypothesis
A neuron has a preferred direction and it's activity drips as a broad directional tuning curve; neuron fires for a set of directions, less as you move away, and none for the opposite direction; can calculate preferred direction for neurons; activity of each neuron described as a vector; scaled by firing rate; add together vectors and ____ (part of word) can predict direction of movement through the neuron activity; 2D or 3D movements; found using another center-out task
Diverse selectivity
A neuron in one place will fire for objects and a neuron in another place will fire for body parts, faces, etc
Neglect
A patient with ___ is asked to think about and describe buildings in a piazza they know from a specific vantage point; didn't describe the left buildings but could describe the ones on the right; had him think about facing the buildings from the other direction and he left off the buildings on the left again; left off different sets of buildings based on the direction he imagined; not just sensory attention or visual deficit because can include imagination and nor a memory deficit either because he can get the whole image if he rotates his mental direction
Spatial neglect
A patient with ___ will describe a clock as round with twelve digits but will only draw half of it when copying a drawing; can't overcome it despite understanding the shape; can be object- centered
Ventral tegmental area
A portion of the midbrain that contains dopaminergic neurons along side the pars compacta
Premotor cortex
A premotor area; inputs and outputs to parietal; sensory guidance of movement; ex. Picking up cup
Supplementary motor area
A premotor area; internally guided movements and movement sequences; ex. Piano playing
Superior temporal sulcus, inferotemporal gyrus
A single cell recording study in the ___ (part of word) showed that there are at least two face regions in the monkey: the ___ and the ___ (simular to the fusiform face area in humans); the first five cells responded to facades and the last five didn't
Superior temporal sulcus
A single neuron recording in the monkey ____; showed recordings for faces, bodies, fruits, gadgets, hands, and scrambled patterns; can see how preferentially neurons respond for faces; 97% of neurons showed strong preference for faces; evidence this area responds to faces
Perception changes
A theory for ____: object recognition and face recognition are competing; might have a best of neural activity in one area and then the activity switches to the other area as your brain switches ___ (part of the word)
Retrieval
Accessing stored info
Facilitates, inhibits
Activation of the direct pathway of the BG ___ movement; activation of the indirect pathway of the BG ___ movement
Basal ganglia
Additional disorders related to the ___: OCD and Tourette's syndrome; symptoms of involuntary behaviors; ___ (same word) is more than just movements
Deep brain stimulation
After years PD stops responding well to L-Dopa and the treatment can start to cause dyskinesias (involuntary movement); started making lesions in the internal segment of the globus pallidus to reduce excessive inhibition of the thalamus but was permanent, irreversible, and risky; used ___ to inhibit instead of lesions because safer and reversible; wherever stimulation is occurring, either inhibits area or reduces the abnormal output from the BG; mechanisms of it are uncertain; works right away on the table and leads to dramatic change
Memory
All ___ involves cellular and circuitry changes
Motor commands
All five of the descending pathways that project to the spinal cord send ___ is various types into the spine to contribute to movement
1, 5, 6, 2, 4, 3
All kinds of highly processed info from the ____ funnels into the ___ and/or the ___ which projects to the ___ and goes to the ___; after the ___ processes info it sends outputs to the areas it receives the info from—important for reconsolidation; (put in order) 1. Association cortex 2. Entorhinal cortex 3. Hippocampus 4. Hippocampus proper 5. Perihipocampal cortex 6. Perirhinal cortex
Final common pathway
Alpha motor neurons are considered the ____ because all motor commands have to go through here since these are the only ones high project to fibers in the muscles
Pulvinar
Also plays an importer role in attention; part of the thalamus; can get hemi spatial neglect from lesions here as well
Explicit
Amygdala and ___ fear learning; pattern of activation seen in instructed fear paradigm; may receive shock after blue; fMRI test; blue light and shock; correlation in increase in blood flow in the amygdala and the increase in galvanic skin response
Supplementary motor area
Another purpose for this area is sequences of movements; trained person to make a sequences of finger movements and they had to practice; when did sequences of finger movements had activation of this area and the SMC; activate the SMC during an easy task like squeezing a spring; this area activated when thinking about performing complex sequences but the SMC wasn't; activated by performance or mental rehearsal of a sequence of movements; important in performing these sequences
Action
Areas important for planning, controlling, and executing ___: basal ganglia, cerebellum, inferior parietal cortex, posterior parietal cortex, primary sensory cortex, primary motor cortex, premotor cortex, supplementary motor area, frontal eye fields (and other eye fields), and Broca's area
Corticospinal tract
Arises mainly through the motor cortex, goes between the basal ganglia and thalamus, through the midbrain of the brainstem, 90% switch sides at the column medulla, and innervate neurons in the spinal cord; called the pyramidal tract because looks like pyramids where crossing the medulla
Lateral geniculate nucleus
Attend to left or right visual field while looking in the center of the image; arrow cue tells which way to look, discrimination task in that hemifield; done in humans; even in the ___ there was an enhancement of response to stimuli being attended to (same with other visual cortical areas, not just V1); modulation of responsiveness with attention; provides evidence for early selection: either an enhancement of stimuli attended to or a diminishment if no attention to stimuli is given, in none of the cases given in support of early selection was there no response to the unattended stimuli—still getting responsiveness just diminished, early slevtionbdiednt completely obliterate unattended inputs
Dichotic listening
Attention and sensory processing using a ___ test: project different sequences of sentences to left and right ear; subject to attend to left ear and immediately repeat the words heard; couldn't report what came in the right ear after the test; limited attentive processing powers (limited capacity); can't pay attention to both at the same time if the stimuli are complex
Thoughts, actions
Attention isn't simple and it involves a lot of parts and areas; ex. Top-down and bottom-up attention are both involved; also modulators by ___ and ___ as well as sensory processing, so not just stimuli and sensory info
Overt attention
Attention that involves looking directly at the attended object
Covert attention
Attention that involves putting your attention on something you're not looking at
Short-term memory (working)
Attention: info -> ___; only a small subset of info gets in from sensory if you pay attention to it; with regreses or if emotionally salient or provocative then can go to the long term storage; limited capacity: 7 +/- 2 words, digits, letters, etc; seconds to minutes; info can be lost due to decay or interference; if you repeat them you remember longer but distractions cause the info to fade (interference); some evidence that info can bypass this step
Reward-based
BG plays a role in ___ learning
Bilateral
Balint's syndromes needs ___ parieto-occipital lesions;
Parkinson's disease
Basal ganglia dysfunction in ___: DA neurons die so less excitation and more inhibition; hyper inhibition of the thalamus; loses activity in the direct path; essentially excessive inhibition
Huntington's disease
Basal ganglia dysfunction in ___: preferential loss of neurons in indirect path; less inhibition then more inhibition then less inhibition; so can produce more movements; essentially reduced inhibition
Neurogenesis
Believed it didn't exist in adults until the 90's; happens in the hippocampus and the olfactory bulb in adults; difficult learning tasks allow the survival of neurons—if mice do difficult task then more neurons would survive and be integrated into the hippocampal circuitry; if an easy task, neurons would be born and then would die in a few weeks; if intermediate task, a reduced amount of neurons would survive
Kluver-Bucy syndrome
Bilateral amygdala lesions in monkeys; lack of fear and fear learning (ex. Even if bitten, still approach snake); couldn't do fear conditioning on them; compelled to put self in danger
Visual system
Early stages of the ____: neurons with selective response properties located in areas separated in different parts of the brain
Implicit
