NHM 372 Chapter 6

ingredient room 3

Foodservice management computer programs support the ingredient room. Recipe amounts are adjusted and printed by computer, making them easier to read and more likely to be accurate than when these adjustments are done manually and are hand printed. This and other types of computer-adjusted recipes increase the speed and productivity of the ingredient room employee and eliminate product errors and costly mistakes. Computers also can produce consol-idated ingredient lists by individual ingredients or by production area. In a computer-assisted op-eration, the recipe can be adjusted and peel-off labels printed for each ingredient. These labels, which usually have the ingredient name and quantity, facilitate marking the ingredient packages for each recipe.

Production meetings

Foodservice managers in small operations and unit supervisors in large ones should hold a meet-ing daily with employees in the production unit. Ordinarily, these production meetings can be rather short, but when a menu is changed, more time is required to discuss new recipes and employee assignments. In foodservice operations that serve breakfast, lunch, and dinner, these meetings are generally scheduled after lunch, when activity in the production unit is minimal.

Forecasting

Forecasting is the art and science of estimating events in the future and provides the database for decision making and planning. The art of forecasting is the intuition of the forecaster, and the science is the use of past data in a tested model. Both are required to estimate future needs. Forecasting is described as a function of production and constitutes the basis for procurement. Computerized systems often are used to facilitate the forecasting process.

Types of models

Forecasting models have been classified in numerous ways, but the three most common model categories are: • Time series • Causal • Subjective A model in one classification may include some features of the others. In all methods of forecasting, trends and seasonality in the data must be considered.

Production demand

Forecasting not only is a function of production but also is needed for procurement. Food products must be available for producing menu items for customers. The primary result of forecast-ing should be customer satisfaction; customers expect to receive what they ordered. In addition, the foodservice manager is concerned with food cost; both overproduction and underproduction affect the bottom line.

formula

Ft = [aDt-1] + [(1 - a)Ft-1] where a = a constant, usually between 0.1 and 0.3 (judgment factor) Ft = smoothed value at time t (new forecast) Dt−1 = actual observed value at time t - 1 (last demand) Ft−1 = preceding smoothed value (last forecast) Stated in words, this forecast equation is New forecast = { judgment * last factor demand} * {1 - judgment factor * last forecast }

batch cooking

High-speed equipment available today, such as convection steamers and combi-ovens, has made batch cooking feasible for a broad range of menu items. Because many vegetables do not hold up well in a heated service counter, they are frequently prepared using batch cookery. Grilled, deep-fried, and broiled items are examples of other products that should be cooked in small quantities to meet service demands.

centralized ingredient control 2

In addition, less-skilled employees can develop skill in performing prepreparation tasks, thereby reducing labor cost. Combining tasks for two or more recipes using similar ingredients is another efficiency. For example, chopped onions may be needed for both meat loaf and a sauce at lunch and for both soup and salad on the dinner menu. By centralizing prepreparation, all the onion that is needed can be chopped at one time and divided into separate batches for each of the four recipes.

recipes

A recipe is a formula by which weighed and measured ingredients are combined in a specific pro-cedure to meet predetermined standards. The recipe is actually a written communication tool that passes information from the foodservice manager to the ingredient room and production employees. In addition, the recipe is an excellent quality-and quantity-control tool, constituting a standard for each item on the menu that meets customer and management approval. Cost for each recipe can be easily computed because the ingredients and the amount will be the same each time the recipe is used. Recipes should have a format that is easily understood by the personnel who are respon-sible for the production and presentation of menu items to customers. Once a recipe has been tested repeatedly and accepted by management and customers, it becomes a standardized recipe and always gives the same results.

Linear regression

In linear regression the word linear signifies the intent of the analysis to find an equation for a straight line that fits the data points most closely. In conventional statistical terminology, the item being forecast is called the dependent variable (Y), and the factors that affect it are called independent variables (X). In the analysis, historic demand data for a single variable will result in a derived equation from a linear regression process in the form of a straight line: Y = a0 + a1X

relevancy of past data

In most forecasting models, the general assumption is that past behav-ioral patterns and relationships will continue in the future. If a clear relationship between the past and the future does not exist, the past data will not be relevant in developing forecasts. In these cases, subjective approaches, such as those that rely heavily on the opinions of knowledge-able persons, may be more appropriate.

Ingredient room organization

In the design of a new foodservice facility, an ingredient room that can be locked should be lo-cated between the storage and production areas. In an existing facility, the ingredient room may be located in or near a storeroom, combined with the prepreparation area, or put in a designated part of the production unit. Necessary large equipment includes refrigeration, which should be in or near the ingredi-ent room area, and a water supply. Trucks or carts are needed for assembly and delivery of recipe ingredients and portable bins for storing sugar, flour, and other dry ingredients. A worktable or a counter is required, with shelving over or near it for such products as spices. An example of an ingredient room worktable is shown in Figure 6-6. Scales are the most essential pieces of equipment for an ingredient room. A countertop scale and a portion scale are required for weighing the various types of recipe ingredients. Other equipment will vary depending on the specific functions assigned to the ingredient room, such as a slicer, vertical/cutter mixer, food waste disposal, and mixer.

percentage method

In the percentage method, measurements for ingredients are converted to weights and then the percentage of the total weight for each ingredient is computed. The number of portions is forecast, which provides the basis for determining the ingredient weights from the ingredient percentages. Formulas that have been converted to percentages need not be re-calculated. This method allows adjustment to the portion size or forecast and permits a shift of ingredients to be done easily. Percentages can be readily determined using a desk calculator and with computer assistance they are made even easier. Molt (2001) described the following step-by-step method for recipe adjustment via the percentage method:

food production

In the simplest possible terms, the objective of food production is the preparation of menu items in the needed quantity and with the desired quality, at a cost appropriate to the particular foodservice operation. Quantity is the element that distinguishes production in food services from home or family food preparation. Quality, an essential concomitant of all food preparation, becomes an extremely vital consideration in mass food production due to the number of employees involved. Quality includes not only the aesthetic aspects of a food product but also nutritional factors and microbiological safety. Cost determines whether or not a product should be produced for a specific customer in that operation.

Ingredient control

Ingredient control is a major component of quality and quantity control in the production sub-system and a critical dimension of cost control throughout the foodservice system. The pro-cess of ingredient control begins with purchasing, receiving, and storage of foods and continues through forecasting and production.

