Neuron Exam III

A new hamster mutant, zip, has a daily rhythm (in the absence of light cues) with a period of 8 hours. If you transplanted the fetal SCN from a zip animal into the brain of an adult hamster with the tau mutation (and its own SCN lesioned), you would expect the period of this adult's rhythm to be

8 hours

Ghrelin

A hunger-arousing hormone secreted and released by endocrine cells in the stomach

If you were to lesion the hypothalamus, what effect would this have on aggression?

A lesion to the hypothalamus would decrease aggression

What types of stimuli would automatically produce a fear reaction?

A loud noise or painful shock

What causes place cells to fire?

A rat being in a specific location

What would someone with borderline personality disorder interpret a neutral face as?

A threat, increased amygdala activity

Chronic drug use results in all of the following except A. An increase in dopamine receptors B. A decrease in dopamine receptors C. An increase in dopamine reuptake transporters D. An increase in synapses between cells in the nucleus accumbens

A. An increase in dopamine receptors

The Morris Water Maze A. can be used as a test of spatial memory. B. is commonly used to assess procedural memory. C. can reveal hippocampal dysfunction. D. was devised by Richard Morris.

A. Can be used as a test of spatial memory C. Can reveal hippocampal dysfunction D. Was devised by Richard Morris

Homeostasis

Adaptive behavioral responses to nutrient deficiencies, metabolic imbalances, and other threats to the internal milieu in order to maintain certain critical survival variables at optimal levels

Punishment is achieved by

Adding an aversive stimulus or removing a pleasant stimulus

If an animal is growling and bearing its teeth, what type of aggression is it showing?

Affective aggression

The medial hypothalamus is involved in

Affective aggression

The pathway from the dorsal longitudinal fasciculus to the PAG is for

Affective aggression

What type of aggression is for show?

Affective aggression - lots of SNS activation

Lithium

Affects second messenger systems directly (does not require receptor activation)

What are the consequences of fear

Aggression and stress

Which of the following describes REM sleep behavior disorder? A. Sleepers who have narcolepsy B. Dreamers with delta wave terrors C. Sleepers who do not generate REM brain waves characteristic of REM sleep D. Dreamers have no REM atonia and therefore may act out their dreams.

D. Dreamers have no REM atonia and therefore may act out their dreams

Which of the following are not structural changes observed in the brains of people with schizophrenia? A. Reduced cortical thickness B. Reduced volume of the frontal lobe C. Defects in myelin sheaths of axons in cortex D. Shrinkage of the ventricles

D. Shrinkage of ventricles

Which of the following structures is necessary for procedural memory? A. Perirhinal cortex B. Hippocampus C. Inferotemporal cortex D. Striatum

D. Striatum

Which of the following has not been found to demonstrate a circadian rhythm? A. Body temperature B. Hormone secretion C. Hair growth D. They all demonstrate a circadian rhythm.

D. they all demonstrate a circadian rhythm

If you were to lesion the MTL, would you lose declarative or non-declarative memory?

Declarative

Which type of memory can be accessed for conscious recollection?

Declarative memory

Alertness, potassium, temperature, and cortisol all do what during sleep?

Decrease

Lesion in the hypothalamus would result in

Decreased aggression

What happens do DA firing when are expecting a reward and then do not receive it?

Decreased/inhibited DA firing

How does depression affect BDNF

Decreases it, less cell growth

Which brain waves have the lowest frequency?

Delta waves

What part of the nervous system generates the fluctuations and oscillations of an EEG?

Dendrites of many pyramidal neurons in the cerebral cortex

Chronic stress on the hippocampus

Dendritic atrophy - receive less info Inhibited neurogenesis

Chronic stress on the amygdala

Dendritic hypertrophy

Fatigue, anhedonia, melancholia, and psychomotor retardation are all symptoms of

Depression

Where does melanopsin synapse?

Directly onto the SCN

How did the biological theories of depression come about?

Discovery of irreversible MAO inhibitor and NET/SERT inhibitors

Why are emotions not a single system?

Diversity of emotions and brain activity No one-to-one relationship between emotion and brain part

Neuroleptic drugs are potent blockers of _____________ receptors, specifically the ________ receptor.

Dopamine; D2

Incentive sensitization hypothesis

Drug abuse is caused by the "wanting" of something, not necessarily a "liking" sensation

How do DA receptors respond to natural reinforcers vs. drug reinforcers?

Drug reinforcers hijack the DA system causing supraphysiological increases in DA that are not seen with natural reinforcers. Drugs cause off the chart dopamine levels.

When is activity in the VPLA increased?

During slow-wave/REM sleep

When do sleep spindles occur?

During stage 2 sleep

When is adenosine high?

During wakefulness, it promotes sleep

In the proposed neural circuit for learned fear, the state of the ANS is altered by what neural connection?

Efferents from the central nucleus of the amygdala project to the hypothalamus

How do we know that facial expressions are innate?

Ekman and Freisen - went to New Guinea and found out that the same facial expressions were being used by people with no prior exposure to one another

An EEG measures?

Electrical activity of the brain along the scalp.

If a starving rat has the option to electrically stimulate itself or eat food, which will it choose?

