NGO First Exam
Evolution of Western NGOs
-According to Charnovitz (1997), there are seven stages in the evolution of NGOs -"Emergence" of NGOs from 1775 to 1918 and concludes with a current phase of relative NGO "empowerment" that has been in evidence since the UN Rio Conference in 1992
NGO Definition (C. Warkentin)
Private, voluntary, non-profit associations whose membership and organizational activities cross national boundaries; Any international organization which is not established by inter-governmental agreement
Beginning of Western NGOs
-Begins with the growth of a range of national-level issue-based organizations during the late eighteenth century, such as those focused on the abolition of the slave trade and the peace movements -By 1900, there were 425 peace societies active in different parts of the world, and debates over labour rights and free trade were creating new types of interest group which were antecedents of what today we would term NGOs -Examples would be the first national labour union in the US - International Federation of Tobacco Workers in 1876 -A growing level of involvement of NGOs continued during the League of Nations period in the 1920s and 1930s
Modernization Theory
-Bringing Western methods - "capitalism" - to development -Influenced by neoclassical economics and liberal political theory -dominant development theory during the decades that followed the Second World War -Poor countries need to achieve economic take-off and free themselves from the "traditional" social and cultural impediments for development to happen -"trickle-down" economics -NGOs are rarely mentioned
+Reason for dramatic growth of NGOs in the late 1980s, early 1990s
-Cold War ended; the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 -SU was once a "policeman" of the world like the US -So once collapse, pro-democracy NGOS could provide to the former states of the SU who had no experience with democracy -The world is more fluid, but much more unstable after collapse - many states have failed -Technology -The rise of NGOs in development can be associated with both the growth of neoliberal policy agendas and the emergence of alternative development ideas and practices -Charnovitz (4 sets of reasons) - 1.) the growth of intergovernmental negotiation around domestic policy brought about by increasing integration of the world economy, 2.) See Soviet Union Collapse, 3.) the emergence of a global media system which provides a platform for NGOs to express their views, 4.) the spread of democratic norms which may have increased public expectations about participation and transparency in decision-making
Implementers
-Concerned with the mobilization of resources to provide goods and services to people who need them -The service delivery role embodies a wide range of activities carried out by NGOs in fields as diverse as healthcare, microfinance, agricultural extension, emergency relief and human rights -Service delivery work has increased, due to being increasingly "contracted" by governments and donors within the last two decades of governance reform and privatization to carry out specific tasks in return for payment -More prominent now as increasing emphasis is given to the role of NGOs responding to man-made emergencies or natural disasters within the framework of humanitarian action
What is the meaning of development?
-Development is a highly contested concept, with both economic and broader dimensions (UN's 8 Goals in 2000 - eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, achieving universal primary education, promoting gender equality, reducing child morality, improving maternal health, fighting diseases such as HIV/AIDS and malaria, ensuring environmental sustainability and developing global partnerships for action) - "is the reduction of material want and the enhancement of people's ability to live a life they consider good across the broadest range possible in a population" (Edwards 1999) -Development can be usefully separated out into two main meanings: deliberate attempts at progress, and the outcomes of unfolding capitalist change -NGOs are largely ignored by some types of development theory, while others have attributed significant roles to them -A key area of development to which NGOs have contributed is that of "people-centered" development, reflecting recent shifts away from heavily theoretical ideas about development, to more pragmatic "theories about practice" -NGOs have become most closely linked to development theory, which relates to issues such as empowerment, participation, gender, and social capital
NGOs under different names for thousands of years (Part 1)
-Ideas about NGOs can be seen to have emerged from longer-term traditions of both philanthropy and self-help common to all societies -The concept of "philanthropy", defined as "the ethical notions of giving and serving to those beyond one's intermediate family", has existed in different forms across most cultures throughout history, often driven by religious tradition (Illchman et al. 1998) -A range of local organizations and initiatives have operated in most societies for generations in the form of religious organizations, community groups and organized self-help ventures in villages and towns, often going unnoticed by governments and development agencies (Anheier 2005) -Colonization by European powers of large areas of the less developed world brought missionaries whose activities often included prototypical NGO initiatives that attempted to bring about improvements in the fields of education, health-service provision, women's rights and agricultural development -These included both "welfare" approaches that stressed charity and amelioration of hardship, and more "empowerment" approaches that drew on community organizing and bottom-up community development work ( Fernando and Heston 1997)
Neoliberalism
-Influenced by classical liberals: John Locke (limited role for government) and Adam Smith (Laissez-faire doctrine) -Expanding trade and commerce, lowering tariffs, government is a "invisible hand" -20th century conservative thinkers advocate for similar ideology like classical liberalism - now are called neoliberal -IMF, World Bank, WTO are examples of neoliberal institutions -How does a state achieve? - market competition, lower tariffs, structural adjustments, limited government -Weaken labor unions and do not raise the minimum wage -NGOs are seen as one of the three main institutional sectors; with the "right" rules and incentives in place, and in optimum circumstances and contexts, NGOs can have comparative advantages over the other two sectors in providing service -NGOs are flexible agents of democratization and private cost-effective service delivery
NGOs under different names for thousands of years (Part 2)
-Many of UK's best-known NGOs had existed for many years before they became large, internationally known organizations from the 1980s onwards, and had been focused on relief work in Europe -Save the Children Fund (SCF) was founded in 1919 after the trauma of the First World War, Oxfam (Oxford Committee Against the Famine was established in 1942 to order to provide famine relief to victims of the Greek Civil War, the US agency CARE was originally engaged in sending US food packages to Europe in 1946 after the Second World War
History/Culture - NGOs
-NGO histories around the world -Authors make reference to specific regions and the kinds of NGOs that emerged there -Latin America - Catholic Church - Played a role in "liberation theology"; priests and nuns advocated and influenced by Marxism/communism - they wanted to help liberate the poor, farmer, living in the countryside, but Saint Pope John Paul II was critical of this, and Pope Francis is more accepting - this contributed to the kinds of NGOs and social movements in Latin America that had and has help to liberate the poor -South Asia (specifically India) - the authors mention the role of Christian missionaries, the growth of a middle class (reformist), many member educated in England (Oxford, Cambridge Universities), the influence of Gandhi and role of peaceful protest in India, an emphasis on microfinance in both India and Africa - associations provide money, especially to women, $50/$100 loans to start business, train them (records, etc.) to survive on their own
Catalysts
-Normally understood as a person or thing which brings about change -The catalyst role can therefore be defined as an NGO's ability to inspire, facilitate or contribute to improved thinking and action to promote change -This may be directed towards individuals/groups in local communities, or among other actors in development such as government, business, or donors -May include grassroots organizing, group formation, gender and empowerment work, lobbying and advocacy work, undertaking and disseminating research, and attempts to influence wider policy processes through innovation and policy entrepreneurship
Dependency Theory
-State of dependency - Marxist - create organizations and institutions to allow dependency (World Bank; IMO) - dictate the terms - keep the poor countries poor -Development would never be possible for poor countries which found themselves locked into a set of highly unfavorable terms of trade within a global system organized to suit the economic requirements of Western capitalist countries -Only large-scale structural change would enable them to break out of this "dependent" relationship and build their own autonomous pathways NGOs are rarely mentioned, but "social movements" are often seen as positive forces for liberation and revolutionary change
Institutionalism
-The importance of institutions - such as legal and regulatory frameworks - became a renewed theme within the economics and political development during the late 1980s -Do not leave markets to its own devices -Not all benevolent individuals - not all management people minded individuals -Do what is necessary -Try to protect institutions and rules/regulations -Only by improving structural relationships and economic incentives will optimum conditions for development be achieved -NGOs are seen as one of the three main institutional sectors; with the "right" rules and incentives in place, and in optimum circumstances and contexts, NGOs can have comparative advantages over the other two sectors in providing service
Partners
-Works together with another and shares the risk or benefit from a joint venture -The role of partner reflects the growing trend for NGOs to work with government, donors, and the private sector on joint activities, such as providing specific inputs within a broader multi-agency programme or project -Also includes activities that take place among NGOs and with communities such as "capacity-building" work which seeks to develop and strengthen capabilities -The commonly used policy rhetoric of "partnership" poses an important challenge for NGOs to build mutually beneficial relationships that are effective, responsive and non-dependent
Three Main Roles for NGOs (Lewis and Kanji)
1.) Implementers, 2.) Catalysts, 3.) Partners - Of course a particular NGO is rarely confined to a single role, and many organizations engage in all three types of activities at once. An NGO may, as Korten's model below suggests, shift its emphasis from one to the other over time, as contexts and opportunities change.
NGO Definition (Lewis and Kanji)
Broad - third sector or non-profit research; Common-sense definition: "NGOs are organizations concerned with the promotion of social, political or economic change---an agenda that is usually associated with the concept of "development". This gives emphasis to the idea that an NGO is an agency that is primarily engaged in work relating to the areas of development or humanitarian work at local, national, and international levels."
NGO Definition (S. Ahmed and D.M. Porter)
Cannot be for profit, cannot advocate violence, cannot be a political party, a school, or a university
NGO Definition (K. Martens)
NGOS are formal, professional independent societal organizations whose primary aim is to promote common goals of national and international level; private organization that registers interest in democracy; Can receive financial funding from institutions, but only to an extent
NGO Definition (C. Beyer)
NGOS are non-state, non-profit, non-violent organizations with the main objective of pursuing political or social change without striving for governmental power
NGO Definition (UN)
Six Principles - 1.) An NGO should support the aims and the work of the UN. However, it is very rare that objections are made to the political purposes of NGOs, 2.) Officially, an NGO should be a representative body with identifiable headquarters, and officers who are responsible to a democratic-policy conference. In practice, many highly prestigious NGOs, particularly development and environment NGOS are not membership organizations, 3.) An NGO cannot be a profit-making body. Individual companies cannot gain consultative status, but trade federations of commercial interests are recognized as NGOS, 4.) An NGO cannot use or advocate violence, 5.) An NGO must respect the norm of "non-interference in the internal affairs of state". This means an NGO cannot be a political party---but, like companies, parties can form international federations. Also, NGOs concerned with human rights should not restrict their activities to a particular group, nationality, or country, 6.) An international NGO is one that is not established by intergovernmental agreement