Developed

A standardized recipe is one that has been developed for use by a given foodservice operation and has been found to produce consistent results and yield each time it is prepared. The terms quantity recipe and standardized recipe often are confused. Any recipe that produces 25 servings or more is termed a quantity recipe. Quantity recipes are not standardized, how-ever, until they have been adapted to an individual operation. Gregoire and Henroid (2002) described the recipe standardization process as a cycle of three phases: recipe verification, product evaluation, and quantity adjustment (see Figure 6-9). All recipes start in the recipe verification phase and then move through the product evaluation and quantity adjustment phases. These three phases are repeated until a recipe is standardized (i.e., produces a consistent product).

Ingredient room staffing

According to Dougherty (1984a), in an operation without an ingredient room, production em-ployees spend about one-third of their time determining needs, obtaining supplies, and weighing higher-level skill tasks, which allows management to reassign less-skilled employees from production to the ingredient room. In smaller operations in which a full-time employee is not needed for ingredient assembly, schedules of production employees can be arranged to permit them to weigh and assemble ingredients. As Dougherty (1984b) indicated, the more activities are centralized, the greater will be the realized benefits.

historical records

Adequate historical records constitute the basis for most forecasting processes. Often, past customer counts, number of menu items prepared, or sales records are used to determine the number of each menu items to prepare. These records must be accurate and complete, or they cannot be extended into the future with any reliability.

tabels

Buchanan (1993) developed tables for adjusting weight and volume of ingredients in rec-ipes that are divisible by 25. Beginning with weights and measures for 25 portions, incremental values are given in these tables for various magnitudes up to 500. Use of these tables allows adjustment of recipes with a known yield in one of the amounts indicated to desired yields di-visible by 25. An example of a direct reading table for adjusting weight ingredients of recipes is shown in Table 6-9. For example, the amount of ground beef needed for 225 portions, us-ing a recipe designed to produce 100 portions, can be determined easily using the table. If the 100-portion recipe requires 10 pounds and 8 ounces of beef, then reading to the right for the amount for 200 portions (21 lb) and the left for 25 portions (2 lb 10 oz), the total of 23 lb 10 oz can be determined quickly.

casual model

Causal forecasting models, like time series models, are based on the assumption that an identifiable relationship exists between the item being forecast and other factors. These factors might include selling price, number of customers, market availability, and almost any-thing else that might influence the item being forecast. Causal models vary in complexity from those relating only one factor, such as selling price, to items being forecast to models using a system of mathematical equations that include numerous variables. The cost of developing and using causal models is generally high, and consequently they are not used frequently for short-term forecasting, such as for perishable produce. They are, however, popular for medium-and long-term forecasts, such as for canned goods.

Percentage steps 2

Check the ratio of ingredients. Standards of ingredient proportions have been estab-lished for many items. The ingredients should be in proper balance before going further. STEP 5 Establish the weight needed to provide the desired number of servings, which will be in relation to pan size, portion weight, or equipment capacity. Examples include the following: • Total weight must be divisible by the weight per pan. • A cookie portion may weigh 0.14 lb per serving; therefore, 0.14 times the number of desired servings equals the weight needed. • Recipe total quantities should be compatible with mixing bowl capacity. Use the established portions, modular pan charts, or known capacity equipment guides to determine batch sizes. The weight of each individual serving is the constant used in calculating a recipe.

ingredient assembly

Concepts related to receiving, storage, and inventory control are important components of ingredient control, particularly issuing from storage. Clear policies and procedures control the issue and assem-bly of all food and supplies, from delivery to service, by requiring proper authorization for removal of products from storage and by issuing only required quantities for production and service.

Percentage method steps

STEP 1 Convert all ingredients from measure or pounds and ounces to tenths of a pound. Make desired equivalent ingredient substitutions, such as frozen whole eggs for fresh or pow-dered milk for liquid. STEP 2 Total the weight of ingredients in a recipe after each ingredient has been converted to weight in the edible portion (EP). For example, the weight of carrots or celery should be the weight after cleaning and peeling. The recipe may show both AP (as purchased) and EP weights, but the edible portion is used in determining the total portion weight. STEP 3 Calculate the percentage of each ingredient in the recipe in relation to the total weight. (Note: The sum of all percentages must equal 100.) Individual ingredient weight /Total weight * 100 = Percentage of each ingredient

Characteristics of the product

The characteristics of the product or menu items depend upon the type of operation, such as short orders in a limited-menu restaurant or hotel coffee shop, individual item selections in a full-service restaurant, or a fixed menu in a school. For example, a ground meat patty might be served as a grilled hamburger on a bun for a limited-menu restaurant, a charbroiled ground steak for a full-service restaurant, or an oven-baked hamburger for a nursing home.

Cost of model

The cost of a forecasting model involves the expenses of both development and operation. The developmental costs arise from constructing the model, validating the forecast sta-bility, and often purchasing a computer forecasting program. In some cases, educating managers in the use of the model is another cost element. Operational costs, including the cost of making a forecast after the model is developed, are affected by the amount of data and computation time needed. More elaborate models require large amounts of data and thus can be very expensive.

Quality demand

The desire for an efficient foodservice operation requires that the production manager knows the estimated number of customers or the number of servings of each menu item in time to order from the procurement unit. Good forecasts are essential for managers in planning smooth transi-tions from current to future output, regardless of the size or type of the foodservice (i.e., schools, hospitals, or restaurants). Forecasts vary in sophistication from those based on historical records and intuition to complex models requiring large amounts of data and computer time. Choosing a forecasting model that is suitable for a particular situation is essential.

standardized recipes

The development and use of standardized recipes greatly facilitate purchasing and food production. When adjusted to an accurate forecast quantity, these recipes provide assurance that standards of quality will be consistently maintained. A well-planned program beginning with the standardization of recipes and production procedures needs to be developed individually for each foodservice operation.

Factor method 1

To illustrate use of the factor method, assume a college residence hall foodservice has ham loaf on the menu. The recipe in the file is for 50 portions; however, the forecast production demand is 250 portions. Using the procedure outlined previously, the ham loaf recipe would be adjusted to the desired number of servings by first converting the ingredients, as appropriate, to decimal equivalents, as shown in Table 6-4. The conversion factor to adjust the base recipe from 50 to 250 portions would be determined by dividing the 250 by 50; the resulting factor is 5. The next step is to multiply the ingredient amounts by the factor. To assist the cooks in using the recipe, ingredients for 250 portions of ham loaf would be stated in pounds and ounces or quarts and cups, as shown in the last column in Table 6-5.