Bilateral amygdala lesions lead to impaired __ fear learning; patient SP had bilateral amygdala damage; show subjects blue square and patients told when see blue square might get a shock; normal patients show increase in galvanic skin response when blue square appears—successful fear conditioning; bigger increase in skin response when shocked; patient SP showed no increase in the galvanic skin response in response to the blue light, couldn't fear condition her (aware but didn't show), did show response when shocked; her explicit knowledge was intact, se expected the shock, but no CR; hippocampus damaged patients show opposite effect, CR of galvanic skin response increase but don't remember conditioning; double dissociation
Temporal cortex
Binocular rivalry: able to project an image of a face to one eye of a monkey and a starburst image to the other eye; project the different pictures simultaneously to each eye; monkeys trained to press the right key when saw a face; when perceiving a face, a burst of activity in the ___ (a face representation area) happened right before the money pressed the key to say he saw the face; the ___ (same word) cell fires only when it perceived a face
Reflexive attention
Bottom-up; important for survival; if sound/visual input is salient enough, you will switch your focus of attention to that peripheral stimulus; superior colliculus is very important for this since the visual and auditory world is mapped onto it; if a sudden movement/sound, a specific area (same part for auditory and visual) will respond in the superior colliculus
Encoding
Brain is taking in and sorting sensory info; showed subjects 360 words while doing an fMRI scan; sometime later showed 720 words with half new and half from old list; outside scanner judged if they had seen the words before and rated how sure they were; activation in temporal lobe not found (exposure to words?); increase in blood flow when ___ (part of word) words and correctly remembered and were sure they'd been exposed to the word; areas active when successfully ___ (same word) memories; MTL, posterior hippocampus, frontal cortex, and parietal cortex areas activated; hippocampus and cortex active during __ (same word) of new memories (correctly remembered items)
Alzheimer's disease
Build up of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles; extent of atrophy in MTL correlated with episodic memory deficits; atrophy magnitude correlated with severity of the injury and episodic memory deficits
Balint's syndrome
Can identify a comb, can identify a spoon, but can't identify (only sees spoon) when the comb and spoon are held up at the same time even though both are in front of his face; Called simultanagnosia: patients can only see one item at a time; also have optic ataxia: objects mislocated in space so often mess up reaching tasks; have oculomotor apraxia: difficult making voluntary scalded
Intention tremor
Can move fairly well to a certain point; shake worse at the terminus point; only during movements
Associative agnosia
Can perceive objects; can integrate into a whole; can't recognize the objects; patients with the other two couldn't color the separate objects in the picture but patients with this can; aka can see what's happening and discriminate against different objects but can't recognize or name them; JBR: a patient with this had to name either inanimate or animate objects, 90% correct on inanimate objects and 6% correct on animate objects, specialized areas for animate and inanimate objects
Decoding
Can we infer what a person is seeing or imagining from BOLD signal?; mind reading; if you put someone in a fMRI scanner and show pictures but you don't know what you're showing them, can you tell what they're seeing based on blood flow?; you can go some extent
Integrative agnosia
Can't integrate parts into a coherent whole; problems naming objects; draw a picture of two squares and a circle in lines one of order, normally would draw two squares and a circle (a good copy but in segments); only perceive the lines, not the whole object; can't integrate the parts so it's hard to name the object
Dysdiadochokinesia
Can't make rapid, alternating movements
Prosopagnosia (face blindness)
Can't recognize faces; 1/50 people have it; can be congenital but often through lesions; May not realize they're different than others; may not recognize self in mirror even if doing something like shaving; ex video: woman can photograph her mother but not tell it's her, can't pick out mother from the photos she just took, has to pick out with clothes, can't recognize self
Nondeclarative memory
Cant be stated aloud; implicit memory for: procedural memory (ex. Riding a bike), priming, conditioning, habituation, and sensitization; procedural not in MTL
Face
Causal study to prove a face area: monkeys trained to discriminate flowers and faces; trained to discriminate you pressing keys; microstimulation in the face area; shifted the perception in the ___ direction and more likely to say this over the other; demonstrated that that part of the inferior temporal cortex was a face area; microstimulation > more ___ responses
Balint's syndrome
Caused by two separate strokes in the same area; bilateral damage to posterior parietal and lateral occipital cortex; rare because needs to separate strokes in the exact same place
Vestibulocerebellum
Cerebellum; balance and eye movements; plays a significant role in the vestibular ocular reflex (keeps eyes on target)
Spinocerebellum
Cerebellum; motor execution; getting things right; most affected by alcohol; controls proprioception and balance
Neocerebellum
Cerebellum; planning of movement; higher level aspects
Antagonist pairs
Control movements together; ex. Extension vs flexión; ex. Bicep vs tricep
Supplementary motor area
Control of using both hands together to achieve a task; put piece of fruit in plexiglass with hole in middle; monkey reaches in, pokes food with one hand, and catches it with the second hand; easy for normal monkeys; if unilateral lesion of this area then can't do task; necessary for using two hands together for a task (bimanual hand movements)
Posterio-parietal, temporal-parietal, frontal eye field, and supplementary eye field
Cortical areas for attention
Saccades
Cortical pathway for ___: superior colliculus, mesencephalic and pontine reticular formations, substantia nigra para reticula, caudate nucleus, frontal eye fields, supplementary eye fields, and the posterior parietal cortex/parietal eye field
Inhibiting
Could make a case for the BG ___ movement; subthalamic nucleus lesions lead to involuntary movements
Motor neurons
Cranial nerve nuclei in the brainstem also have ___ to control head, neck, and face movement
Central pattern generators
Cut spinal cord and paralyze cat; put cat on treadmill and the treadmill movements spark motion in limbs (activated sensory receptions in lower legs) so cat can walk even though not receiving any descending motor commands from supraspinal structures; complex circuits in spinal cord that allow for rhythmic alternating movements of the hindlimbs even without motor commands; permit alternating limb movements without supraspinal commands; circuitry exists in spine for locomotion; limb descending commands engage circuitry, doesn't need to send detailed commands from the brain; hierarchical: descending commands just turn on ___ (same word); stretch reflex comes from intact joints and muscles
Huntington's disease
Degeneration of striatum and cerebral cortex; hereditary; autosomal dominant; dementia can develop later along; chorea = a type of involuntary movements
Parkinson's disease
Degeneration of the substantia nigra pars compacta; loss of dopamine; hypokinetic and bradykinesia (slowness of movement); early in the disease treated with L-Dopa which can cross the blood brain barrier and be converted to dopamine
Episodic
Delayed nonmatch-to-sample task; cover food with cover, monkey takes off cover and grabs food (done fast and excellent memory), delay period, switch where the food is stored; lesioned different medial temporal lobe areas (hippocampus, amygdala, entorhinal cortex, perirhinal cortex, and parahippocampal cortex) without damaging the overlying cortex by using suction; amygdala is not critical for __ memory: fear memory and emotion; lesions to the hippocampus proper or the perirhinal cortex and perihippocampal cortex both cause impairments to ___ (same word) memory and in performance in the delay task; done with different delays between when first well is baited and when have to do delayed non-match; if no damage to any regions then performance drops off if delay of 600!seconds but before then do quite well; if you only damage the hippocampus then decrement in performance; if damage cortex alone and leave hippocampus intact then also get deferments in performance; if damage both the hippocampus and the cortex then performance is much worse; hippocampus damage in monkeys causes delay-dependent recognition memory impairment (short-term memory is okay)
Early selection
Dichotic listening study; info sent in both ears but attend to one; if attend to auditory in one ear, a bigger event-related potential amplitude will result than if not attending; supports the ____ model; some ERPs in brainstem but some in cortical areas
Spinal cord
Each of the four motor areas (or four motor nuclei in the brainstem: red nucleus, superior colliculus, vestibular nucleus, and reticular formation) send descending projections into the ___
Apperceptive agnosia
Early level perceptual deficit; can't perceive objects even though they see it; can't distinguish shapes; confused by shadows; can't copy images; unusual views task: normally can tell cat from either view (front or back) but these patients can't recognize cat from a different angle
