NCE: Review

In a normal distribution, approximately __________% of the scores will exceed two standard deviations above the mean.

2

For optimal functioning, task groups should consist of at least _________ members.

4 to 5

The __________ prohibits employers from discriminating against a qualified individual who has a mental or physical disability.

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990

The 1970s court case that resulted in the deinstitutionalization of patients living in mental hospitals was

Donaldson v. O'Connor .

Which theory of family counseling would view a family's symptoms as the way that the family maintains its homeostasis?

Human validation process model

Homogeneity of members, interdependence, and attractiveness of members refers to which factor of group cohesion?

Interpersonal factors

The __________ technique for improving memory involves guided visual imagery.

Method of loci. • Chunking is a grouping of information into chunks so that a greater amount of information can be stored (and retrieved). For example, if short-term memory is able to hold 7 2 bits of information, one may struggle recalling the following string of nine digits in sequence: 7-9-2- 4-1-6-3-8-5. However, if one chunks the information into three groups of three (792, 416, 385), one has a better chance of recalling all nine digits in sequence. • The method of loci is a guided visual imagery procedure in which an individual imagines objects or concepts to be remembered in a familiar environment and in a given sequence. When the information is needed, the individual visually returns to the image and recalls the information. • Some find the use of acronyms helpful in recalling information. For example, Holland's hexagonal model (reviewed in Chapter 4 ) includes realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional. Some find this list of six dimensions difficult to remember. However, if one takes the first letter from each of these six dimensions and forms an acronym, RIASEC, the likelihood of recalling all six dimensions is substantially enhanced. • Eidetic memory , sometimes referred to as photographic memory, uses visual images to recall visual information with clarity and detail. Memory and performance are optimized when an individual attains a moderate state of arousal, as low and high states of arousal tend to suppress performance; this is known as the Yerkes-Dodson law . Also, as information is learned more thoroughly, retention is enhanced. Finally, massed learning (e.g., one 4-hour period to study for an exam) is not as efficient as spaced learning (e.g., four 1-hour periods to study for an exam).

Albert Bandura: Effective Model

Observational (vicarious) learning, then, is learning through passive observation, whereas modeling is demonstrating how a behavior is performed so that it may be learned and passed on. Bandura believed effective modeling has four components: 1. Attention. Learners must attend to and perceive the modeled behavior accurately. 2. Retention. Learners must process the modeled behavior and store it in memory either through visual imagery or verbal coding. 3. Reproduction. Learners must accurately reproduce and practice/rehearse the behavior. 4. Motivation. Internal reinforcement or external reinforcement increases an individual's motivation and the likelihood of mastery.

Sampling Considerations

Probability sampling methods include (moving from most to least representative of a population) the following: • Simple random sampling. Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Typically, professional counselors use a table of random digits to select large samples. • Systematic sampling. Every n th element is chosen. For example, every 10th person on a national registry of school counselors would be selected. • Stratified random sampling. A population is divided into subgroups based on important characteristics (e.g., gender, race, marital status), and the professional counselor draws randomly from the subgroups. The degree of sampling per subgroup can be reflective of actual percentages in a population or may be the same sample size per subgroup. • Cluster sampling. The professional counselor identifies existing subgroups and not individual participants. This method is typically less representative than other probability sampling methods. • Multi-stage sampling is common in cluster sampling procedures that provide better selection controls. This might include a two-stage random sample (e.g., randomly select 60 schools and then 10 classes from each of those schools), three-stage random sample (e.g., randomly selecting 200 school districts, then 20 schools from each district, and then 10 classes per school), and so forth. Nonprobability sampling methods include the following: • Convenience sampling. This is the most common sampling method. A professional counselor selects an easily accessible population that most likely does not fully represent the population of interest. For example, in order to assess the relationship between ethnicity and spiritual values, a professional counselor may survey clients who are willing to participate. • Purposeful sampling. A professional counselor selects a sample from a population based on who will be most informative about a topic of interest. Participants are selected because they represent needed characteristics. • Quota sampling. This method is similar to cluster and stratified sampling. However, there is no randomization. The professional counselor simply draws the needed number of participants with the needed characteristic (e.g., gender, race) from the convenience sample. An important concept related to sampling method is randomization. Randomization helps to maximize the credibility and generalizability of a study's findings. It involves either or both random selection and random assignment. • Random selection involves selecting participants from a population so that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Random selection is closely related to external validity (see Section 8.2.7 ). • Random assignment involves randomly assigning participants to different groups, such as a treatment or control group. Random assignment helps to ensure that groups are equal and that any systematic group differences (common with nonprobability sampling) are due to chance. To this end, random assignment is closely related to internal validity.