Production

After procurement, production is the next major subsystem in the transformation el-ement of the foodservice system; it is highlighted in Figure 6-1. Because of the increased use of partially processed foods, such as peeled and sliced apples, often prepreparation will be done in the production unit. Production in the generic sense is the process by which products are created. In the context of foodservice, production is the managerial function of converting food purchased in various stages of preparation into menu items that are served to customers. In foodservice operations today, production is no longer considered merely cooking in the kitchen. It involves planning and controlling ingredients, production methods, food quality, labor productivity, and energy consumption. In essence, foodservice managers re-sponsible for production are resource managers, and they may be designated as such in some organizations.

Adapt home size recipes

Although good quantity recipes are readily available today, managers often prefer to develop their own formulations, rely on the expertise of cooks who may prepare an item without a written recipe, or adapt a home-size recipe to quantity production. In a residence hall or school foodservice, students may bring recipes from home and request that items be prepared. A nursing home resident might have a favorite item and share the recipe with the cook as a possible selection for the menu. Special considerations are necessary in adjusting a recipe designed for 6 to 8 servings to an appropriate quantity for 100 servings or more.

Limitation

Although standardized recipes offer many advantages in a foodservice operation, the key to success is ensuring that recipes are followed carefully and consistently each time an item is produced. Because the human element can be a major variable in product quality and uniformity, employee supervision and training are critical. The use of standardized recipes has some limitations. Even when they are followed, stan-dardized recipes will not improve a product made from inferior ingredients; good specifications for quality products are essential (Mitani & Dutcher, 1992). Standardization also cannot elimi-nate the variation found in food. For example, climate, degree of maturity, growing regions, and age of products can affect the menu item. Ingredient substitutions will affect the final product; the recipe has to be standardized again before the menu item is served to customers. Recipes must be standardized for each foodservice operation. Foodservice managers should review and update previously standardized recipes to reflect changes in the organization.

Historical records example

An example of a historical record for a catered party at a retirement reception is shown in Figure 6-2. This seasonal menu also could be used for other types of receptions. Caterers, both social and employed by an organization, must keep accurate records of the amount of food for each event to prevent underproduction or overproduction of menu items on the next similar occasion. Catering is a profit enterprise, and reliable past records are essential because events are not repetitive; elaborate forecasting methods generally are not feasible. Although production unit records reveal the vital information on menu items served to customers, production is by no means the only organizational unit that should keep records.

Moving average example

An example of the moving average model is shown in Table 6-1. Data are for the num-ber of hamburgers sold over the last 10 days. A 5-day moving average is used. The first 5-day moving average is calculated by adding the number sold for each of those days and dividing by 5, giving an average of 176 hamburgers. The next moving average is calculated by adding the number sold for days 2 through 6 and dividing by 5. The procedure is repeated by dropping the earliest day's data and adding the most recent day's data for a total of 5 days.

Ingredient room 1

An ingredient room may be limited to premeasuring only dry and room-temperature ingredients, or it may be a center in which all ingredients, whether they are at room temperature, refrigerated, or frozen, are assembled, weighed, and measured. The availability of appropriate equipment, such as prepreparation equipment and low-temperature storage, will help determine the activities to be performed in an ingredient room. A freezer in or near the assembly area is required, for example, if ingredient room employees withdraw and thaw frozen products in advance. Storeroom employees generally assemble full cases and unopened cans for delivery to production. Partial amounts from cans or cartons should be weighed and measured in the central ingredient assembly area. This practice can eliminate waste in a foodservice operation by avoid-ing partially used cans or cartons of the same product in several locations. For example, canned tomato sauce may be needed by both the main production and salad units; with a central ingredi-ent room, only one partially used can would need to be stored.

Pattern of behavior

As stated previously, many forecasting models depend on the assumption that behavioral patterns observed in the past will continue into the future and, even more basic, that actual occurrences follow some known pattern. These patterns, however, may be affected by random influences, which are unpredictable factors responsible for forecasting errors. Not all forecasting models work equally well for all patterns of data; therefore, the appropriate model must be selected for a particular situation.

recipe format

Before adopting a particular format, variations might be tried to give the cooks an oppor-tunity to choose the one they like best. Flexibility in recipe formats is not possible if a computer program is used. The foodservice manager should compare recipe formats in software packages before purchasing one. Once a format is chosen, all recipes should be printed in that style. In converting to a new format, a good method is to adapt the most used recipes first and then gradually extend the conversion to the entire file. The production manager will need to conduct in-service training sessions on the new format for production employees. Recipes for use at a workstation should be in large print that is easily readable at a distance of 18 to 20 inches; large file cards or 81/2-by-11-inch paper should be used. Recipes that will be reused in the ingredient room or production unit should be in a plastic cover while in use and in some type of rack at the workstations. Because of the larger print, production employees should not have to pick up recipes for a closer look.

Corresponding procedures

Corresponding procedures for each group of ingredients are printed directly opposite them on the right side of the recipe. The layering of the ingredients in lasagna is very important and is detailed in the last procedure. Oven temperature, baking time, and portioning instructions are repeated for the convenience of the cook. Procedures should be checked for clarity and explic-itness, permitting a cook to prepare a perfect product without asking managers for further ex-planation. In recipes that require the use of equipment such as mixers, time and speed should be specified. For example, the procedure for combining the first three ingredients in a cake might be "cream shortening, sugar, and vanilla on medium speed 10 minutes." Additional information may be added at the bottom of recipes, such as the approximate nutritive values per portion and variations of the recipe. Special serving instructions, such as garnishing and portioning suggestions and storage requirements before and after service, often are included. If recipe cards are used, these additions can be printed at the bottom or on the back. The ingredient and procedure portion of a recipe, however, should never be printed on the back of the card. For long recipes, a second card or page should be used.

Effective production records should include

Date and day of the week • Meal or hour of service • Notation of special event, holiday, and weather conditions, if applicable • Food items prepared • Quantity of each item prepared • Quantity of each item served

production decision

Decisions are made each day in foodservice operations concerning the necessary quantities to produce and the standards of quality that must be maintained within the limitations of costs. In foodservice operations, as in industry, managers must estimate future events. Thus, forecasting, planning, and production scheduling are important elements for decision making. All these planning decisions must be made within the constraints of the existing facility. Too often, in a hospital or nursing home, the number of patients or residents is increased, but the capacity of the equipment in the kitchen is not. If the anticipated demand exceeds the present capacity, then the facility must be expanded, future production curtailed, or more ready prepared foods purchased to handle the increased demand.