Oculomotor apraxia
Difficultly making voluntary saccades; sometimes congenital
Simultanagnosia
Difficulty seeing multiple objects at once; ex. Three different conditions of two colored circles (no connected bars, bars attaching same color, and bars attaching the two different colors); ask "are there circles of two different colors?"; the different colored circles tied together with one bar is the only way the patients with this can see the circles are two different colors; ex. Old woman could navigate house of twenty five years with eyes closed but if opened eyes would use the lamp to navigate and would trip over the table because can't see the light and table at the same time
Patient SM
Doesn't recognize or feel fear; bilateral damage to the amygdala; draws to situations others wouldn't consider doing—compulsive; more than just a lack of fear, put herself in dangerous situations (ex. Trying to touch large snakes); genetic damage to amygdalae (lesions); often in dangerous situations and doesn't avoid them; in life-threatening situations at least four times; other emotions are normal
Transient global amnesia
Due to transient reduction of blood flow in the medial temporal lobe; anterograde and retrograde amnesia; severe amnesia as bad as Clive; only lasts for 24-48 hours; retrograde may be quite severe in this state
Stretch reflex
Every muscle has muscle spindles in it; spindles sense the length and stretch of muscles; monosynaptic (one synapse) and counters unexpected stretch; ex. Patellar tendon reflex; keeps you from falling or hurting yourself, balance and things; can tear tendons and such if reflex reminds too intensely
Primary motor cortex
Execution of movement; somatotopically organized; corticospinal tract synapses on interneurons and directly on motor neurons; lesions lead to hemiplegia (paralysis); constraint induced movement therapy
Declarative memory
Explicit memory for events (episodic) and facts (semantic)
Frontal eye fields
Eye movement control; saccadic we movements; can force saccades with electric stimulation
Cerebellum
Eyeblink conditioning in Rabbits; tone comes on and after delay an airpuff shoots air onto the cornea, forcing the bunny to blink; if do enough and have the same delay every time, will start to close eye just before air occurs; rabbit makes predictive eye blink; use prediction to make successive movements; conditioning paradigm/reflex response—not by learning; make lesion in ___ and removes eyeblink it makes it poorly timed so ineffective; not a motor disability because blink can still occur but a motor learning disability; ___ (same word) important for motor learning and timing of when you do things; if need two joints to do task then super uncoordinated in patients with deficits here
Holistically
Faces are processed ___; some aspect of the whole face that lets you know it's a face
Semantic memory
Factual knowledge; ex. Capital of Spain; often don't recall even of learning it
Object recognition
Failures in ___: apperceptive agnosia, integrative agnosia, and associative agnosia
Potentiated startle
Fear ____; mouse is shown light and no response; foot shock mouse jumps in startle response; loud noise alone and mouse jumps in startle response; if you pair light and foot shock then present light and get a jump and startle response (Pavlov); if YouTube in the light and sound will be an enhanced stimuli (because already paired with shock) so leads to a ___ (same word)
William James
First American psychologist
Fearful
Flashed happy or fearful face for 33 ms and then followed with a neural face for 167 ms; only perceive neutral face because the other was too fast; higher BOLD signal within the amygdala for the ___ face than the other; patients with amygdala damage can't identify untrustworthiness; can't identify facial cues we're normally good at
Procedural
HM's ___ memory intact; mirror drawing task; supposed to draw stars within lines and have to look through mirror to do it; must move pencil in opposite direction; hard to do but improved over time with practice; doesn't remember ever doing it; performance improved over three days (10 trials/day) despite the fact that he couldn't consciously remember the task on days two and three
Perception
Have to have a unified percept of a thing/object; humans are remarkable good at this; not divide-and-conquer (lines, shape, color, motion), but unified objects; flexible and robust, can recognize at any angle or vantage point; heavily interwoven with memory, the memory is tied with recognition
Vestibular ocular reflex
Head is often moving but eyes can still fixate; keeps eyes on target
Cell assembly
Hebb; Hebbian learning: neurons that fire together wire together; ___: when encoding new episodic memory, may be millions of neurons activated during the event, sent to hippocampus, LTP in hippocampus, hippocampus reactivates in cortex; consolidated in same network but in cortex; the internal representation of an object consists of the cortical cells that are activated by the stimulus; ___ (same word): group of simultaneously acting neurons; same neurons are involved in sensation and perception; all of these cells are reciprocally connected; internal representation of an object remains in short term memory as long as the ___ (same word) is active; if assembly active long enough, consolidation occurs, long term memory, neurons that fire together wire together, activating any cells in the ___ (same word) activates the memory; led to neural network model—likely mechanism to explain learning and memory; when events occur, a network of neurons (____ [same word]) are activated then activated and continuously reactivated and the connectivity/synaptic efficacy increases; if presynaptic neuron releases a neurotransmitter and a postsynaptic neuron releases an action potential then synaptic efficacy is stronger; how changes of synaptic efficacy of the brain could explain learning and memory
Covert attention
Helmholz; fixate at center of the board with an array of letters around the fixation point; before brief flash of light goes off, covert attend to part of the peripheral visual field; could remember the letters in the area of the ___; couldn't perceive outside of this area, not enough time
Faster, longer
Human subjects have joystick in center and have to move cursor to the lit up target; introduced unexpected 30 degree screen-cursor rotation transformation; had to adapt; used tDCS on the cerebellum and primary motor cortex; stimulation of the cerebellum increased excitability and led to ___ adaptation but stimulation of the primary motor cortex led to no change; when take off the rotated visual feedback, motor cortex stimulation retained the adapted response ____ while the cerebellar stimulation went back as fast as a sham; faster adaptation vs longer persisting learning (long-term retention)
Retrograde amnesia
Memories before event lost; worse for most recent memories before event: temporally-graded
Extinction
If two objects pass through the visual fields simultaneously, then the patient with balint's doesn't see the left side object because they're focusing on the right (even though they can see on the left of the object is shown alone); hard to allocate resources to the left, so the right side takes priority
Orbitofrontal cortex
Important for decision making and using emotional information to guide decisions; damage leads to poor decision making, don't learn from mistakes, and don't feel regret; Iowa gambling task: 4 decks of cards, 2 get small net gains, 2 get big losses; normal subjects learn to maximize rewards; somatic marker hypothesis: emotional info is needed to guide decision making (ex. Regret); ___ (same word) lesioned patients do poorly on the task and have a lot of big losses; ___ (same word) responds to changes in reward/punishments: lesion and single unit studies in monkeys, human fMRI (reward or punishment leads to increase in blood flow in diff parts of this area), and medial ___ (same word) blood flow correlated with amount of regret
Arousal
Intensity of the emotion; activation or deactivation; a dimension of emotion
Retrieve
Memorize 360 words and given a list of 720 to decide if seen before; fMRI when trying to ___ words (before was scanned during encoding); hippocampus only active (increase in blood flow) when correctly ___ the words and were confident had seen them; out of the four possible outcomes, the only condition in which the hippocampus was activated is with the correct ___ (part of word) of the words; event-related fMRI during memory ___ (part of word)
Subcallosal cingulate
In the ___ there's an increase in blood flow when the patient is depressed; when use successful treatment to reduce depression, decrease of activity in the area; sustained activity in this area for patients with treatment-resistant depression
Phonological loop
Includes Broca's area and Wernicke's area; almost saying things to self when doing tasks in head—subvocally saying without actually saying; left hemisphere lesions led to reduced auditory-verbal memory span
Decay
Info degrades and is lost over time
Spinal interneurons
Inputs from sensory afferents and descending motor pathways/commands; come down to the spine and innervate the ___ (same word) and alpha motor neurons
Consolidation