Electrical stimulation

The information sent out from the cerebral cortex, previously in the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala is responsible for

Emotional response

Dimensional emotion theories propose what about emotions?

Emotions can be broken down into smaller fundamental elements combined in different ways

The classic DA hypothesis of schizophrenia states that schizophrenia results from what?

Excessive dopamine activity

What is the empirical evidence for the experience of unconscious emotions?

Experiments by Arne Öhman, Ray Dolan, and their colleagues showed autonomic responses to angry faces that had not been consciously perceived.

posterior pituitary

Extension of the hypothalamus, secretes hormones from the hypothalamus

The cell assembly states what?

External events are located in cortical cells

declarative memory

Facts and events, stored in MTL

True or False: the hippocampus activates the HPA axis

False! It inhibits it

basic theories of emotion

For each emotion, a different, specific area of the brain is activated for that emotion

Which brain waves have the highest frequency?

Gamma rays

When blood glucose levels go too low the pancreas secretes

Glucagon

What is your stress response?

Glucocorticoid release: - helps break down protein and convert it to glucose - makes fats available for energy - increases blood flow - stimulates behavioral responses - suppresses secretion of sex hormones

The adrenal cortex/gland contributes to the HPA axis by releasing

Glucocorticoids

What stimulates eating?

Glucoprivation (drop in blood glucose levels)

The fact that PCP causes symptoms similar to schizophrenia implies that what neurotransmitter is involved in schizophrenia?

Glutamate

Place cells receive info from what other kinds of cells?

Grid cells

The Aplysia Californica (sea slug) becoming insensitive to the touching of its gill is an example of what?

Habituation

Is neuronal firing synchrony high or low in non-REM sleep?

High

At 8 pm, your S-factor and C-factor are

High S-factor (need) Low C-factor (urge)

Cushing's syndrome is characterized by

High levels of adrenal glucocorticoids/prone to depression

Place strategy is formed in what part of the brain?

Hippocampus

Parts of the MTL

Hippocampus, parahippocampal cortex, perihinal cortex, entorhinal cortex

Which emotional response is responsible for the secretion of Epi and NE further increasing blood flow to muscles?

Hormonal

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

Hormone secreted primarily by the small intestine that promotes satiation, released when you eat nutrient/calorically dense foods

3 ways that the hypothalamus responds to sensory input to maintain homeostasis:

Humoral, visceromotor, and somatic motor

What happens to sleep if you lesion the raphe nuclei?

Hyperactivity/insomnia

Which of the following describes the ventromedial hypothalamic syndrome?

Hypothalamic lesions that cause overeating and weight gain

In learned fear, the central nucleus of the amygdala transmits information through the _______ to evoke autonomic responses.

Hypothalamus

Which of the following structures is known as the 'true master gland of the endocrine system'?

Hypothalamus

What happens when you lose orexin neurons?

Narcolepsy

Which is better, too much or too little cortisol?

Neither - both cause problems!

Animals with removal of what part of the brain are likely to experience sham rage?

The telencephalon

Working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer (reward) or diminished if followed by a punishment

What does REM sleep promote?

brain development and learning. Longer REM durations following intense learning. Deprivation of REM = impaired task learning

Using energy

catabolism

The adrenal cortex releases ___ which, when chronically elevated, ___.

corisol; suppresses immune system

Which of the following describes ghrelin? A. A peptide released by the magnocellular cells of the hypothalamus when the stomach is full B. A peptide highly concentrated in the intestines that is released into the bloodstream when the intestines are empty C. A peptide highly concentrated in the stomach that is released into the bloodstream when the stomach is empty D. A peptide released by the magnocellular cells of the hypothalamus when the stomach is empty

C. A peptide highly concentrated in the stomach that is released into the bloodstream when the stomach is empty

Which of the following describes the basic scheme of the clock genes present in neurons of the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus? A. An increased expression of immediate early genes plays a role in satisfying the higher metabolic demands of the awakened brain. B. Some of the genes from mitochondria are related to changes in synaptic strength and affect the expression of other genes. C. Clock genes perpetrate a cyclic negative feedback loop in which the clock gene expresses a protein whose presence decreases gene expression in a pattern consistent with circadian rhythms. D. The genes from mitochondria may be associated with the absence of learning and memory formation.

C. Clock genes perpetrate a cyclic negative feedback loop in which the clock gene expresses a protein whose presence decreases gene expression in a pattern consisten with circadian rhythms

Which of the following is a disadvantage of ECT? Choose the correct option. A. Patients experience violent movements during the therapy. B. Relief typically requires many sessions. C. ECT disrupts memories of events occurring about 6 months before treatment. D. ECT permanently impairs the storage of new information.

C. ECT disrupts memories of events occurring about 6 months before treatment

Which of the following describes the humoral response? A. Adjusting the balance of sympathetic and parasympathetic outputs of the ANS B. Inciting an appropriate somatic motor behavioral response C. Stimulating or inhibiting the release of pituitary hormones D. Regulating feedback to the central nervous system

C. Stimulating or inhibiting the release of pituitary hormones

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is released by the anterior pituitary gland when what neurochemical is released by parvocellular neurosecretory neurons of the hypothalamus?