Sara overhears a group making jokes about someone in her class who identifies as gay, yet she fails to do anything about it. Sara is demonstrating

Secondary opression Hanna, Talley, and Guindon ( 2000 ) described three different levels of oppression: • Primary oppression. Obvious acts by both force and deprivation. • Secondary oppression. Oppressive acts in which individuals do not get directly involved but from which they may benefit. • Tertiary oppression. When minority group members adopt the majority opinion so they fit in. This is also known as internalized oppression , which is prevalent in ethnic minority literature and basically means internalizing, or taking in, the dominant message about the minority's low self-worth and importance. Tertiary oppression can lead to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), mood disorders, eating disorders, drug and alcohol abuse, identity problems, and health issues

When calculating the item discrimination for a test item on an achievement test, the test developer will want

a positive item discrimination. • Item discrimination is the degree to which a test item is able to correctly differentiate test-takers who vary according to the construct measured by the test. For example, items on a depression inventory need to discriminate between test-takers who are depressed and those who are not depressed. Item discrimination is calculated by subtracting the performance of the top quarter of total scores from the bottom quarter of total scores on a given test item. Most test developers consider a test item to be a good discriminator when increasingly higher numbers of upper-group members answer the question correctly than lower-group members (i.e., positive item discrimination). Items with zero and negative item discrimination are generally considered poor.

__________ is a technique that involves comparing a client's dream to myth, literature, and folklore to help unearth possible meanings of the dream.

amplification JUNGIAN TECHNIQUES Jung most commonly employed dream interpretation to help clients resolve their problems and begin the process of individuation. To interpret dreams, Jung used the techniques of explication, amplification, and active imagination. • Jung believed that archetypes from the collective unconscious often reveal themselves in dreams, and he used dream interpretation to help clients understand the personal meaning behind their dreams. • Explication is a technique used to help clients determine the reason why certain objects appeared in their dreams. Jung did not believe, as Freud did, that images in dreams have hidden symbolism. Rather, he believed that an object in a dream is exactly what it appears to be but that it is important to discover why the unconscious chose that specific object as opposed to other, similar objects. • Jung also used the technique of amplification to help understand images in dreams. To amplify an image, Jung compared the dreamer's image to stories or images in myths, fairy tales, literature, art, and folklore. Amplification helps the analyst identify central archetypes and possible meanings behind dreams. • The technique of active imagination requires clients to actively talk to the characters in their dreams. For example, the client might be asked to talk to characters in the dream and ask them why they used a certain object or engaged in a particular action. Through this technique, it is thought that clients can connect with their unconscious.

The external conflict scale on the Career Thoughts Inventory indicates client difficulty in

balancing one's own views and vocational desires with others' input.

To ensure that no laws are violated, Internet counselors should

be familiar with applicable laws both in their state and their clients' state(s).

__________ is NOT one of the eight core elements that Bowen believed affects a family's functioning.

circular causality

Transitions that create significant disruption and cause one to develop new methods of dealing with a career issue are referred to as a

crisis

Readiness tests, which indicate the minimum level of skills needed to move from one grade level to another, have been

criticized for including cultural and language biases.