Memory ___ and temporally-graded retrograde amnesia; a new memory (episodic) activates areas: parietals be temporal lobe, MTL, and hippocampus; when partially ___ (same word): may activate some of the cortical areas and some of the hippocampal and MTL areas; when fully ___: all in the cortex (don't really need the hippocampus anymore)
Patient HM
Intractable epilepsy; removed both medial temporal lobes to curb; profound memory impairment; anterograde amnesia; total memory loss for two years before surgery (some loss up to ten years) but not remote pre-surgery memories: temporarily-graded retrograde amnesia; normal short-term memory; remembered personal history, facts from school, almost everything; no other deficits: intact language, IQ, working memory, procedural memory, personally, and perception (so none of these in the MTL)
Insular cortex
Involved in detecting disgust, activated; less arousal and valence response when lesioned (less response to emotional pictures); association with emotional processing, not just disgust; reciprocal connections with the amygdala, medial PFC, ACC, and the frontal, parietal, and temporal association cortices; integrates info about internal body state and emotional state; activated during risky decision making, more risky = more activation; essential for experiencing and detecting disgust in others
200, 70
It takes ___ ms to make a saccade if already focusing on something and have to switch; it takes ___ ms to make an expressed saccade if not focusing on anything (something flashed in periphery); so voluntary is slower than reflexive; it takes a certain amount of time to disengage attention, shift attention, and then make the saccade
Right
Lesions in the ___ parietal cortex are more likely to create neglect; can get spatial neglect in frontal lobe lesions as well but not as common
Cerebellum
Lesions of the ___ cause movement initiation delays, in coordination, intention tremors, poor balance, and eye movement issues
Limbic system
Limbus = border, borders corpus callosum; amygdala, hypothalamus, orbitofrontal cortex, corpus callosum, cingulate gyrus, thalamus, and hippocampus
Interesting
Measured eye movement of person looking at a photograph of a face; we make a sequence of voluntary fixations, saccades, fixations, etc as we view an image; fixate on the most ___ parts; saccadic suppression: we process visual info only during fixations, avoids sensation of world moving
Distributed
Meta-analysis: looked at many fMRIs and pulled together areas of brain activated in different emotions; emotional events activate many different parts of the cortex, but not the whole thing; emotions activate a ___ network of areas
Long-term potentiation
Millions of rat hippocampi used to study ____; can last days or weeks; found in many brain areas; postsynaptic cell must be depolarized for this; confirmed Hebbian learning
Parietal, premotor
Mirror neurons found in the ventral ___ cortex and ventral ___ cortex
Working memory
Model of ___: contains a central executive area, a visuospatial sketchpad, and a phonological loop; visuospatial sketchpad = spatial/visual stuff; phonological loop = auditory stuff; can be from memory store or new sensory input like words, names, or letters to remember; maintain in memory (executive area) briefly while manipulating; can pull info from memory and use it to manipulate; working memory predominantly in the PFC; three parts physically dissociatable in the brain; limited capacity: 7 +/- 2
Cerebellum
Monkey fixated on center of screen and light comes on ten degrees to right or left; when one light turns off and other comes on, make a saccadic eye movement; step target to right and when monkey makes eye movement, would move back only seven degrees so monkey would overshoot; only did with the right and kept the left the same ten degrees; after several thousand trials, started making smaller saccades to the right, would make a seven degree saccade; learned he was overshooting so adapted the saccade amplitude; shows what does in un saccadic adaptation; if male lesion to the ___, monkey can't do this saccade adaptation, keeps making ten degree saccades
Frontal eye field
Monkey focused attention, sometimes where he's focusing is where the stimulus flashes and sometimes it's not; interlink between eye movements and attention; used subthreshold stimulation in the ___; different parts caused different saccadic eye movements if enough stimulus; if you do stimulation in ___ (same word) would've driven eye to location but because subthreshold then doesn't move, just increases activation; ___ (same word) stimulation biases attention to that part of the field and increases neural activity (in V4); part of the dorsal attention network, which influences sensory processing in the visual areas like this one; simulate the ___ (same word) and it modulates the attention and visual processing areas, not intuitive but true
Equal
Monkey has hand in center; has red and green cue; spatial cue tells him to pay attention (turns red or green); if red should make a saccadic eye movement without using hand; if green should reach without using eyes; delay then go signal; spatial attention is ___ in each, so controlled for attention
Mirror neurons
Monkey opens and eats a peanut; ___ in the ventral premotor cortex being studied; does it himself, watches human do it, watches human do it but can't hear him; listening to human do it but can't see him; in all cases the neuron fires; these ___ in the VPMC play an important role in recognizing and producing certain actions; not just a visual response as seen by the listening test; in the ventral premotor cortex; distributed network of brain religions involved in action production and recognition
Enhanced
Morris water maze: if a rat is aroused or stressed then the rat's memory is ___; not seen if the amygdala is damaged or blocked; both are also true in humans
Spatial navigation
Morris water maze; tank of about eight feet filled with opaque water and there's a hidden platform under the surface; rat swims around (doesn't know there's a platform) until finds platform by accident; will get better at finding the platform with time; eventually goes straight to it; visual cues in the room so can see where it is in the space; put animal in different locations to start; platform stays the same but starting place changes; needs to learn relative position in space; lesions in the hippocampus = impaired spatial memory, can't find platform using visual cues, if start in a new location then at a loss, if start in same location can use stimulus response cues to find it (ex. Know need to swim forty degrees left to find it); place cells are responsible for ___ but not for stimulus-response learning (BG is stimulus-response learning)
Electroconvulsive therapy
Most effective and fastest treatment for severe depression; when you do this, you will have retrograde and anterograde amnesia; pass jolt of electric current through electrodes on in either sides of brain and produces convulsions
Doesn't, doesnt
Motor cortex fires before the BG, so the BG ___ (does/doesn't) initiate or select movements; lesions of the globus pallidus or the DBS of it doesn't impair movements, they actually get better, so the BG ___ (does/doesn't) initiate or select movement
Alpha motor neurons
Motor neurons in the spine and cranial nerve nuclei; innervate the effectors/muscles; final common pathway (all motor commands have to go through here since these are the only ones which project to fibers in the muscles); motor unit: one ___ (same word) and all of the fibers it projects/sends axons to (could innervate 5 or 100s); inputs: integrates info from sensory neurons/afferents, interneurons, and descending pathways/motor commands
Vegetative state
Patients in a ___ are thought to show comprehension; patient in this state is told to imagine playing tennis vs walking through the house; showed the same brain activity pattern as when the controls did it; patient unresponsive for years yet aware of what is being said to them
Sensory afferents
Multiple types from skin to muscles to joints to tendons, etc; spinal cord and brainstem are flooded with info from the somatosensory world
Emotion
Neural systems involved in ___; early concepts: James Papez, (hypothalamus, anterior thalamus, cingulate gyrus, and hippocampus), Paul Maclean, Papez circuit, and (amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex); emerging concepts: higher-order sensory cortices, amygdala, insula, medial prefrontal cortex, parts of lateral PFC, orbitofrontal cortex, ventral striatum, and anterior cingulate cortex; mentioned: ventral striatum, parts of the lateral PFC, ACC, and even higher-order sensory cortices
MN
Patient ___; use population vector readout to control computer cursor; implant 96 electrode sheer into PMC hand representation and put pedestal on top of head; patient stabbed in neck and spine severed; neurons predict planned movement and can se this activity to control a cursor on a screen or a whole machine by pulling these neuron signals
Simultanagnosia
Patients can only see one item at a time
Interference
New info displaces old info
Apraxia
No motor, somatosensory, or visual deficits—can understand what's being asked of them; inability to perform skilled, learners, and purposeful motor acts; difficulty mimicking actions like cutting wood; in sequences of actions have difficulty putting acts in proper order like mailing a letter; especially impaired with tool use like will select scissors to use as a hammer; usually damage to the premotor cortex or parietal cortex