CRH

The hypothalamus contributes to the HPA axis by releasing

CRH

Cortisol pathway

CRH in hypothalamus, ACTH is the tropic hormone affected in the anterior pituitary, adrenal cortex and kidneys are the target of the tropic hormone, cortisol/corticosteroids are secreted

What effects does a frontal lobotomy have?

Can reduce emotional disturbance, no intellectual/IQ impairment. Severs connections in the prefrontal cortex (mainly OBF)

Which of the following is the process of breaking down complex macromolecules?

Catabolism

Activating one neuron and then it simultaneously activating another neuron is called

Cell assembly

Somatic motor response

Changes in behavior. Are you motivated to eat or are you motivated to go for a walk? Exercise is involved (what kind of energy do you have on board?).

The type of rhythmicity characterized by the regular, predictable onset of a particular behavior once a day is called

Circadian

Pairing a stimulus with a painful reponse to produce fear is an example of

Classical conditioning

What neurons does an EEG measure from?

Cortical pyramidal neurons

People who have died of suicide show high levels of what hormone?

Cortisol

What do heroin, nicotine, and cocaine have in common? A. They all act on the brain circuitry that motivates behavior. B. They all cause release of acetylcholine. C. They all affect the mesolimbic dopaminergic pathway. D. A and C

D. A and C

What brain regions and associated neurotransmitters are implicated in changes associated with awakening and states of arousal? A. Raphe nuclei (serotonin) B. Locus coeruleus (norepinephrine) C. Brain stem and forebrain (acetylcholine) D. All choices are correct.

D. All answer choices are correct

Wolfram Schultz showed that dopamine neurons: A. signal errors in reward prediction. B. fire more when a reward is better than expected. C. fire less when a reward is more than expected. D. Both A and B.

D. Both A and B

Which two neurohormones are released into the bloodstream by the magnocellular neurosecretory cells?

oxytocin and vasopressin

Agonists or partial agonist analogs of the addictive drug

partially activate the same pathways. Ex.) nicotine patch, methadone

The pathway from the medial forebrain bundle to the VTA is for

predatory aggression

Anticraving medications

reduce the appetite for the abused substance

anterior pituitary

secretes hormones that control the endocrine glands in the body

Which of the following are the targets of the ANS?

smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands

neurosecretory cells

specialized neurons in the hypothalamus that secrete hormones that stimulate the anterior pituitary to release hormones (2-stage)

Decrease in leptin

stimulates feeding behavior, decreases metabolism, activation of NPY and AgRP neurons

Prolactin (PRL)

stimulates milk production by mammary glands of breasts

Where is the biological clock located?

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus

FSH and LH

testes and ovaries

central nucleus of the amygdala is important for

the expression of emotional responses produced by aversive stimuli

Cells in which part of the hypothalamus control glucocorticoid release?

PVN

What is the chance a monozygotic twin will have schizophrenia if the other twin has it?

50% chance

Where in your body are detectors found for blood glucose levels and fat?

Brain and liver

REM sleep is involved in

Brain development and learning

Slow wave sleep helps to reinforce what?

Memory via activating multiple cortical regions

Where does the SCN project to?

Midbrain, parts of the hypothalamus, and diencephalons

Which can cause depression: monoamine AGONISTS or monoamine ANTAGONISTS?

Monoamine ANTAGONISTS

Does more adenosine = more or less sleep?

More

Is the amygdala more or less active when deprived of sleep?

More active

Vervet monkeys were injected with drugs that either increased or decreased serotonergic activity. These experiments showed which of the following about the relationship between serotonin and aggression?

More aggression is associated with less serotonergic activity

Allostasis

Moving/adjusting your set point to predict for future demands. (If you've been dieting, your body will increase your set point because it is predicting a famine in the future and trying to prepare for it)

Which theory provides a more complete explanation for H.M.'s temporally graded amnesia?

Multiple trace model of consolidation

Parts of the limbic system include

hippocampus, amygdala, cingulate gyrus, fornix, mammillary bodies, nucleus accumbens, and septum pallucidum/septal nuclei

Why are hormones necessary for energy storage?

1) To signal the brain regarding the state of the body's energy stores 2) Signal the use of the body's energy stores under the brain

Emotion

Pattern of physiological responses and species-typical behavior. In humans, responses are accompanied by "feelings"

The time that elapses between two successive occurrences of a circadian event, such as the commencement of the day's activities, is called the

Period

Which part of the pituitary secretes hormones that are made by the hypothalamus?

Posterior pituitary

What type of aggression is for attack/food?

Predatory aggression - no sympathetic NS activation

The lateral hypothalamus is involved in

Predatory aggression, hunger, food seeking

Sympathetic branch of the ANS circuit

Preganglionic neruon in CNS ACh onto ganglionic neuron in sympathetic ganglion Norepinephrine onto target organ

Parasympathetic branch of the ANS circuit

Preganglionic neuron in CNS ACh onto ganglionic neuron in parasympathetic ganglion ACh onto target organ

What is short-term energy balance and who reports it?

Presence or absence of food in the gut. Reported by hormones from the digestive organs

The striatum is responsible for

Procedural (non-declarative) memory

non-declarative memory

Procedural memory (skills and habits), skeletal musculature, emotional responses

neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related peptide (AgRP) neurons

Project to the MCH and orexin neurons and activate them

aMSH and CART neurons

Project to the MCH and orexin neurons and inhibit them

Immunization for drug abuse

Prompts the immune system to remove targeted drugs from circulation before reaching the brain

Gamma, beta, and alpha waves occur during

REM sleep and when awake

Memory required for animals to behave successfully in the delayed non-match to sample (DNMS) task is which of the following?

Recognition memory

What effects does orbitofrontal damage produce?

Reduced inhibition and self-concern Indifference to the consequences of one's actions Sensitivity to pain but not bothered by it

Elderly sleep patterns

Reduction in stage 3 sleep and frequent awakenings

Homeostasis and energy

Regulation of available/short-term energy (blood glucose) to maintain homeostasis

Humoral response

Release of hormones in response to feeding or not feeding. Ex.) insulin is released after you eat

H.M.

Removed MTL. Suffered from anterograde and retrograde amnesia but still had working and procedural memory

Hippocampus and spatial memory

Required for spatial and relational memory

A patient with brain trauma cannot remember events prior to the trauma. Which type of amnesia does this symptom indicate?

Retrograde amnesia

Leptin is a

Satiety signal (long-term)

Where does incoming information go first in the stages of memory?

Sensory buffers in order to process the info

How does info flow through the MTL?

Sensory info to cortical association areas to parahippocampal and rhinal cortical areas to hippocampus to fornix to thalamus/hypothalamus

Which transporter does cocaine bind to the strongest/with the highest affinity?

Serotonin (5HT), then DA, then NE

The removal of cerebral hemispheres in the cerebral cortex but not the hypothalamus would result in

Sham rage

Elizabeth Loftus found that

She could implant false memories about being in a shopping mall

Infant sleep is characterized by

Shorter sleep cycles and more REM

S-factor

Sleep need, adenosin

C-factor

Sleep urge, melotonin

What would be the consequences of deleting the ob gene?

Slowed metabolism, more stimulation to feed, increased parasympathetic NS behavior

Why is propranolol used to treat stage fright?

Slows heart rate and reduces blood pressure

Cholinergic neurons

Some enhance REM events, some are active during waking

Order you go through the sleep stages in

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3/4 (turn around and go back through 2 and 1) then REM

Which stage of sleep is the deepest?

Stage 4

What sleep stages do people tend to make up the most?

Stage 4 and REM

Which sleep cycles are most important?

Stages 3 and 4 + REM

MCH and orexin neurons

Stimulate appetite and reduce metabolic rate

Hippocampus and memory

Storage of memory, spatial memory, relational memory (where a rat is and where objects are)

Stages 3 and 4 of sleep are involved in...

Strengthening and consolidation of memories

Response strategy is formed in what part of the brain?

Striatum

Where is non-declarative memory stored?

Striatum

Insulin levels are maximal during which of the following phases of the body's reaction to feeding behavior?

Substrate

What is the 2nd leading cause in of death in people between the ages of 10-24?

Suicide

What is the role of the hippocampus in the stress response?

Suppresses the release of CRH from the hypothalamus

Do neurons have a higher amplitude when they are synchronized or unsynchronized?

Synchronized

SSRIs

inhibit the reuptake of 5-HT only

Increase in leptin

inhibits feeding behavior, increases metabolism, activates sympathetic NS, causes you to pull energy out of storage, activation of aMSH and CART neurons

Endorphins

Target pain receptors in the brain

If you were deprived of REM, what would this affect?

Task learning

What functions do emotions serve?

Tell others how we feel and what we are likely to do

What brain structure is known to act as a powerful pacemaker for the cerebral cortex?

Thalamus

Why is REM sleep referred to as paradoxical sleep?

The EEG for REM sleep is almost indistinguishable from an active, waking brain

Glucocorticoid release is controlled by cells in which part of the hypothalamus?

The PVN

Leptin inhibits

The activation of MCH and orexin neurons by NPY and AgRP neurons

In the HPA axis, ACTH enters the general circulation and stimulates what to release glucocorticoids?

The adrenal cortex

Where do hormones integrate?

The arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus

What part of the brain provides inhibitory signals to the hypothalamus and keeps aggression at bay?

The cerebral cortex

What provides an explanation as to why stress is an important mediator of depression?

The glucocorticoid/diathesis-stress hypothesis of depression

What brain structure is essential for long-term memory?

The hippocampus

Leptin activates

The inhibition of MCH and orexin neurons by aMSH and CART neurons

What are drug users chasing?

The initial high they got from a drug. You can never get this again. After using the drug for a while, the effects are just meh. Your brain is expecting it.

Who does the hypothalamus talk to?

The pituitary gland

Reconsolidation

The return of a memory to stable long-term storage after recall

Reconsolidation is inconsistent with

The standard consolidation model

True or False: The suprachiasmatic nucleus of the thalamus requires input from the retina to maintain circadian rhythms that are in phase with the day-night cycle.

True

True or False: people with amygdala damage have more trouble with negative emotions than positive emotions

True

True or false: Molecular clocks are similar in humans, mice, and mold.

True

True or false: Some of the new drugs used to treat schizophrenia do not support the dopamine hypothesis

True

True or false: the posterior pituitary is an extension of the hypothalamus

True

True or False: Hormones act on more than one organ

True!