Graph for moving model

Demand data and moving average values plotted on the graph (Figure 6-3) illustrate the smoothing effect of the model. Note that the smoothed data curve eliminates the daily variations in demand and thus indicates a trend of the past. Smooth data is an average of what happened in the past, but the person in charge of determining number of servings needed must take into consideration special events, holidays, weather, and other events that may occur in forecasting the actual amount needed for a particular day.

meetings

During these meetings, production unit employees can be encouraged to discuss the ef-fectiveness of the schedule just completed. Problems such as underproduction and suggested corrective measures should be recorded for the next time the menu appears in the cycle. The meeting should conclude with a discussion of the production schedule for the follow-ing three meals. At this time, the employees should review recipes for the various menu items, possible substitutions, and prepreparation for the following day. Free discussion of workloads is appropriate for such meetings and can be a morale builder for the employees who really make the schedule work.

Action plan

Employee assignments • Preparation time schedule • Menu item • Over-and underproduction • Quantity to prepare • Substitutions • Actual yield Additional assignments • Special instructions and comments • Prepreparation

Staffing

Employees assigned to the ingredient room must be literate, able to do simple arithmetic, and familiar with storage facilities. They are often responsible for receiving, storage, and ingre-dient assembly. Qualifications and training, therefore, must be specific to each of these areas of responsibility. Training should include the following areas: • Environmental conditions required to store specific foods • Ventilation and humidity factors in dry storage • Safety precautions in handling and storage of nonfood items and toxic materials • Sanitation standards to prevent contamination or deterioration of foods during storage • Security measures to ensure against pilferage • Weighing and measuring procedures

Food production

Food production is a key element in the transformation process in a foodservice operation. Having outputs of quality food and satisfied customers depends on success in the food production process. In this chapter, you will learn about what is involved in the food production process and what it will take for you as a manager to be successful in directing the work in this process. You will be introduced to concepts such as forecasting, recipe standardization, and energy control. We also will describe control techniques used in the production functional subsystem.

Large portion

Recipes for production greater than the 48 portions in the lasagna example could be written entirely in standard measures without the use of teaspoons, cups, and other household units. Many computer software programs have the capability of calculating quantities in met-ric, but, so far, these measures are not commonly used in the United States. Some programs will calculate only in weights, some only in measures, but the majority of the large programs calculate in both. In small foodservice operations, measures may be used rather than weights, even though weighing is more accurate than measuring, for determining the proper amount of an ingredient.

Large quantity format

Large quantity recipes generally differ in format from home recipes, which have a list of ingredients followed by procedures. The cook in a foodservice operation is more likely to make errors if required to read alternately from the top and bottom of the recipe. A block format, in which the ingredients are listed on the left side of the recipe and the corresponding procedures directly opposite them on the right, generally is used for quantity recipes. In a complete block format, horizontal lines separate each group of ingredients with procedures from those of the next, and vertical lines separate the ingredient, amount, and procedure columns. A modified ver-sion, in which only horizontal lines separate the required ingredients for each procedure, often is used. An example of a modified block format is the recipe for lasagna in Figure 6-8. This recipe format is suitable for both recipe cards and computer printouts.

lead time

Lead time pertains to the length of time into the future that the forecasts are made. Usually, these times are categorized as short-, medium-, or long-term. The choice of a lead time depends on the items being forecast: A short-term lead will be chosen for perishable produce, and a medium-or long-term lead is suitable for canned goods.

ingredient room 2

Meat products, which have been ordered according to production demands, may or may not be handled in the ingredient room. For example, preportioned meats that have been ordered in a quantity appropriate for the production demand may go directly from receiving to produc-tion. Greater control is possible, however, if these products were distributed through the ingre-dient room. Prepreparation tasks, such as cleaning and slicing or dicing vegetables or breading and panning meat items, may be done in a prepreparation area or the ingredient room. Today, many of these products, especially produce, are purchased already prepped. After all ingredients for each recipe have been weighed, measured, chopped, or otherwise prepared, each ingredient is packaged and labeled. Ingredients for each recipe are then trans-ported with a copy of the recipe to the appropriate work unit or held until the scheduled distri-bution time.

Weight to measure conversion

Most ingredients in quantity recipes are given in weights, but if volume measurements (teaspoon, tablespoon, cups, quarts, or gallons) are to be used, tables such as the following from Molt (2001) are available that assist in converting from weights to measure: • Food weights and approximate equivalents in measure—for example, 1 pound (weight) or 3 cups (measure) cooked cubed chicken. • Basic equivalents in weights and measures—for example, 8 fluid ounces (weight) or 1 cup of milk (measure). • Weight (1-16 ounces) and measure equivalents for commonly used foods—for example, 2 ounces (weight) or 1/4 cup (measure) flour. • Guide for rounding off weights and measures—for example, more than 1/2 cup but less than 1 cup rice (measure) rounded to closest full teaspoon or converted to weight. This ta-ble aids in rounding fractions and complex measurements into amounts that are as simple as possible to weigh or measure while maintaining the accuracy needed for quality control. • Ounces and decimal equivalents of a pound—for example, 8 ounces (weight) or 0.5 of a pound of butter (measure). This table is used when increasing or decreasing recipe sizes. The multiplication or division of pounds and ounces is simplified if the ounces are con-verted to decimal equivalents of a pound.

Format

Most recipes are written in a definite pattern or style that is identified as a format. For most effective use, all recipes in a particular foodservice operation should be in the same format. This uniformity of style simplifies recipe use by cooks.

Criteria for forecasting

Numerous forecasting models have been developed, but, as one might expect, the trend has been toward sophisticated models using computer-based informa-tion systems. According to Fitzsimmons and Sullivan (1982), the factors deserving consideration when selecting a forecasting model are: • Cost • Required accuracy • Relevancy of past data • Forecasting lead time • Underlying pattern of behavior

Cost element

Obviously, planning cannot be effective without reasonably accurate forecasting of future demand quantities. Finally, standards of quality must be established for all products. Mainte-nance of quality is a cost factor because of employee training, inventory control of both raw and prepared food items, and sanitation programs. The cost element in planning is the result of the correlation of food, storage, issue, and production costs with labor, facility, and energy costs. These elements must be considered in all planning. Whenever planning goes beyond a day-to-day basis, forecasting becomes absolutely necessary

Delphi Technique

One of the subjective forecasting models is the Delphi technique, which involves a panel of experts who individually complete questionnaires on a chosen topic and return them to the investiga-tor. Results of the first questionnaire are summarized and returned to the panel for revision. Question-naires are revised successively until a simple majority agreement is reached. The Delphi method can be time-consuming and expensive and is not especially suitable for foodservice forecasting.

Cross-referencing

Only by cross-referencing records of sales with those of production can a reliable historical basis for forecasting be formalized. Records of sales will yield customer count patterns that can be useful for forecasting. These data can be related to the number of times customers select a given menu item or the daily variations induced by weather or special events. Historical records in the production unit provide the fundamental base for forecasting quantities when the same meal or menu item is repeated. These records should be correlated with those kept by the purchasing department, which include the name and performance of the supplier and price of the food items.

Other techniques

Other qualitative forecasting techniques include market research, panel consensus, visionary forecast, and historical analogy. Market research is a systematic and formal procedure for devel-oping and testing hypotheses about actual markets. Panel consensus is based on the assumption that a group of experts can produce a better forecast than one person. This differs from the Delphi method by requiring free communication among the panel members. A visionary forecast is characterized by subjective guesswork and imagination. The historical analogy involves comparative analysis of the introduction and growth of new items with similar new-product history.

Overproduction

Overproduction, the production of more food than is needed for service, generates extra costs because the salvage of excess food items is not always feasible. Leftover prepared food spoils easily and requires extreme care in handling and storage. Even though some leftover foods might be salvageable by refrigeration, certain foods may break down and lose quality. An exam-ple is a custard or cream pie that must be held under refrigeration for microbiological safety but develops a soggy crust quickly and cannot be served. Policies and procedures for the storage of overproduced food items should be well defined and rigorously enforced. Attempts to reduce overproduction costs by using a leftover high-priced food as an ingredient in a low-cost menu item reduce profits. For example, using leftover rib roast in beef stew, soup stock, or beef hash, all of which could be prepared with less expensive fresh meat, is difficult to justify. In addition to the higher food cost, planning and carrying out these salvage efforts incurs higher labor costs that could have been avoided had overproduction not occurred. Customers often suspect that leftovers are being used, which can be damaging to the image of a foodservice operation.

planning for production

Planning for production is the establishment of a program of action for transformation of resources into products and services. The manager identifies the necessary resources and de-termines how the transformation process should be designed to produce the desired products and services. Once this process has been developed, planning must be integrated with the other managerial functions of organizing and controlling. Planning, organizing, and controlling are overlapping managerial functions, however, and cannot be considered separately. For example, the foodservice manager and the produc-tion supervisor might have established a schedule of preparation times to prevent vegetables from being overcooked (controlling), but then suddenly they must revise the production schedule (planning) because an essential employee went home sick and a critical task had to be reassigned. The content of jobs must be analyzed to be sure all tasks are covered (organizing).

Product evaluation

Product evaluation follows the recipe verification phase and is a crit-ical part of the recipe standardization process. Product evaluation is used to help determine the acceptability of the recipe by foodservice managers and staff and customers. Typically an informal type of evaluation is completed when the product is first prepared. The informal evaluation is done to help determine whether to proceed with further standardiza-tion of the product. According to Gregoire and Henroid (2002), this evaluation usually focuses on issues such as the following:

Secondary Objectives

Product/service characteristics • Process characteristics • Product/service quality • Efficiency: Effective employee relations and cost control of labor Cost control of material Cost control in facility use • Customer service: Producing quantities to meet expected demand Meeting the delivery date for products or services

Quantity food production

Production of quality food in quantity involves a highly complex set of variables. Quantity food production varies widely with the type of operation and foodservice. Many types of foodservice operations and their different objectives were described in Chapter 1. The one-or two-meal-a-day pattern of a school foodservice operation, for example, presents a different production challenge from the 24-hour-a-day, quick-service restaurant. Because the menu is the basic plan for the foodservice system, planning in the food production subsystem depends on menu item selections. In Chapter 4, four basic foodservices were described: conventional, commissary, ready prepared, and assembly/serve. Differences in processing foods in these various foodservices were indicated. Obviously, those using completely prepared foods requiring only thawing and heating prior to service have different production demands from conventional foodservices in which foods are prepared from scratch.

Production synthesis

Production planning primarily is the effective synthesis of quantity, quality, and cost objectives. The objective of the production subsystem is to transform human, material, facility, and operational resources into outputs. The secondary objectives focus on the following

Production process of characteristics

Production process characteristics include the method of food preparation, ranging from grilling to broiling to baking. The process and product characteristics are closely related because both determine the quality of the product and service. Efficiency of the process depends upon the control of costs for labor, material, and facility use. All of these secondary objectives lead to customer service.

Production scheduling

Production scheduling in foodservice operations can be defined as the time sequencing of events required by the production subsystem to produce a meal. Scheduling occurs in two dis-tinct stages—planning and action—and is essential for production control. In the planning stage, forecasts are converted into the quantity of each menu item to be prepared and the distribution of food products to supervisors in each work center. As an exam-ple, 500 servings of grilled marinated chicken breasts, pasta with pesto, asparagus spears in a red pepper ring, green salad with artichoke hearts and diced tomatoes, sourdough rolls, and frozen yogurt with fresh strawberries have been forecast for a special dinner. The foodservice director assigns the production of the 500 servings of chicken, pasta, and asparagus to the supervisor of main production, the green salad to the salad unit, and the rolls and dessert to the bakery unit.

standardization advantages

Promote uniform quality of menu items. All products should be the same high quality. • Promote uniform quantity of menu items. Recipes should produce a specific, designated quantity. • Encourage uniformity of menu items. Servings of the same menu item should have the same size and appearance. • Increase productivity of cooks. Clarifying procedures on recipes improves the efficiency of cooks. • Increase managerial productivity. Recipes eliminate guesswork in food ordering and questions asked by cooks, thus freeing managers to concentrate on satisfying the customer. • Save money by controlling overproduction. Waste is controlled if only the estimated num-ber of portions is produced. • Save money by controlling inventory levels. More just-in-time purchasing is possible, thus increasing cash flow. • Simplify menu item costing. Precise calculation of serving costs is vital in establishing selling prices. • Simplify training of cooks. Recipes with detailed procedures provide an individualized training program for new cooks and chefs. Introduce a feeling of job satisfaction. Cooks know that menu items will always be the same quality. • Reduce anxiety of customers with special dietary needs. A nutrient analysis can be done on each recipe and ingredients can be identified for those with allergies or other health concerns.

Factor method

STEP 1 Convert all ingredients from measure to weight in pounds and ounces. Whenever possi-ble, state liquid measures in weights; however, liquid measurements may be converted to decimal equivalents of a quart or gallon. STEP 2 Convert ingredient quantity to whole numbers and decimal equivalents and round to one decimal place unless the original amount is less than one pound; that is, 2 lb 10 oz would be converted to 2.625 lb, but rounded to 2.6 lb for use. For amounts less than one pound, two places would be shown (e.g., 0.62 lb). Table 6-3 provides data for convert-ing ounces into decimals of a pound and cups and quarts into decimal parts of a gallon. STEP 3 Divide the desired yield by the base recipe yield to determine the conversion factor. STEP 4 Multiply all recipe ingredients by the conversion factor. STEP 5 Reconvert the new ingredient quantities back into pounds and ounces or quarts and cups. STEP 6 Round off amounts to quantities simple to weigh or measure and within an acceptable margin of error

percentage steps 3

STEP 6 Handling loss must be added to the weight needed and may vary from 1 to 10%, depending on the product. Similar items produce predictable losses that with some experimentation can be accurately assigned. The formula for adding handling loss to a recipe is as follows: Desired yield Total weight needed = 100 percent - Assigned handling loss percent Example: Yellow cake has a 1% handling loss. Desired yield is 80 lb of batter for 600 servings. 100% - 1% = 99% or .99 Total weight needed =80/.99 Total weight needed equals 80.80 lb of batter.

Percentage steps 4

STEP 7 Multiply each ingredient percentage number by the total weight to give the exact amount of each ingredient needed. After the percentages of each ingredient have been established, any number of servings can be calculated and the ratio of ingredients to the total will be the same. As in the factor method, one decimal place on a recipe is shown unless the quantity is less than 1 pound, in which case two places are shown. STEP 8 Unless scales are calibrated to read in pounds and tenths of a pound, convert to pounds and ounces or to measure. Reviewing the process of expanding a recipe will help illustrate recipe adjustment by this method. Tables 6-6, 6-7, and 6-8 demonstrate how to expand a recipe using the percentage method. The result is a devil's food cake recipe for 50 portions of 0.10 lb each.

Forecasting models

Selecting a forecasting model for a foodservice operation can be a difficult task for a manager. The easiest method is to guess how many people are expected or how much of each menu item is needed. Amazingly, many chefs and cooks can guess quite accurately, especially if the cus-tomer count is approximately the same at each meal or the menu is static. But when customers can choose where or what they want to eat, guessing does not always work. A more scientific method for forecasting is needed. Forecasting models are available and should be researched before deciding which one to use.

Advantages of ingredient assembly

Some type of issuing is used in most foodservice operations. The ingredient room contributes to cost reduction and quality improvement by stopping production employees from withdrawing large quantities of products from storage whether or not they are needed. Use of the ingredient room has many advantages, including the redirection of cooks' skills away from the simple tasks of collecting, assembling, and measuring ingredients to production, garnishing, and portion con-trol. By limiting access to ingredients, over-and underproduction of menu items can be elimi-nated, thus controlling costs. The concept of an ingredient room dates from the late 1950s. Flack (1959), one of the first to implement a central ingredient room, reported reduced labor cost as a major benefit. In recent years, as competition has increased and the available labor pool has shrunk, managers have shown an increased interest in quality, cost controls, and more efficient use of labor. As a result, many are adopting the ingredient control concept within their foodservice operations (Buchanan, 1993).

Information of recipe

Specific information should be included on each recipe to simplify its use by those prepar-ing and serving the food. Generally, recipes include the following information: • Name of food item • Total yield • Portion size and number of portions • Cooking time and temperature, if required • List of ingredients in order of use • Amount of each ingredient by weight, measure, or count • Procedures • Panning or portioning information • Serving and garnishing suggestions • Food safety (HACCP) guidelines

standardization

Standardization requires repeated testing to ensure that the product meets the standards of quality and quantity that have been established by management. Food cost and selling price cannot be correctly calculated unless recipes are standardized to use only specific ingredients in known amounts to yield a definite quantity. A standardized recipe must be retested whenever a small change is made in an ingredient, such as substitution of frozen or dehydrated vegetables for fresh in a recipe for beef stew. Standardizing recipes is a time-consuming task. Probably the best example of the use of standardized recipes is in the multiunit limited-menu chains. Each batch of hot biscuits, pizza dough and toppings, fried chicken, and french fries is the same in each unit of the chain every day. This essential uniformity often is assured by recipes available to only a few employees in the main ingredient room of the corporate commissary. The packaged ingredients are sent to each unit throughout the region, the nation, and even the world. Without this stringent control, these operations could not maintain national and international reputations for quality.

Subjective model

Subjective Model A subjective forecasting model generally is used when relevant data are scarce or patterns and relationships between data do not tend to persist over time. In these cases, little relationship exists between the past and the long-term future. Forecasters must rely on opinions and other information, generally qualitative, that might relate to the item being forecast.

production scheduling

Supervisors in each unit assume the responsibility for the action stage by preparing a pro-duction schedule. Each item is assigned to a specific employee and the time to start its prepara-tion is recorded on the schedule. Careful scheduling assures that the food is prepared for service without lengthy holding and deterioration in quality. Supervisors give feedback to the manager by writing comments on the production schedule. In small operations in which only one cook and perhaps an assistant are on duty at a time, the foodservice manager might also need to assume the responsibility for the action stage. Every foodservice operation, however small, must have a daily production schedule to control both labor and food costs

adapting recipes example

The following suggestions are given for ex-panding recipes from home to quantity size: • Know exactly what ingredients are used and in what quantity. • Make the recipe in the original home-size quantity following instructions exactly and not-ing any unclear procedures or ingredient amounts. • Evaluate the product for acceptability to determine if the recipe has potential for expansion. • Proceed in incremental stages in expanding the recipe, keeping in mind the quality and appearance of the original product. Evaluate quality at each stage, deciding if modifications are necessary as the recipe is adjusted. • Determine handling or cooking losses after increasing the recipe to an amount close to 100 servings; usually 5 to 8% loss is typical. The actual yield of the recipe should be reviewed carefully. Mixing, cooking, and preparation times should be noted, especially for produc-ing the item in quantity, because these items increase substantially for quantity production. • Check ingredient proportion against a standard large quantity recipe for a product of simi-lar type to assess balance of ingredients. • As with standardized recipes, evaluate products using taste panels and customer acceptance assessments before recipes are added to the permanent file.

Time series model

The frequently used time series forecasting model involves the assumption that actual occurrences follow an identifiable pattern over time. Although time series data have a specific relationship to time, deviations in the data make forecasting difficult. To reduce the in-fluence of these deviations, several methods have been developed for smoothing the data curve. The time series models are the most suitable for short-term forecasts in foodservice operations. Actual data may indicate a trend in a general sense but not give accurate forecast informa-tion. To make the past data useful, variations must be reduced to a trend line that can be extended into the future. Two time series models, moving average and exponential smoothing, are used more frequently in forecasting for foodservice than any other type, although causal models may be used as well.

Recipe standardization

The ideal of every manager is to have recipes that consistently deliver the same quantity and quality product when followed precisely. Printed recipes from various sources will not guar-antee uniform products in every foodservice. Variations in ingredient characteristics, customer demands, personnel, and equipment may require alterations to the recipe or even preclude its successful use. Production procedures are complicated and difficult to establish because many people are involved, each of whom has definite ideas about how a product should be prepared. Recipe standardization, or the process of tailoring a recipe to suit a particular purpose in a specific foodservice operation (Buchanan, 1993), is one of the most important responsibilities of a production manager.

Information

The important basic information pertaining to the detailed recipe is shown in the heading of the lasagna recipe (Figure 6-8). It includes the yield, portion size, oven temperature, and bak-ing time. Ingredients are listed in order of use in four procedural groups. Amounts are given to the right of the ingredients. Standard U.S. weights and measures are generally used for all ingre-dients except small amounts of spices and oil, which are given in the common household units of teaspoons (tsp) and tablespoons (Tbsp). Nutritive values per portion are provided. Production, service, and storage procedures that will prevent or reduce the hazards of potentially hazardous foods are included. In addition, food safety standards are given for the menu items in the notes on the bottom of the recipe.

ingredient room clerk

The job description for an ingredient room clerk depends on the activities included in the procedures for the ingredient room. An example of a job description is shown in Figure 6-7. The following factors are among those to consider in scheduling personnel for ingredient assembly: • Size of operation • Frequency and time of deliveries • Size of ingredient room and location of other storage areas • Type, number, and complexity of menu items to be assembled • Number of workstations to be supplied • Schedule for delivery of ingredients to production and serving areas • Extent of prepreparation performed in ingredient assembly area The larger the operation, the more complex the menu; and the greater the amount of prepa-ration work, the more employees that are needed.

Exponential smoothing

The judgment factor, a, is a number between 0 and 1 and is used to adjust for any errors in previous forecasts. a is the weight assigned to the most recent customer demand and 1 − a is the weight for the most recent forecast. When a has a value close to 1, the new forecast will include a substantial adjustment for any error that occurred in the preceding forecast. Conversely, when a is close to 0, the new forecast will not show much adjustment for the error from the one before. The value of a has been tested in foodservice, and if no major changes occur in the data, customer demand for succeeding weeks is not expected to differ greatly from the past (Messersmith & Miller, 1992). An a of 0.3 is commonly used for demand, leav-ing 0.7 for the forecast. The most recent forecast values are multiplied by the 1 − a quantity, which places a greater weight on recent values. The 1 − a quantity acquires exponents in in-creasing order as the forecast is repeated, thus decreasing weights of older values and having a lesser influence on the trend curve than more recent data. The mathematical expression for this smoothing model is

Moving average forecasting model

The most common and easiest of the time series models is the moving average forecast-ing model. The process begins by taking the average of the number of portions sold for the last five or more times the menu item was offered as the first point on the trend line. The second point on the line is determined by dropping the first number and adding the most recent number of portions sold to the bottom of the list and then calculating another average. The repetitive process continues for all data.

regression analysis forecasting models

The most commonly adopted causal models are called regression analysis forecasting models. Following standard statistical terminology, the items being forecast are called depen-dent variables, and the factors determining the value of the dependent variables are called the independent variables. Regression models require a history of data for the dependent and independent variables to permit plotting over time. Once this is done, the regression process involves finding an equation for a line that minimizes the deviations of the dependent variable from it. Two principal kinds of regression models are linear and multiple.

Function of ingredient room

The primary function of the ingredient room is to coordinate assembly, prepreparation, mea-suring, and weighing of the ingredients to meet both the daily production needs and the ad-vance preparation needs of recipes for future meals. Specific activities vary among foodservice operations, but ingredient rooms generally operate 24 hours in advance of production needs (Buchanan, 1993).

production schedule

The production schedule generally is posted on a bulletin board in the unit. The name of the employee in the left-hand column readily enables personnel to find designated duties. The menu item column identifies the recipe by name. Often the unit supervisor will distribute the recipes, either in card form or as a computer printout, to the appropriate employees at the time the schedule is posted. The quantity to prepare is the forecast amount for each menu item. The actual yield is the portion count produced by the recipe. Standardized recipes should include portion size and count on the recipe. This information also may be placed on the production schedule. Note that the actual yield could indicate overproduction for some items and underproduction for others. The comments column, completed by the unit supervisor, gives special information and com-ments on equipment to be used and service instructions. In addition, this column should contain any specific information not included in the recipe, such as for hard cooked eggs, "Do not hold for more than 30 minutes on line," and for bacon, "Use convection oven."

accuracy of model

The quality of a forecasting model must be judged primarily by the accuracy of its predictions of future occurrences. An expensive model that yields accurate forecasts might not be as good a choice as a cheaper and less accurate model. This is a decision the foodservice manager must make.

recipe adjustment method

The recipe adjustment method varies with the computer software program, which should be checked at the time of purchase. Research, using various computer programs for recipe ad-justment, has shown a great variation in the quantity of each ingredient and, therefore, the qual-ity of the product (Lawless & Gregoire, 1987-88; Lawless, Gregoire, Canter, & Setser, 1991). The factor method is most commonly used for recipe adjustment in a computer program. Careful evaluation is important in adjusting home-size recipes to quantity production. Some recipes that are suitable for service at home are simply not practical to make in quantity because of the time constraints of large-scale operations. If extensive labor time is required, a product may be too costly for most foodservice operations.

Format on paper

The recipe name is generally in bold letters, either in the middle or to the side, at the top of the recipe card. In most operations, a file coding system is established for quick access to each recipe. For example, major categories can be established for menu items, such as bever-ages, breads, cakes, cheese, cookies, eggs, fish, meat, pies, poultry, salad, sandwiches, soups, and vegetables. Each recipe can be coded with a letter designating the menu item category and a sequential number that identifies the individual recipe. Whatever system is developed should be easy for employees to follow. Methods of maintaining a master file of recipes vary with the foodservice operation. Many organizations have implemented computerized foodservice management systems that provide a database of recipes and allow for recipe adjustments, purchase orders, and costing to be com-pleted quickly. The importance of keeping a backup file of all recipes in a computerized opera-tion cannot be emphasized enough.

Direct reading measurement table method

The third method of recipe adjustment uses direct reading measurement tables. These tables have the advantage of being simple and quick to use and require no mathematical calculations. Tables have been developed for both measured and weighed ingredients.

Recipe verification

The verification phase includes four major processes that should be completed before the product is evaluated: • Review components of the recipe. ◾ Recipe title ◾ Recipe category ◾ Ingredients ◾ Weight/measure for each ingredient ◾ Preparation instructions ◾ Cooking temperature and time ◾ Portion size ◾ Recipe yield ◾ Equipment to be used • Make the recipe. • Verify the recipe yield. • Record changes on the recipe.

Scheduling

This text emphasizes production scheduling because it is an important element of produc-tion control that affects the cost of materials, labor, and energy. Regardless of the perfection of the schedule and the assignment of employees to implement it, however, the production employ-ees are the ones who make the schedule work. Realization of this simple fact implies the value of production employee meetings.

Quantity adjustment

Three procedures have been developed for the quantity adjustment of recipes: the factor method, the percentage method, and direct reading measurement tables. Computer software programs for recipe adjustments are being used in many foodservice opera-tions today to help simplify the quantity adjustment process. Factor Method To increase a recipe using the factor recipe adjustment method, the following steps are followed:

Centralized ingredient control 1

Traditionally in foodservice operations, individual cooks obtain recipe ingredients from store-rooms, refrigerators, and freezers. Ingredients are issued in cases, boxes, or bags. In production areas, ingredients that are not currently being used generally are stored in storage bins or on shelves. For example, a cook may keep sugar and flour bins under the work counter and spices and condiments above on a shelf. Keeping track of unused portions of issue units, especially perishable products, provides a challenge for the cook or foodservice manager and leads to decreased control. For example, 5 pounds of frozen mixed vegetables left over from a 30-pound case must be held and used the next time mixed vegetables are on the menu. With the vast number of ingredients used in food-service operations today, controlling partially used packages of food items can become a major challenge. A cook may decide to add the extra mixed vegetables to the soup kettle rather than return the unneeded amount to storage. Such a practice alters the recipe and adds to cost. This is only one example of problems caused by the traditional method of issuing ingredients.

Ingredient room

Two major aspects of ingredient control are ingredient assembly and use of standardized recipes. An ingredient room, or ingredient assembly area, is designed for measuring ingredients to be transmitted to the various work centers.

verification

Typically a manager would work with one recipe at a time. The review of each of the recipe components should be completed before the recipe is made to help ensure that all necessary in-formation is available for the person who will make the recipe.

Underproduction

Underproduction, the production of less food than is needed for service, can increase costs as much as overproduction. Customers will be disappointed if the menu item is unavail-able, and they often have difficulty in making another selection. Furthermore, underproduction may involve both additional labor costs and often the substitution of a higher-priced item. A wise manager will insist that a similar backup item be available when underproduction occurs. For example, in a university residence hall foodservice, if the grilled meat patties run out, an excellent replacement would be frozen minute steaks, quickly grilled. Such a substitution certainly would increase customer satisfaction even though it hurts the bottom line.

centralized ingredient control

With centralized ingredient control, the cook is issued only the 25 pounds needed for the forecast production demands on the day of service. The excess of 5 pounds is held in frozen storage in the ingredient room until the next time mixed vegetables are needed for a recipe or as a vegetable on a future menu. Control of unused portions is facilitated because storage is located centrally rather than in various work units throughout the kitchen. As Buchanan (1993) indicated, food production includes basically two functions: pre-preparation and production. Traditionally, cooks have performed both functions. Focusing the cooks' efforts and attention on direct production tasks and away from the simple tasks of pre-preparation, which can be assigned to less-skilled employees, can lead to operational efficiencies.

Multiple regression

Y = a0 + a1X{1} + a2X{2} + p + anXn

Exponential smoothing forecasting model

a popular time series model that can be set up on a computer spreadsheet. It is very similar to the moving average model except that it does not uniformly weigh past observations. Instead, an exponentially decreasing set of weights is used, giving recent values more weight than older ones. Also, the only data required are the weights, the alpha judgment factors, that are applied to the most recent values including the last customer demand and the last forecast, thus eliminating the need to store historical data (Makridakis & Wheelwright, 1989). Alpha-(a) is the judgment factor, or smoothing coefficient, and indicates how well the manager believes the most recent data represent current customer count or number of sales.

Regression

in which a0 and a1 are numerical constants determined by the regression analysis. As shown in Figure 6-4, a0 is the intercept of the line on the Y axis and a1 is the slope of the line. In use, X will be a single independent variable quantity. Data points in the figure are the Y (dependent variable) values for specific values of X (independent variable). Preliminary plotting of the variables on graph paper would be advisable to ascertain if they could be represented reason-ably by a straight line. The forecasting value rests on the assumption that the linear relation-ship between the variables will continue for a reasonable time in the future, or quite simply that the line may be extended. Use of the equation requires only substitution of an anticipated future value for X and then solution for Y, which is the forecasting quantity. Examples of in-dependent variables in hospital foodservice are total number of patient trays served, patient census, cafeteria customer capacity, number of employees, number of patients on regular di-ets, and number of patients on each modified diet. For example, roast beef might be a popular item for a foodservice, and the relationship between the historic number of patient trays and the pounds of roast beef could yield a regression equation. To forecast beef demand, an anticipated future count of trays would then be inserted into the equation as X to solve for Y, the pounds of roast beef needed.

Batch cooking

is a variant of production scheduling but is not always done in foodservice operations. In batch cooking, the total estimated quantity of menu items, often vegetables, is divided into smaller quantities, placed in pans ready for final cooking or heating, and then cooked as needed. The example shown in Table 6-2 is a time schedule developed for steaming rice for the dinner meal in a university residence hall foodservice. It illustrates the way in which production can be scheduled to meet the customer demand throughout the meal service time with assurance that a fresh product is being served.

Evaluation focus

• Is the visual appearance of the product acceptable? • Is the flavor of the product one that customers might enjoy? • Are the ingredients in the recipe easy to obtain? • Is the cost per serving within department guidelines? • Is the labor time needed to make the product within department guidelines? • Is the equipment needed to prepare the product available? • Do employees possess the skills needed to prepare the product? If foodservice staff members believe a recipe has potential for use in the operation, then a formal evaluation is conducted. A formal evaluation typically includes the following proce-dures (Gregoire & Henroid, 2002): • Selecting a group of staff members and customers as a taste panel • Choosing or developing an evaluation instrument • Preparing a sample recipe • Setting up the sampling area with drinking water, eating and drinking utensils, napkins, and evaluation forms and pencils • Having participants sample and evaluate products • Summarizing results • Determining future plans for the recipe based on evaluation results