Anterograde amnesia
No new memories
Somatosensory cortex
Object recognition is found in some of the posterior parietal cortex and all of the occipital cortex but it doesn't reach as far forward as the ____
Spatial neglect
Objects in the contralateral visual field of the injury are completely ignored; most often due to an injury (ex. Right parietal lobe stroke) in the right side of the brain, so the left side is usually neglected; don't use contralateral limb, don't put lipstick on the left side of the face; ex. Patient with right parietal stroke, draws self portrait, neglected left half of the canvas completely, got better with time; could be associated with paralysis so may involve the motor cortex depending on the stroke size; completely ignore the left side of the world and body; will deny own limbs (holds up patient's hand and they say it's the doctor's); will ignore somatosensory coming from the limb and will deny problems (man tearing and beating his own leg because it was foreign to him)
Spatial neglect
Often lesioned in the right prefrontal and parietal areas; typically due to middle cerebral artery stroke; much worse with right hemisphere damage; sometimes subcortical lesions
Motor unit
One alpha motor neuron and all of the fibers it projects/sends axons to
Anger
Orbitofrontal and anterior cingulate cortices; activation correlated with ___ and increasingly __ (part of word) expressions
Recognition
Other brain areas involved in ____: fusiform face area (FFA), occipital face area (OFA), fusiform body area (FBA), extrastriate body area (EBA), and the parahippocampal place area (PPA: scenes/landscape); multiple different nodes in the temporal cortex that play important roles in recognizing different things
Fusiform face area, occipital face area, fusiform body area, extrastriate body area, and the parahippocampal place area
Other brain areas involved in recognition
PTSD
Overactive amygdala found in ___ patients; white noise vs combat noise; amygdala overly reactive to combat sounds
Hemiplegia
Paralysis on one side of the body, especially in the hands and fingers; caused by lesions to the motor areas of the cerebral cortex (probably premotor cortex or corticospinal tract); especially in the hands and fingers because other parts of the motor system can compensate for a lot of damage-inducing problems, but can't for the hands and fingers because the corticospinal tract is the most important for controlling these and no other areas can compensate
Ventral
Parietal areas for grasping project to the ___ premotor cortex
Dorsal
Parietal areas for reaching project to the ___ premotor cortex
Prefrontal cortex
Part of the motor system in deciding to move
Ventral
Patient DF with bilateral damage to ___ pathway: asked to hold card so it would match the slot (explicit matching); couldn't follow the verbal direction (lesion here), but when asked to put the card in the slot, she oriented it correctly (vision for action); explicit matching task performed poorly but action task performed well; couldn't recognize orientation; also had severe object naming deficits
CA1
Patient RB; ischemia after surgery; most of ___ wiped out on both sides; ___ (same word) = subcomponent of the hippocampus; hippocampus vulnerable to ischemia due to high metabolic rate so need lots of blood, oxygen, and glucose; MTL largely intact; dense anterograde amnesia; retrograde amnesia 1-2 years; almost as severe as HM; hippocampus damage alone is enough to cause deficit—almost as severe as full MTL lesion
Recall
Patient SM and controls in fMRI study; story shown via pictures; tested for retention; controls: when emotional components are added to the story, there's an enhancement of ___; same with patients with other damage aside from the amygdala; patient SM didn't show this enhancement
Fear
Patient SM had no concept of ___ and even drew a crawling baby as a representation of it despite being able to represent all the other emotions
MPTP
Patients in early 20s showed up with full blown Parkinson's; all heroine users; someone had tried to synthesize a new opioid but produced ___ by accident; blew away their DA neurons in a matter of days; break through in PD research because no good animal models at the time; gave to monkeys and created a good model; important in field of motor control
Spatial neglect
Patients with ___ can identify the large shape as a whole but when asked to mark off individual dots, will only mark off the right side
Cortex
Penfield; surgeon; looking for seizure focus; electrically stimulates cortex of patients and asked how they feel (awake on table); would have vivid recollection of events from life that happened years earlier when certain areas were stimulated; memories stored in brain like a tape recorder, so when stimulated the whole memory unfolds; Sacks (researcher); temporal lobe epilepsy: vivid recollections of life moments; once memory is consolidated, stored as a complex network of neurons in the ___; did meta analysis: more likely to have semantic memory than episodic memory stimulated, ex. Stimulate and rename comic book characters or songs
Storage
Permanent record of info; long-term memory
Episodic memory
Personal memories of events in your life, time, and place; autobiographical
Distinct
Physiological responses of neurons in each lobe are ___
Premotor areas
Planning movements; PMC <-> Parietal: sensory guided; SMA: internally guided like piano
Covertly attending
Posner: fixate in center; given a right, left, or double arrow that tells where to attend to before flash stimulus; could deceive and tell to attend to one side and flash stimulus to the other; if stimulus is valid, the reaction time is faster (true pre-cueing allows quicker response); had to press button as fast as possible when the target flashed; after sensory and perceptual processing if ____; aka ___ (same word) improves performance
Parietal cortex
Posterior and inferior ____: takes in somatosensory and visual inputs and sends info to premotor cortex
Short-term
Present subjects (control or amnesia) with five digits; ask the subject to memorize and repeat the digits; if right then get another digit and keep repeating this; if wrong then present same digits and have them try again until correct and then go on; as you increase digits up to 20, takes more and more trials to remember; amnesia patients can remember the five digits same as a normal person—their __ memory is intact; differences come when start encoding to long-term, do much worse when exceed six
Posterior parietal
Prism adaptation study; fMRI test; accurate visually guided reaching sides visual info and feedback; prisms case misreaching; quickly learn to adapt their reaching movements; part of the ___ cortex involved in adaptation; during adaptation there is significant activation of this area; increase in blood flow to that area as people learning to adapt to the prism goggles; if did TMS over that locus, impaired adaptation; this area uses visual and proprioceptive feedback to guide reaching movements
Encoding
Processing of incoming info; tons of sensory info in sensory buffer; only pay attention to small subsets of info; for brief time all held in sensory buffer; small amount makes it into short-term memory; acquisition: sensory buffer -> short-term memory; consolidation: stabilize memory (months to years); depending on the nature of the info may be consolidated on long-term memory
Vegetables, face
Pt. CK can't recognize circles, squares, or the picture of the ____ but can recognize the ___; a double dissociation with face blind patients
Premotor, parietal
Put humans in a fMRI and showed stills of a person doing ballet or capoeira; experts in ballet vs experts in capoeira vs controls who didn't do either; if experts in capoeira then brain more activated by the still shots of capoeira; same with experts in ballet; dorsal and ventral ___ cortex lit up along with a few ___ areas; makes sense considering where the mirror neurons are located; more response to your own experience and level of activity depends on your expertise; a manifestation of action recognition and understanding
Superior colliculus
Rapid, unconscious responses to visual and auditory stimuli; if a sudden movement/sound, a specific area (same part for auditory and visual) will respond; stimulation evokes eye and head movements—if you simulate the same part of the ___ (same word) you will have an immediate saccadic eye movement to the same area (ex. Stim to move head to upper left visual field); express saccades: Ex. Train money to look at center of screen, a flash at one quadrant of the screen, gave monkey saccade to the position, takes 200ms if focusing and have to change focus, takes 70 ms to make expressed saccades where you started not focusing on anything (something flashed in periphery); engages cortical attention mechanisms; enables you to switch focus by engaging cortical areas and mechanisms
Sleeping
Record from a bunch of neurons in the hippocampus of rats when running a maze; run phase; activity of some neurons are highly correlative (react to same or similar place); little neuron correlation in the beginning; different place cells activated at different locations in the maze; same pattern of place cell activation when ___; while __ (same word) after training neurons replay same pattern; activity while ___ (same word) prior to running maze is not correlated; first indication that memory consolidation occurs while __ (same word)
Place cells
Recorded from single neurons in the hippocampus as a rat explored its environment; wherever the rat was in a certain place in an environment, an individual neuron would fire for that specific spot; active only when rat is in certain location in the box; hippocampus plays an important role in spatial learning and memory
Acquisition
Sensory buffer -> short-term memory
Visual pathways
Representational differences between the ____: single cell recordings in the inferior temporal cortex; a burst of activity in the neuron when shown a hand, but when shown a mitten, activity was reduced; shows evidence for a neuron that plays a role in recognizing hands; a couple of body areas exist in the inferior temporal cortex that recognize different body parts
Verbal
Resected tumor in left temporal cortex (primary auditory and association cortex); has serious problems with ___ short-term memory; selective memory impairment hard to remember digits or letters given; part of why thought to be part of the phonological loop; long-term memory intact; double dissociation with patient HM who had disrupted long-term; visuospatial short-term memory intact, in the parietal occipital cortex
Quick
Sensory buffer memories decay fairly ___
Muscle spindles
Sense muscle length and stretch; found in every muscle
Procedural memory
Serial reaction time task: subject has four buttons and put four fingers on them, 1 of 4 of the lights come on in random or pseudorandom sequence, quickly press the key that lights up; as far as subject can tell it's a completely random sequence; embedded a repeating sequence in the middle of the random sequence; subjects got faded and better at the repeating sequence even though didn't realize doing a pattern; amnesia patients also get faster even though don't remember doing the task at all (___ intact); BG and cerebellum damage issues (ex. PD and HD) are worse at this task; BG and cerebellum important for the type of learning done by the ___ (same word)
Clive Wearing
Severe anterograde and retrograde amnesia; procedural memory (like piano) intact; viral encephalitis in both temporal lobes and frontal lobe but perhaps even more; worst memory of anyone ever studied; semantic memory partially intact as well; would take notes to document and would read through them
Delay
Similar to previous experience where monkey holds handle in center and one of the eight lights flashes but this time there's a delay and after it the center light goes off which is the cue for the monkey to move to the target; neuron fires during the delay; activity in delay period for movement preparation in the direction the monkey will be moving; predicts movement direction; activity before moves; burst of activity when actually moves; in both stages (delay and move) the activity is directional; vectors are directional even during ____
Enhance, diminish
Single cell activity in monkey V1; had monkey fixate on center dot; covertly attend to upper left quadrant (blue dot); red square and yellow square appear in two places; put two flaming stimuli in lower right and upper left quadrants; monkey needs to tell f yellow or red pixel in middle of flashing display; cue to go from centered position to the respective colored square; if monkey attended to that area, larger neuron response to the presentation of the red pixel at single cell level; slight modulation in V1 by spatial attention of responsiveness in the neuron in the monkey covertly attending to the flashed area; focusing you attention on a certain part of the sensory domain will ___ neural activity you're paying attention to and __ responsiveness to things you're not paying attention to
Correlative
Single cell recordings and fMRI studies are ___
Parietal
Single recording of __ neuron; flash visual stimulus and get little activity of not supposed to move anything (passive fixation); if has to break fixation and make an eye movement, more activity (enhanced in response to stimulus) even before movement (saccade to stimulus); even more enhanced response to the presentation of the visual stimulus if have to reach without we movement (reach to stimulus); activity of __ neurons is enhanced with attention
Body representation
Spatial neglect is a disruption of ___
Ventral
Spatial neglect preferentially involves the ___ network; patients with neglect not aware of unexpected things on the contralateral world, no reflexes
Line bisection task
Spatial neglect test with a ___: a sheet of paper with horizontal lines is given and the patient needs to bisect them; right lesioned patient ignored some lines completely on the left and the lines he did bisect are actually on the right side of the midline; shows space (not bisecting the left) and object (not bisecting the midline) centered neglect
Target search task
Spatial neglect test with a ___: put an array of a bunch of letters in a screen and measure eye position; when a normal patient is looking for all the "R's", will search the whole screen; with spatial neglect, will only search the right (if right side injury) for the "R's"; green color is the spontaneous saccades which are centered in the normal patient and scatter to the right in the lesioned patient
Attention
Subcortical and cortical areas for ___: sub = superior colliculus, midbrain, and pulvinar, Cort = posterio-parietal and temporal-parietal junction; also the "superior prefrontal" is supposed to be the frontal eye field and the supplementary eye field
Superior colliculus, midbrain, and pulvinar
Subcortical areas for attention
Action
Subcortical areas important for ___: five nuclei of the basal ganglia, spinal cord, cerebellum, and deep cerebellar nuclei
Dorsal
Subject attends to left or right hemifield; more blood flow in right if attend to left hemifield more than right; more blood flow in left if attend to right hemifield more than left; same areas that will be activated by a target are also activated by an attentional cue and will be activated before the target; when you attend to a certain part of the visual field, the ___ attention network primes V1 in preparation for visual stimulus, aka before the stimulus is in the visual field; the ___ (same word) is activated first
Early selection
Subject fixates in the center of the screen; covertly attend to the upper right or left quadrant; flash stimulus in area attending or not attending; the visual response (ERP) is greater if attending; P1 (the first positive wave) changers at 70 ms; takes 35 ms for the first single neuron recording spike; suggests spatial attention modulates neural activity at V1 but can't be sure; supports the ___ model for modulation of sensory input
Cerebellar
Subject throwing darts at a visually presented with no problem; put on prism glasses to displace the apparently location of the target to te left; initially misthrows to the left but quickly adapts; when prisms are removed they misthrow to te right until they readapt; patients with ____ damage can't adapt, can't use the error messages; ___ (same word) has an important role in visual motor adaptation and visual learning
Dorsal, ventral
The ___ and ___ pathways were discovered by making lesions in monkeys and seeing the deficits that resulted; also corroborated by single cell recordings in monkeys; even further proven by lesions and imaging in humans along with human single cell recordings
Superior parietal
The ___ cortex is a part of the dorsal stream that deals with localization and spatial perception; NOT object recognition
Dorsal
Subjects covertly orient attention; a target appears eight seconds later; the ___ pathway gets filled with blood (activated) as you're covertly attending to a certain part of the visual field; increase in blood flow before appearance of the target; ONLY happens with covert attention, doesn't happen with passive viewing; ___ (same word) = goal-directed, voluntary control of attention
Larger
Subjects did sequences of finger movements; ___ area of activation in motor cortex when doing overlearned sequence than if doing control sequence; cortical representation gets ___ (same word) with learning
Modality-specific
Subjects memorize sounds and pictures; asked "did you hear the sound/see the picture before?"; fMRI during retrieval; images show initial exposure scan (perception) and the retrieval scan (memory retrieval); memory retrieval reactivates a subset of the cortical areas activated when originally encoding the memory (not all areas most some); different areas for the auditory and visual memories; memories are stored as ___ distributed representations in the same cortical areas as were active when the stimulus was presented
Fusiform
The ___ gyrus is one of the face areas
Globus pallidus
The ___ has two parts: the external segment (toward the peripheral) and the internal segment (closer to the midline)
Substantia nigra
The ___ has two parts: the pars compacta (dorsal medial; DA neurons here) and the pars reticulata (ventral lateral)
Posterior hippocampus
The ___ is larger in taxi drivers with more experience; structural MRI imaging in taxi drivers in London before GPS; explained by neurogenesis
Right extrastriate body area
TMS disruption in the ___ led to deficit in body recognition
Right occipital face area
TMS disruption in the ___ led to deficit in face recognition
Right lateral occipital area
TMS disruption in the ___ led to deficit in object recognition
Amygdala
The HPA axis, Cerebellum, sensory neocortex, MTL memory system, PFC, and striatum all project to and are heavily interconnected with the ___, which also projects inputs back to these regions
Parietal cortex, temporal cortex
The ___ and ___ connect anatomically and functionally to the MTL; evidence of involvement of these association areas in memory; functional connectivity of the perirhinal and parahippocampal cortices
Amygdala
The ___ modulates the hippocampus; enhances consolidation and retention
Cocktail party effect
The ability to agent to only one voice among many; can't pay attention to two conversations at once, usually listen to the person you're talking to but sometimes listen to life interesting conversations elsewhere; covert attention can be given to more interesting conversations; limited capacity, can't do two things at once
Fear
The amygdala is involved in the ___ basic emotion
Memory
The anatomy of ___: hippocampus, perirhinal cortex, entorhinal cortex, amygdala, medial temporal lobe, and the medial prefrontal cortex
Sadness
The anterior cingulate gyrus is involved in the ___ basic emotion
Planning, selecting
The association cortex, BG, SMA, premotor cortex, and lateral cerebellum play an important role in the __ and ___ of movements
Thalamus
The basal ganglia and cerebellum don't project directly to the main motor pathway areas, they do through the ____; project input to and get input from cortical areas
Striatum (neostriatum)
The caudate nucleus and putamen
Alexia
The inability to read; often due to a lesion in the visual word-form area; ex. Guy had a stroke overnight and suddenly couldn't read the newspaper the next morning
Disgust
The insular cortex is involved in the __ basic emotion
Execution
The motor cortex, intermediate cerebellum, and somatosensory input play an important role in the ___ of movements
Anger
The orbitofrontal cortex is involved in the ___ basic emotion
Medial temporal lobe
The prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex, and temporal cortex project to the ___ which projects to the hippocampus and projects back to the cortical structures in the ___ (same word) which project back to the cortical areas; the hippocampus sends information back to the same neocortical areas it received info from (two way arrows)
Downstream effects
The reason globus pallidus DBS works on PD is because of ___; output from the BG is very abnormal and is causing issues that affect the thalamus and other structures
Fear, anger, disgust, surprise, enjoyment, and sadness
The six basic emotions; innate, universal, and short-lasting (?)
Bottom-up, top-down
The two categories of attention
Decay, interference
The two type of memory loss (not amnesia)
Left
The visual word-form area: involved in recognizing written words; fMRI activation on the ___ regardless of which visual hemifield word stimuli were presented on; dorsal to fusiform face area; lesions > alexia: can't read
Ventral stream
The what pathway; object perception and recognition
Dorsal stream
The where pathway; spatial perception; relative locations of objects; vision for action: to make movement to an object; need this to make saccadic eye movements, arm movements, etc
Five
There are ___ descending pathways to te spinal cord
Learning
There are actual physical changes in the brain when ___; degree of bimanual skill correlated with connectivity between right and left SMA; juggling practice leads to increases in gray matter in parietal and V5 (visual motion) cortices
Posterior parietal
There are distinct saccade, reaching, and grasping areas in the ____ cortex
Hippocampus
There's a strong homology between the mammalian species in regards to the ___
Eye movements
There's an important relationship between attention and ___; attention more than just focus in the brain—it does more than modulate sensory processing; though the two are not equal as demonstrated by things like covert attention, so it's not the same as controlling ___ (same word)
Posterior parietal
There's localization of saccade and reach areas in the ___ cortex; some neurons are saccade specific and some are movement specific; able to functionally define these different areas in the monkey's ___ (same word) cortex—the saccade and reach regions as well as some additional ones
Hyperkinetic
Too much movement; basal ganglia diseases: Huntington's disease, chorea, hemiballismus, tic disorders, dystonia, etc; abnormal involuntary movements, including jerks, tics, muscle contractions, and writhing movements; logical hypothesis: BG select some movements and inhibit others
Dopamine
Train rats to reach for treats in a hole; ventral tegmental area has ___ neurons that project to the frontal cortex; lesion the VTA and removes the __ (same word) going into the primary motor cortex; rats naturally got better with practice but the lesioned rats don't really; stated infusing ___ (same word) into primary motor cortex and rat got better even with lesion; __ (same word) plays a role in learning (ex. Motor learning in the motor cortex); L-Dopa to M1 and did better
Directional tuning curve
Trained monkey for center-out tasks; light comes on in center of board, move handle to center, target lights come on and monkey moves handle to the lit one of the eight targets; neuron activity when down, down left, or down right; neuron didn't fire for other direction; neurons have a broad ___; neurons fire to a group of targets for direction; neurons fire before onset of movement—generate motor commands; found in every motor area that's been studied; not endpoint control because would expect neurons to fire if you move to endpoint regardless of direction but don't see that; predominate code for direction of movement
True
True or false: a mirror can help relieve phantom limb pain
False (just diminishes)
True or false: early selection prevents all unattended stimuli from being processed, completely obliterating the inputs; so there is no neuronal responsiveness to unattended stimuli
True
True or false: in patient HM removed most of the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, amygdala, and overlying hippocampus cortex bilaterally; pretty much the whole MTL gone
False (quick if small)
True or false: it takes a long time for all patients over neglect to recover
True
True or false: patients with neglect don't respond to contralateral auditory signals either
True
True or false: patients with spatial neglect have huge levels of denial, so when asked whose arm the doctor is holding up, they'll say the doctor has three arms
False
True or false: perception is the same thing as early stages of the visual system
True
True or false: the cerebellum controls the same side of the body inside of contralateral control
False
True or false: the cerebellum is only related to motor functions
True
True or false: though more rare, you can get spatial neglect in frontal lobe lesions
False
True or false: we remember emotional events just as clearly as any other type of event
True
True or false: when asked what's going on in the left visual field, lots of right-lesioned neglect patients say nothing, and some even go as far as to say that they don't believe anything of interest has ever happened on the left side
Early, late
Two competing theories on where the filtering of information occurs in sensory processing: ___ and ___ selection
Right
Unilateral spatial neglect is worse with a __ side lesion; attention is more important in that hemisphere
Triple dissociation
Used discrimination tasks to do a ____; discriminate faces, objects, and body parts to see if three different areas of the temporal cortex were activated; used TMS to temporarily disrupt the operation of those areas of the brain; showed: right occipital face area (face area) disruption leads to deficit in face recognition, right lateral occipital area (object area) disruption leads to deficit in object recognition, and right extrastriate body area (body area) disruption leads to deficit in body recognition
NMDA
Used genetic modulation to knockout ___ receptor to make a dumb mouse; added ___ (same word) receptor to the hippocampus to make a smart mouse that could learn tasks like the water maze much faster
Preference
V4 = colored stimuli (has a large receptive field); preferred response of neuron was to the red bar, not the green bar; monkey looks at center and covertly attends to certain parts of the receptive field; a larger response of flash preferred red bar stimulus to covert attention area; responsiveness varies in V4 based on ____; more substantial modulation in V4 as a result of attention processing
Emotion
Valenced (pleasant or unpleasant) response to external stimuli or memory; triggered by external events or memories (memories can trigger emotions even in super remember-ers); three characteristics: a physiological reaction to a stimulus, a behavioral response, and a feeling (even though hard to define, we all know what feelings are); need all three for basic emotions
Lateral occipital lobe
Ventral stream lesions in patient DF (card slot); Amazing overlap with the ___ in normal subjects (the portion activated during object naming task); aka an overlap between the lesioned areas and the naming areas; evidence for it being the object recognition area; bizarre the lesions would be so circumscribed and perfectly match up with the functional region; ex. CO poisoning causes this but it shouldn't line up so well, so why is the severe aperceptive ataxia so targeted?
Sensory memory
Very brief storage of auditory (10s) and visual (500 me) info; mismatch magnetic field study; mismatch magnetic field detects aberrant events occurring within a relatively short time period; present tones of same kind and pitch over and over, present slightly different tone with a different pitch, creates a mismatch; mismatch will only last ten seconds; ERP hen principe auditory stimulation with different and same stimuli; auditory cortex; visual sensory buffer fades quickly (half a second), ex. Looking at TV in dark room and seeing when look away
Optic ataxia
Video example of ___: guy can see and recognize the spoon but completely misses when reaching for it
Parietal
Visual info reaches the premotor cortex vía the ___ cortex; used for visual guidance and planning of movement
AIP
Visual info sent to the ventral and dorsal parietal cortex; ___ involved in grasping also projects to the ventral PMC; mirror neurons in here as well
Encoding
Visual stimuli > BOLD response; see subject look at image and get increase of the bold signal (blood flow) so can activate different brain parts with different images
Parietal-occipital
Visuospatial short-term memory in the ___ cortex; lesions on the right cause greater damage than on the left
Top-down
Voluntary/goal-oriented attention; ex. Decide to look at something
Cerebellar ataxia
Walk with wide-based gait because of poor balance
Brain-machine interface
Wanted by amputees, locked-in patients, patients with ALS, etc; motor disabilities but some motor signals still intact; record good motor signal from intact regions (electrodes on scalp or directly from the brain to extract a motor signal related to desired movement); want to bypass injury and drive an outside machine using pulled funcional motor signals; process signals and bypass injured area (like brainstem stroke, ALS, spinal cord transection); send commands to remaining body part or external device (computer cursor, prosthetic arm or exoskeleton, functional electrical stimulation of remaining muscles, wheelchair, voice synthesizer)
Agnosia
Ways to confirm ___: task where there's a fork and the patient is supposed to tell person what they're looking at; if has then can't see but knows when picks it up; other guy can't see or feel to tell what it is (could be memory loss but a lot of reasons why this could happen)
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
Your physiological part of emotional response is mediated by the autonomic nervous system (parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems) and the ___; ex. fight or flight; ex. cortisol/adrenaline levels
Pride, shame
__ and ___ may also be basic emotions; videotaped and scored athletes on their behavior during games; some sighted and some blind; web won or lost, showed similar types of body expressions (ex. Raise arms to cheer); athletes from 37 countries exhibit spontaneous behaviors representing these emotions
Dorsal
__ premotor cortex: planning and visually guided movements, visually guided reaching; monkey holds switch, other switch lights up, cue to move to the other switch after a go signal; neuron fires like crazy in delay period when preparing to move to the left but little firing in delay for right; delayed reaching task, PMd; directional motor preparatory activity is common and robust in PMd; activity began with instruction stimulus and ended after the go/trigger stimulus; PMd plays an important role in planning and preparing for reaching movements
3, 2, 1, 4
___ -> ___ -> ___ -> ____; list in order 1. Brainstem 2. Motor cortex 3. Premotor and supplementary motor cortex regions 4. Spinal cord
Frontal cortex
___ also heavily involved in encoding and retrieval (not just temporal lobe and hippocampus); also in working memory; memory distributed across multiple association areas of cortex and the hippocampus; shown by a meta-analysis of many studies
Premotor, supplementary motor
___ and ___ regions: highest part of the motor pathway hierarchy; planning movements; projects to the motor cortex
Motor
___ areas of the cerebral cortex: primary motor cortex (corticospinal tract), premotor areas (premotor cortex and supplementary motor area), frontal eye fields, Broca's area, posterior and inferior parietal cortex, and prefrontal cortex
Dorsal
___ attention network: covert orienting; goal-oriented; top-down
Ventral, right temporal parietal junction
___ attention network: stimulus-driven orienting of attention; bottom-up; increase in blood flow to this pathway seen via fMRI when a target appears in an unexpected location; activated cortical areas as part of the bottom-up reflexive response; greater flow in the ______; preferentially involved in spatial neglect
Candidate
___ basic emotions: contempt, shame, guilt, embarrassment, awe, amusement, excitement, pride in achievement, relief, satisfaction, and sensory pleasure
Motor
___ cortex: creates the commands; execution of movements structure; projects to the brainstem and spinal cord
Parietal
___ cortex: integrates visuals for movements; visual guidance of movement
Invisible gorilla
___ experiment: count the number of passes and completely miss what's walking right through the middle of the video; people who miss it actually look at it for a few seconds (show by an eye tracker) but don't store that information; we can focus on one thing at a time and don't notice the other things; we process high-priority inputs
Morphed
___ faces used to identify brain regions for specific emotions; took basic emotions and made them more extreme
Motor neurons
___ in the spinal cord: send axons to te muscles and cause skeletal-muscle contractions; lowest part of the motor pathway hierarchy
Prefrontal cortex
___ interconnected with the supplementary motor area is important for internally-guided actions; inputs from different parts of association cortex
Temporal
___ lobe neurons: always the fovea (foveal representation); diverse selectivity; faces, objects, body
Parietal
___ lobe neurons: interested in stimulus location; important for things like saccadic eye movements and reaching; doesn't matter what type of stimulus it is; often extrafoveal in its receptive fields
Long-term
___ memory: long (days to years), Hugh capacity, conscious awareness for declarative but no conscious awareness for nondeclarative, primary mechanism of loss is interference; can last a lift time; interference can affect and cause loss
Sensory
___ memory: short (milliseconds to seconds), high capacity, no conscious awareness, and primary mechanism of loss is decay; memory held in sensory buffers like auditory and visual buffers; degrades quickly
Working (short-term)
___ memory: short (seconds to minutes), limited capacity (7 + or - 2), has conscious awareness, and the primary mechanism of loss is decay; interference and rehearsal affect the amount of time a memory is held here
Direct
___ pathway of the basal ganglia: neurons in the striatum send axons to the output nuclei (internal segment of the globus pallidus and the pars reticulata of the substantia nigra) and inhibit the output nuclei, then the output nuclei send to the thalamus and are also inhibitory (strong tonic inhibition it the thalamus); fast firing rate for the internal segment and pars reticulata; double inhibition/disinhibition so excites the thalamus which excites the external cortex
Mind reading
fMRI and ___: decoding visual object perception from fMRI responses; patient imagines faces or buildings; 85% accurate what you're seeing in vague detail because different areas will activate but can't specifically say what you're imagining; a single subject; ethical issues like lie detection in court
Amygdala
fMRI study; people in scanner and shown famous or unfamiliar black and white faces; independent of the BOLD response did a test (IAT test) to indirectly measure racist ideology; when whites shown unfamiliar black faces, ___ activation correlated with indirect measures of racist ideology; degree of fear in racist white men
Fusiform gyrus
fMRI study; showed faces or objects; faces = increase in blood flow in this area, objects = not as much blood flow; showed intact and scrambled faces, there was a larger response to the intact faces; evidence the ___ is clearly a face area in humans
Memory
the outcome of learning is ___