True or False: hormones can cause a response in more than one type of receptor

True!

True or False: the amygdala activates the HPA axis

True!

True or false: If you transplant the SCN from one hamster into another, the circadian rhythm will be restored in the new hamster.

True!

True or false: dopamine is released in response to stressful situations as well as rewarding situations

True! It can motivate you to get away from something/out of a situation

True or False: If you were to increase serotonin, this would increase sleep and suppress REM sleep.

True.

Anxiety is a response to a ________ threat whereas fear is a response to a ________ threat/danger

Unknown; Known

Do neurons have a higher frequency when they are synchronized or unsynchronized?

Unsynchronized

When your stomach is full, mechanosensory neurons in the stomach wall sense the distension and transmit the sensation to the nucleus of the solitary tract in the medulla via which nerve?

Vagus

Which emotional response increases sympathetic, decreases parasympathetic activity and provides quick mobilization of energy for vigorous movement?

Visceral

What is the difference between wanting and liking?

Wanting - dependent on dopamine, motivated to DO an action, craving Liking - not dependent on dopamine, pleasure received

What happens to "wanting" and "liking" after you have been using a drug?

Wanting increases as you use the drug, liking doesn't change or decreases

When someone is addicted to something (e.g., alcohol, cocaine) they are most likely

Wanting the substance they are addicted to

When have antidepressants proven to be most effective?

When depression is severe

When is adenosine produced?

When increased neuronal activity breaks down glycogen stored in astrocytes

Can a place cell fire for more than one place?

Yes

Do areas of the brain that are more active during the day have more delta waves at night?

Yes

If you are blind but you still have specialized photoreceptors from the SCN, would you still have circadian rhythms?

Yes

If light is not present, will an animal still show sleep/wake cycles?

Yes! (Internal clock)

Do you have periods of non-REM sleep in between REM sleep!

Yes, between each one

What happens do DA firing when you receive the reward that you expected?

You still get a spike from the reward but not much changes.

If you were to block dopamine, would you block wanting, liking, or both?

You would block wanting. No affect on liking.

If you were to mimic dopamine (stimulate the VTA) what would happen to behavior?

You would keep wanting something even if it was dangerous.

What would happen if your brain stopped paying attention to ghrelin (become insensitive?)

You would lose your appetite and lose weight

According to the multiple trace theory, what would happen if you lesioned the hippocampus?

You would suffer from retrograde and anterograde amnesia (H.M. is an example of this)

Do younger or older people REM more?

Younger people

The external cue that animals use to discern the time of day is called a

Zeitgeber

Drugs for detoxification

benzodiazepines and drugs to help ease withdrawal symptoms

antagonists to the addictive drug

block effects of the abused drug but may produce withdrawal symptoms. Ex.) naloxone and naltrexone

Reward blocking medications

block positive reward effects of the abused drug but may produce a lack of all pleasurable feelings

4 mechanisms in regulating homeostasis

- System variable (something that is going to change) w/ set point - Detector (detects the change/when you are out of your range) - Correctional mechanism (gets you back into your range) - Negative feedback (shuts off correctional mechanism)

3 kinds of energy that your body has

- available energy (blood glucose) - short-term energy stores (glycogen in liver and muscle) - long-term energy stores (lipids in adipose tissue)

How long may REM sleep periods last?

30-50 minutes

How many sleep cycles do you have a night and how long are they?

4-5 per night, about 90 minutes long

SNRI's

5-HT & NE reuptake inhibitors

non-associative learning

A change in a behavioral response that occurs over time to a stimulus

Not enough fat on your body results in

A decrease in leptin

What is the role of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis in anxiety disorders?

Activates the HPA axis and the stress response

Which of the following represents the humoral response to a drop in leptin levels? A. Decreased secretion of TSH and ACTH from the pituitary gland B. Activate the sympathetic division of the ANS. C. Increased secretion of TSH and ACTH from the pituitary gland D. Activate the parasympathetic division of the ANS.

A. Decreased secretion of TSH and ACTH from the pituitary gland

Anxiety disorders have been related to which of the following? A. Elevated activity of the prefrontal cortex B. Diminished activity of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. C. Hyperactivity of the amygdala D. Diminished activity of the hippocampus

A. Elevated activity in the prefrontal cortex C. hyperactivity of the amygdala D. Diminished activity of the hippocampus

What is the behavior of mice lacking 5-HT1B receptors? A. Increased aggression B. Preference for open spaces C. More exploratory behavior D. Decreased aggression

A. Increased aggression

Which of the following represents delta rhythms, the hallmark of deep sleep? A. Less than 4 Hz B. 4-7 Hz C. 8-13 Hz D. Greater than 14 Hz

A. Less than 4 Hz

Which of the following describes schizophrenia? Choose the correct option. A. Loss of contact with others' reality and disruption of thought B. Repeated episodes of mania or mixed episodes of mania and depression C. Diminished ability to concentrate D. Lowered mood and decreased interest or pleasure in all activities

A. Loss of contact with others' reality and disruption of thought

Bilateral temporal lobectomy such as that sustained by H.M. is characterized by which of the following? A. Permanent anterograde amnesia but intact procedural memory B. Permanent anterograde amnesia as well as procedural memory deficits C. Permanent retrograde amnesia as well as procedural memory deficits D. Permanent procedural memory deficits and transient anterograde amnesia

A. Permanent anterograde amnesia but intact procedural memory

The hippocampus is critical for A. spatial memory. B. recognition of people and objects. C. consolidation of facts and events. D. integration of sensory information.

A. Spatial memory B. recognition of people and objects C. consolidation of facts and events D. integration of sensory information

Which statement concerning the use of antidepressant medication in general is true? A. The therapeutic effects of antidepressants involve changes in the brain that can take up to several weeks to develop. B. Antidepressant drugs have predictable outcomes and side effects that make it relatively easy for a psychiatrist to choose a medication for a given patient. C. The maintenance period of drug treatment should be no longer than 4 to 5 months. D. Placebo-controlled studies show that antidepressant medications are effective in about 80% of the people that use them for depression.

A. Therapeutic effects of antidepressants involve changes in the brain that can take up to several weeks to develop

Which of the following is a common side effect of frontal lobotomy in a human? A. Trouble concentrating B. Profound memory loss C. Decreased IQ D. Increased anxiety

A. Trouble concentrating

The most effective sites for electrical self-stimulation (select all that apply) A. become ineffective if dopamine receptors are blocked B. are involved in natural rewards, such as food and water C. are along the nigrostriatal dopamine pathway D. are along the mesolimbic dopamine pathway

A. become ineffective if dopamine receptors are blocked B. are involved in natural rewards, such as food and water D. are along the mesolimbic dopamine pathway

Which of the following are treatment options for substance use disorder? (select all that apply) A. medications to make taking the drug unpleasant B. medications that block the rewarding properties of the drug C. medications that mimic the drug D. medications to reduce withdrawal

A. medications to make taking the drug unpleasant B. medications that block the rewarding properties of the drug C. medications that mimic the drug D. medications to reduce withdrawal

The anterior pituitary contributes to the HPA axis by releasing

ACTH

Identify the postganglionic neurotransmitter present in the parasympathetic division of the ANS.

ACh

Acute effects of stress

Activation of SNS, digestion suppressed, increased heart rate and blood flow, pulls energy out of storage

Karl Lashley studied the effects of various-sized cortical lesions on maze performance in rats. He concluded that the memory deficits were correlated with the size of the lesion but not the location and hypothesized that all cortical areas contribute equally to learning and memory. What is the current interpretation of these experiments?

All cortical areas do not contribute equally to memory, but memories are widely distributed.

Which of the following are structures in the limbic system? (select all that apply) A. anterior nuclei of thalamus B. hippocampus C. medulla D. hypothalamus E. amygdala F. cingulate gyrus

All except for the medulla

Which of the following structures make up the medial temporal lobe (MTL)? (select all that apply) A. hippocampus B. parahippocampal cortex C. perirhinal cortex D. entorhinal cortex

All of the above

Storing energy

Anabolism

Is caffeine an adenosine agonist or antagonist?

Antagonist - acts against it

Which part of the pituitary makes its own hormones?

Anterior pituitary

A friend of yours has a sudden onset memory loss and also doesn't seem to be able to make new memories for a few hours as they keep asking you the same questions repeatedly. What kind of amnesia is your friend suffering from?

Anterograde amnesia, retrograde amnesia, and transient global amnesia

Benzodiazapines are a type of

Anxiolytic (anxiety reducing) medication

Insulin

Associated with storage, produced in the pancrease

Classical conditioning

Associating a stimulus that evokes a measurable response with a second stimulus that normally does not evoke this response

Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are both examples of

Associative learning

Where do appetite signals converge?

At the nucleus of the solitary tract (NST)

The basolateral nuclei of the amygdala receives

Auditory, tactile, gustatory, and visual afferents

Which communication system speaks directly to ganglia?

Autonomic NS

Where are the lower motor neurons of the autonomic nervous system located?

Autonomic ganglia

The information sent out from the hypothalamus previously from the CeN is responsible for

Autonomic response. Lesion it = lose NS response

At 12 pm, your S-factor and C-factor are

Both moderate

What is the role of the central nucleus of the amygdala in the stress response? A. Activation of the hippocampus. B. Activates the diffuse modulatory systems of the brain to increase vigilance C. Activates hypothalamic stimulation of the HPA axis and the sympathetic nervous system D. Activates periaqueductal gray matter to produce avoidance behavior

B. Activates the diffuse modulatory systems of the brain to increase vigilance C. Activates hypothalamic stimulation of the HPA axis and the sympathetic nervous system D. Activates PAG matter to produce avoidance behavior

Animals like rats can be good models to study addiction because: A. they will self-administer the same drugs that humans abuse. B. All of these things make animals like rats good models for studying addiction. C. they will suffer pain in order to gain access drugs of abuse, just as humans will. D. they can 'recover' from drug addiction, just like humans do.

B. All of these things make animals like rats good models for studying addiction

Injecting corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) into experimental animals can produce which of the following behavioral effects? A. Decreased fear response B. Increased behavioral expression of anxiety C. Psychotic behaviors D. Hyperactivity

B. Increased behavioral expression of anxiety

Lesions of the periaqueductal gray would affect A. feeling pain. B. running away from something scary. C. sweating in response to something that induces fear. D. an increase in heart rate when presented with something that induces fear.

B. Running away from something scary

Which of the following statements reflects the argument against a discrete emotion system? A. There are discrepancies between the elements of the Papez circuit and Broca's limbic lobe. B. Solid evidence indicates that some structures involved in emotion are also involved in other functions. C. Structures involved in emotion are not involved in other functions. D. There are clear one-to-one relationships between the structure and function of the elements of the Papez circuit.

B. Solid evidence indicates that some structures involved in emotion are also involved in other functions

In a learned fear experiment you pair a context with a shock and measure freezing behavior and stress hormones in a rat. What is the conditioned stimulus in this learned fear procedure? What would the conditioned response be? A. shock B. context C. pain D. Fear

B. context - it is what is being conditioned to make the rat fearful D. Fear - conditioned response

Where do GABA neurons from the VPLA project to and what do they do?

Basal forebrain: ACh Locus Coeruleus: NE Tuberomammilary nucleus: Histamine Inhibit these arousal areas = sleep

Information from the visual and auditory sensory systems feeds into which part of the amygdala?

Basolateral nuclei

In the proposed neural circuit for learned fear, the synaptic changes thought to underlie the conditioning are located where?

Basolateral nuclei of the amygdala

A hamster kept in constant dim light will eventually

Become free-running

Associative learning

Behavior is altered by the formation of new associations between events

Which emotional response makes you elicit muscular movements in response to a situation?

Behavioral

The information sent out from the PAG previously in the CeN is responsible for

Behavioral response

What drugs bind to and enhance GABA function to decrease anxiety?

Benzodiazapines

Which are two major classes of anxiolytic drugs?

Benzodiazepines and serotonin-selective reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

What does the drug PCPA do?

Blocks serotonin synthesis = increased aggression

Chronic effects of stress

Immune suppression, negatively impacts your heart (can lead to stroke and heart attacks, depression and anxiety

Where and how does cocaine act in the brain?

In the NAcc It blocks the reutake of DA, NE, and serotonin (5HT) = more of these neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft

Where and how does heroin act in the brain?

In the VTA Binds to receptors on GABA neurons (inhibitory neurons) and inhibits them. This leads to increased firing and DA in the NAcc.

Where and how does nicotine act in the brain?

In the VTA Increases glutamate and decreases GABA = more excitability of DA neuron

What is the most common symptom of amygdala lesions in humans?

Inability to recognize the facial expression of fear

Are depression and anxiety caused by an increase or decrease in cortisol?

Increase

Would the accumulation of adenosine increase or decrease delta activity?

Increase to allow for recovery

What happens do DA firing when you receive a reward that is better than expected?

Increased DA firing

Which is a consequence of leptin deficiency?

Increased NPY and AgRP in the arcuate nucleus

A decrease in serotonin would result in

Increased aggression

Electrical stimulation of the amygdala elicits what response in humans?

Increased anxiety and fear

What would happen if you became insensitive to leptin?

Increased appetite, slowed metabolism, gain weight

CeN stimulation would result in

Increased fear and aggression, increased cortisol

MAOIs

Inhibit the degradation of 5-HT, NE, and DA. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors

TCAs

Inhibit the reuptake of NE and 5-HT

Are emotions innate or learned?

Innate!

What would happen if you destroyed the VPLA?

Insomnia

What happens if your blood glucose levels spike?

Insulin lowers them

Sensitization

Intensifies your response to a stimuli, including those that previously evoked little or no reaction.

The symptoms of PTSD include A. irritability. B. increased anxiety. C. flashbacks of the traumatic experience. D. intrusive memories.

Irritability, increased anxiety, flashbacks of the traumatic experience, intrusive memories

Which drugs inhibit only the reuptake of NE?

NERI's

What does melanopsin do?

It is slowly excited by light (expressed by specialized photoreceptors in the retina)

What is the function of the central nucleus of the amygdala?

It is the major output region of the amygdala, takes in info from elsewhere in the amygdala (ex.) basolateral nucleus and medial nucleus) and integrates it

What does cocaine do to the brain in regards to DA?

It reduces/blocks the release of it. When given a dopamine producing/releasing drug, cocaine users will not release dopamine in the brain.

How would a decrease in serotonin affect sleep?

It would lead to insomnia

If the hippocampus was damaged, what would happen to the HPA axis?

It would lose negative feedback and become over-active

Anorexia can result from damage to which of the following parts of the brain?

Lateral hypothalamus

Which of the following structures is associated with predatory aggression, as shown by stimulation experiments in cats?

Lateral hypothalamus

Habituation

Learning to ignore stimuli that lacks meaning

An animal with dopmine depleted will

Like food, but not want it

What stimulates hunger?

Lipoprivation (drop in fat signals)

If you were to lesion the MTL, but not the striatum, what would be the result?

Loss of declarative memory, but not procedural memory

Issues with the basic theories of emotion

Lots of overlap in brain areas, not fully distinct

If you are fasted, what do your insulin and glucose levels look like?

Low insulin, low blood glucose

By what means does the hypothalamus control the posterior pituitary gland?

Magnocellular neurosecretory cells

Medications that alter drug metabolism

Makes the drug produce unpleasant side effects. Ex.) Antabuse

How did Hebb define the cell assembly?

Neurons simultaneously activated by an external stimulus that are reciprocally interconnected

What are hippocampal place cells?

Neurons that fire when the animal is in a specific location

A lesion to the CeN would result in

No fear response to things that have been conditioned to being fearful, decreased cortisol

Can differences in dopamine function explain all symptoms and biological markers in schizophrenia?

No!

Does dopamine only mediate sensory pleasure?

No!

If you lesion the central nucleus in the amygdala, will a rat still respond to a cue (previously paired with a shock) with a fearful response?

No!

Does the posterior pituitary produce hormones?

No! It only RELEASES hormones that are produced in the hypothalamus

Is a psychiatric disorder a developmental disability?

No! Nor is it just a mood disorder

Does memory trace deteriorate over time?

No, but it can be interfered with by other events

Does the limbic system use a single, discrete emotion system?

No, it is much more complicated than that

Do sleep deprived people make up stages 1 and 2 of sleep?

No, only 3 and 4 and REM

Do SSRIs only treat anxiety and depression together?

No, they can treat anxiety individually

Habituation and sensitization are both examples of

Non-associative learning

Which kind of learning involves a change in behavioral response that occurs over time in response to a single type of stimulus?

Non-associative learning

Which of the following is a neurotransmitter used by postganglionic fibers of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system?

Norepinephrine

Glucagon

Opposite of insulin, pulls energy out of storage, produced in pancreas

Which of these is not released by the anterior pituitary? ACTH FSH Oxytocin Growth hormone

Oxytocin

The posterior pituitary releases ___ and the anterior pituitary releases ___.

Oxytocin, vasopressin; hypophysiotropic hormones

"Misinformation effect" and memory contamination?

The wording of questions has a profound effect on people's recollection of memories. How fast were the cars going when they "smashed/hit/contacted" one another

When you are fasted what are your glucagon levels like?

They are high - pulling energy out of storage

If you are just ate a large meal, what are your ghrelin levels like?

They are low

If you are fasted, what are your CCK levels like?

They are low - hungry!

What would make neurons fire synchronously?

They can fire mutually/collectively (mutual excitation/inhibition) or because of a pacemaker (thalamus)

How do benzodiazepines treat anxiety?

They enhance GABA

How do hormones relate to their targets?

They have different effects on each target and act to coordinate different parts of the body

What effect do anti-histamines have on sleep?

They increase sleep because histaminergic neurons enhance wakefulness

In a learned fear experiment you pair a context with a shock and measure freezing behavior and stress hormones in a rat. What do you expect to happen to the levels of stress hormones when you place the animal in the context after you have done the learned fear procedure?

They should increase

If you had increased NE, how would this affect sleep/wakefulness?

This would keep you awake (anxiety disorders)

According to the standard theory of consolidation what would happen if you lesioned the hippocampus?

This would result in only anterograde amnesia

Are there more mechanisms to make you start eating or to make you stop eating?

To make you start

What happens when glucose levels get too low? Too high?

Too low = brain cells cannot function leading to unconsciousness Too high = damage to kidney, retina, peripheral nerves, cardiovascular system

Reinforcement is achieved by

adding a pleasant stimulus or removing an aversive stimulus

What releases leptin?

adipose tissue

Visceromotor response

adjust the balance of sympathetic and parasympathetic outputs in autonomic nervous system

ACTH

adrenal cortex

Which neurons in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus are activated by an increase in blood leptin levels?

alphaMSH/CART neurons

What part of the brain integrates emotional responses?

amygdala

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

The basolateral nuclei of the amygdala receives

auditory, tactile, gustatory, and visual afferents

3 Components of an emotional response

behavioral, autonomic, hormonal

cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia

deficits in cognitive abilities, specifically in executive functioning, attention, and working memory

positive symptoms of schizophrenia

delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, catatonic behavior

Monoamine hypothesis of depression

depression is caused by insufficient activity of monoaminergic neurons

Dimensional theories of emotion

emotions can be broken down into smaller fundamental elements combined in different ways and differing amounts. Emotions correspond to brain activation along dimensions such as valence (pos. or neg.) and arousal

medial temporal lobe

encodes and transfers new explicit memories to long-term memory. Involved in learning/storing information

growth hormone

entire body, anterior pituitary

EOG measures what?

eye movement

A psychiatric disorder is a combination of how a person

feels, acts, thinks, and perceives

NE neurons

fire during wakefulness, slow down in sleep

negative symptoms of schizophrenia

flat affect, difficulty initiating goal-directed behavior, anhedonia (reduced emotions), memory impairment

When is the onset of schizophrenia?

late adolescence or early adulthood

What does the Ob gene produce?

leptin

What happens under dim light if you lesion the SCN?

lose endogenous circadian rhythm

MEG

magnetic fields

where are the "reward centers" in the brain?

mesolimbic pathway, VTA - nucleus accumbens (NAcc), medial forebrain bund;e

CeN lesioned animals are

more tame, less stressed, less likely to develop ulcers

EMG measures what?

muscle activity

TSH

thyroid stimulating hormone