Dan has spent the past 30 years working full time for a manufacturing company. He recently decided to focus on his leisure activities and took a part-time position within the company. Dan is in the __________ stage of Super's lifespan, life-space career theory.

disengagement

According to the ACA and NBCC ethical guidelines related to testing and assessment, professional counselors

do not need client consent to release test results when the results do not include any identifying client information.

__________ represents a decision-making function in Jung's personality typology.

feeling

__________ needs occur when the demand for workers exceeds the number of existing workers and requires more workers to be added to the workforce.

growth

Mitchell has to declare his major by the end of the semester. He discloses to his academic advisor that he feels very pressured and does not believe one semester is enough time to search and evaluate career alternatives. Which one of the coping patterns presented by Janis and Mann is Mitchell most likely to use given his situation?

hypervigilance hypervigilance (i.e., the person impulsively chooses a decision that will bring immediate relief);

Unlike a lot of other career theories, the theory of work adjustment

is concerned with actual performance on the job.

A client informs her counselor that she has been diagnosed with HIV and does not plan on telling her significant other, even though they are engaging in unprotected sex. The counselor

is ethically justified in telling, but not obligated to tell, the client's significant other.

A counselor discovers that a colleague has published an opinion piece in the local newspaper making false accusations about her professional behavior and abilities. The counselor may be able to sue this person for

libel Another type of tort is defamation , which occurs when a counselor mars someone's reputation through the intentional spreading of falsehoods. There are two types of defamation: libel and slander. Libel is defamation through writing, whereas slander is defamation through a spoken statement(s). It is possible for a counselor to be held liable for defamation if counseling notes, records, or communications with others about a client are erroneous, injurious to that person's reputation, and shared maliciously ( Wheeler & Bertram, 2012 ).

If sufficiently trained, professional counselors are legally allowed to use psychological tests as part of their practice in

most states

Which type of observation records the number of times a client engages in the targeted behavior during a predetermined time interval?

partial interval

"Going native" is a risk for which of the following data collection methods?

participant observation

A professional counselor has developed a survey and, before distributing it to an entire agency, wants to ensure the survey has no major problems. Administering the survey to 15 individuals first is an example of what type of research?

pilot

Having benefits, prestige, and a general belief that one's group is superior is termed

privilege.

A counselor who does not believe in abortion gains a client who is considering having one and is seeking the counselor's support. The counselor feels exceedingly uncomfortable. She should

refer the client to another counselor

Validity can be reported as a(n)

regression equation.

Frankl believed that people could find meaning through

suffering. achievement. creation.

Families often get stuck because of their tendency to perpetuate dysfunctional patterns of behavior without attempting any change. Strategic family therapists refer to this as

the redundancy principle

One of the first steps that counselors who receive subpoenas should take is

to contact the client to see how he or she would like them to proceed. even if they receive a subpoena (see explanation below). Both confidentiality and privileged communication belong to the client, meaning that a client can choose to waive his or her right to either, allowing the counselor to ethically and legally disclose private information about the client.

When someone does not fully resolve and work through a crisis situation, he or she may experience

transcrisis

Roles:

• Role overload occurs when expectations associated with multiple roles exceed an individual's time and energy and ability to perform the role adequately. • Role conflict involves how the demands and expectations of an individual's multiple roles conflict with each other. Role conflict often occurs when one takes on two different and incompatible roles at the same time (e.g., work and family). • Role spillover is the carryover of one role's demands and expectations into another role. A common example of role spillover is to continue to worry over work issues while you are at home. Role spillover can have negative and positive consequences.

When using split-half reliability, a test developer must use the __________ to ensure that test length does not affect the accuracy of the reliability estimate.

• Split-half reliability is a type of internal consistency that correlates one half of a test against the other. Using spilt-half reliability can be challenging, because tests can rarely be divided into comparable halves. Another drawback to using split-half reliability is that it shortens the test by splitting it into two halves. All things being equal, a shorter test yields less reliable scores than longer tests. To compensate mathematically for the shorter length, the Spearman-Brown Prophecy Formula can be used to estimate reliability: