NUR2810: Exam 1
3 aspects of strength of evidence
-quality (minimizes bias) -quantity (number of studies, sample sizes, strength of findings) -consistency (degree to which other studies find similar findings)
convergent parallel design (mixed methods)
-quant and qual data collected -compare/relate data -interpretation of data -discuss areas of convergence or divergence between quant/qual results
explanatory sequential design (mixed methods)
-quant data collected, follow up with qual data collection, interpretation -qual data collected, follow up with quant data collection, interpretation
experimental and quasi-experimental design (quant.)
-researcher actively manipulates independent variable and observes the outcome (dependent variable) -when done well, these designs provide highest level of evidence possible for single study
control and validity in practice (quant.)
-researchers aim to minimize threats to validity and maximize control -often discuss potential issues in "discussion" and "limitations" sections of article -critically evaluate literature by assessing adequacy of controls and potential threats to validity
synthesis of sources
Compile findings from all selected studies Analyze and interpret clustered findings Specify current state of research-based knowledge
What is the first thing a nurse researcher would do after a research problem or idea has been identified?
Conduct a literature review
Which is the best naturalistic setting for studying parents' food choices for their toddlers?
Home
Critiquing a literature review
all relevant concepts and variables? appropriate/adequate number of databases/resources to identify key research? primary resources mainly used? does the literature review build on earlier studies? etc.
consumer goals for a literature review
answer clinical questions to solve problem and improve patient outcomes; evaluate for credible findings
convergent validity (construct validity)
are measurements associated with theoretically related measures?
divergent or discriminant validity (construct validity)
are the measures NOT associated with measures of different concepts/constructs?
validity and reliability in practice
articles typically report name/sources of measurement tools and brief description of validity and reliability
EBP steps
ask, gather, assess, act, evaluate evidence, appraise
systematic error
consistent bias due to subject or environmental factors
Middle-Range Nursing Theories
contain a limited number of concepts; e.g. Pender's
item-total correlation (internal consistency)
correlation of each item to "total score;" items that do not highly correlate with the total may be considered for deletion
domains
cultural symbols in qualitative research (ethnographic model)
research hypothesis
declarative statement about the relationship between two or more variables that predicts an expected outcome of the study; informed by a review of theoretical frameworks and the literature
directional hypothesis
declares the direction (positive or negative) of the results
nondirectional hypothesis
declares there will be a change but not the direction in which the change will be
predictive validity (criterion-related validity)
degree of correlation between measure and more established measures taken at some point in the future
inclusion and exclusion criteria
description of characteristics a person must have to be selected or excluded from the study; extremes could skew results
intensive dialogue (qualitative research)
description of the time spent talking with the participant
data collection for qualitative research
details about how long data was collected; how researcher decided that data saturation is reached; broad questions usually followed by probing questions
sampling concepts
determine subjects using inclusion and exclusion criteria; must be explained by researcher; control for extraneous variables or bias
sample size for qualitative research
determined when data saturation occurs (when information being shared becomes repetitive)
hypothesis testing (construct validity)
develop hypotheses and test them
researcher goals for a literature review
develop knowledge foundation for study; generate question and hypothesis; determine all known on topic
What organization has been a main funder of nursing research?
National Institute of Nursing Research
Which would you not expect to find in a qualitative research study?
Numbers to quantify the experience of the person
The systematic, rigorous, critical investigation that aims to answer questions about nursing phenomena is...
Nursing Research
Grand Nursing Theories
Nursing conceptual models; include theories/models that were developed to describe the discipline of nursing as a whole; all-inclusive conceptual structures that tend to include views on person, health, and environment to create perspectives of nursing
PICO
Population (patient group with particular health issue) Intervention (aspect of health care that is of interest) Comparison (such as standard care, placebo, treatment, etc.) Outcome (observed results of the intervention)
conducting a literature review
Process of examining an extensive number of research and theoretical sources to generate a picture of what is known and not known
simple hypothesis
a hypothesis describing the relationship among two variables
complex hypothesis
a hypothesis describing the relationships among multiple variables
The literature review mainly should use primary sources; that is, research articles and books by the original author. True/False
True
quality improvement (QI)
Use data to monitor the outcomes of care processes and use improvement methods to design and test changes to continuously improve the quality and safety of health care systems
Crombach's alpha (internal consistency)
statistical test that assesses the consistency of item responses for Likert scale items; Alphas above 0.7 are considered acceptable (range 0-1, higher is better)
conclusions of qualitative study
summarize results; similarities and differences of existing literature; new findings and conceptual conclusions; MEANING produced
research perspective of literature review
systematic and critical appraisal; development and foundation of research study and theoretical framework; essential to qualitative and quantitative studies
qualitative research
systematic, subjective approach used to describe life experiences and give them meaning; data within context of someone's personal experience; answer "why questions"
EBP allows one to...
systematically use the best available evidence from research with the integration of individual clinical expertise, as well as patients' values and preferences, to make clinical decisions
why are experimental and quasi-experimental designs special?
test cause and effect relationship
Which statement made by a nurse indicates that more education on the clinical application of qualitative research is needed?
test hypotheses
concurrent validity (criterion-related validity)
the degree of correlation between the measure in question and more established measure taken at the same time
target population
the entire set of cases about which the researcher would like to make generalizations: N of the study
validity of measurement
the extent to which an instrument measures the attributes of a concept/construct accurately
research critique
the process of critical appraisal that objectively and critically evaluates a research report's content for scientific merit and application to practice
parallel or alternate form reliability (equivalence)
ways to assess "stability" and equivalence
population
well defined set that has certain specified properties; who/what you're studying; can be broad or specific
Threats to Internal Validity: History
when another event occurs (inside or outside the study setting) that could have an effect on the DV; e.g. COVID in 2020
Threats to Internal Validity: Maturation
when development (biological, psychological) over time could provide alternative explanation
When does a culture of inquiry exist?
when nurses move away from rituals in practice, stop accepting what doctors say if something is off, seek answers to questions, and practice reflects ongoing evaluation
Threats to Internal Validity: Mortality
when research participants die/drop out before all data are collected in longitudinal study and they are not similar to participants who completed the study
Threats to Internal Validity: Instrumentation
when something about measuring techniques influence the outcomes (e.g. uncalibrated scale, ambiguous questionnaires)
Threats to Internal Validity: Testing
when taking the same test a second time has an impact on the outcome (people more comfortable, know what to expect, etc.)
Threats to Internal Validity: Selection Bias
where characteristics that influence a participant's inclusion in the study also influence the outcome
what questions do qualitative research studies answer?
why questions (emotions, decisions, feelings)
True or False. Sigma Theta Tau provides funding for nursing research
false
electronic databases (types of resources)
find journals and publications; CINAHL, Medline, PubMed; use Boolean Operators to define relationships between words or groups of words (dictate relationship between words or concepts)
theoretical sampling
finding themes and using this to build new conceptual model; relationships between themes
clinical questions
help to guide a literature search for evidence related to practice issues that come up in clinical settings
control of study (quant.)
measures that researcher uses to hold conditions of the study constant and avoid possible potential of bias or error in the measurement of the dependent variable
monitoring outcomes
monitor for effectiveness; need honest feedback to see what worked
inductive reasoning
more qualitative research; work from ground up using the data to create theory/understanding
deductive reasoning
more quantitative research; start with theory (how we think variables are related) and then see if we're right by working down
importance of sampling
one of the most important factors; determines accuracy of research results; anything wrong with sample will be reflected in results
Parallel or alternate form reliability (stability)
only applicable if 2 forms of same instrument exist (version a/b, long/short form); also tested with Pearson r
homogenous sampling (pathway to control in quant.)
only include participants who share similar characteristics using inclusion/exclusion criteria; trade-off is that it limits generalizability; used if certain characteristics of participants could affect the outcome
nursing research is driven by _____ ______
patient needs
key informants
people who are insiders in a group; individuals who have special knowledge, status, or communication skills within a group
design of study (quant.)
plan/blueprint for conduct of study; related to research question and hypothesis
sampling
process of selecting participants/subjects that represent population; most consider type of design and sampling procedure; reflect how often phenomena of interest occurs in population
variables
properties or concepts being studied; independent (presumed predictor/x); dependent (presumed outcome/y)
secondary sources
published article/books written by person other than individual who conducted research study/developed theory; not considered empirical research
sample for qualitative research
purposive sample (not random) because researcher is looking for particular experiences from people; not everyone has had certain experiences
research journal articles
qualitative, quantitative, or mixed
2 types of research
quantitative and qualitative
Naturalistic paradigm
reality is multiple and subjective, constructed by individuals; how you view the world
print and electronic books, journals, indexes (types of resources)
refereed or peer-reviewed (blind panel of experts reviews manuscripts); latest info
confirmability in qualitative research
refers to objectivity or neutrality of the data
Reliability vs. Validity
reliability: consistency, decrease random error validity: accuracy, decrease systematic error/bias high reliability does not equal high validity
primary sources
research articles and books by original author
representative population
sample has same key characteristics as the entire population
research
scientific process that generates new knowledge; systemic and rigorous
Kuder-Richardson coefficient (internal consistency)
similar to Crombach's, but used when items are dichotomous (Y/N, T/F); values over 0.7 acceptable
Pilot study (quant.)
small, simple study conducted as a prelude to a larger-scale study; ensure methods are feasible, everyone is trained, etc.
recruitment for qualitative research often uses what kind of techniques
snowballing techniques
manipulation of independent variable (pathway to control in quant.)
sometimes independent variables are only "observed;" in some designs they can be directly manipulated; one group might be given an intervention (experimental group) and another group might be given a placebo (control group)
operational definition
specifies how concept was measured; relationships between theories in research and practice
Split-half reliability (internal consistency)
splitting a scale in half; halves should be highly correlated
thematic analysis (qualitative research)
statements going along with common ideas researchers see in their study (seen in reading transcripts)
Steps in the quality improvement process
conduct assessment on what's going on, set goals, identify idea change, decide how to measure
credibility in qualitative research
confidence in truth of data, the informants recognize the experience to be their own; ensure study measures what is intended/is true experiences; prolonged engagements, persistent observations, and external checks increase credibility
acceptance rate
% of subjects who consented to be in the study
refusal rate
% of subjects who declined to participate in the study
clinical guidelines
- Consensus or expert-based guidelines are developed by expert panels - Guidelines have been developed to assist in bridging practice and research
Solomon four-group design (quant. experimental)
-2 groups have baseline data collected -2 groups do NOT have baseline data collected -randomized
Describing the sample should include:
-Demographic characteristics of the sample -Inclusion/exclusion criteria -Sampling strategy used -Screening, recruitment, and enrollment protocol -Power analysis to arrive at sample -any problems encountered
why is research important for EBP?
-Develops empirical knowledge base -Identifies best practices that are based on clinical practices -Improves outcomes for patient/family, nurse, and healthcare system
Environmental Theory
-Grand Nursing Theory -nurse is in charge of all these things for the patient -developed by Florence Nightingale
Meta-Synthesis
-NOT a primary source -interprets findings of data from multiple qualitative studies -uses various methods like constant comparison -give more confidence in accuracy of understanding phenomena
convenience sampling (non-probability)
-Use of the most readily accessible persons or objects as subjects in a study -Easy to recruit subjects -Risk of bias greatest in this type of sample -Used most with quantitative non-experimental or qualitative studies
format and style of research articles
-abstract (overall summary of article/research) -intro, purpose, lit. review, hypotheses, research design, sampling -reliability/validity of instruments, procedures, data, discussion
internal consistency (reliability)
-all items in instrument measure same concept -asses with Crombach's Alpha, Kuder-Richardson Coefficient, item to total correlations, split-half reliability
criterion-related validity
-are instrument measurements related to subjects' actual behavior? -ways to asses: concurrent validity and predictive validity -higher correlation (closer to 1.0) indicates higher validity
external validity (quant.)
-are the findings generalizable beyond this study? -under what conditions could we expect to find the same result? -selection effects (selection bias, mortality, maturation) -measurement effects (maturation, instrumentation, testing) -reactive effects (testing, history)
research question
-clearly specifies a population being studied -clearly identifies variables being studied -testable
survey studies (non-experimental quant.)
-collect info about subjects' characteristics, experiences, opinions, frequency of activities, etc. -can be questionnaire or interview -descriptive, exploratory, or comparative -PROS: gather a lot of info from large sample inexpensively -CONS: can be somewhat superficial info -researchers can develop own survey or utilize results of a large scale survey
study design for qualitative research
-congruent with philosophy of researcher -focus group, interview, etc.
qualitative research data displays
-convey main ideas of the study -codes used to organize -researcher identifies essential features and describes relationships -themes and findings
correlational study (relationship and difference studies non-experimental quant.)
-correlation does NOT imply causation -assesses the relationship between two variables -do the variables vary? -what is the strength/direction of the relationship?
critique of qualitative
-credibility (direct quotes from participants help) -auditability (someone reading article could replicate it) -fittingness (enough described about phenomena?)
application of quantitative research
-describe lived human experience of patients -can contribute to improvement of care -add dimension of understanding to our work
internal validity (quant.)
-did the independent variable really make the difference in the dependent variable? -were there other factors that could have explained the relationship? -increasing control increases internal validity
content validity
-does instrument adequately capture full range of construct's content? -ways to asses: review by expert panel, "Content Validity Index" (score of 0.78 to 1.0 indicate acceptable content validity) -Face Validity: the instrument has the appearance of measuring the construct
nonequivalent control group design (quant. quasi-experimental)
-experimental group, baseline data collected, intervention, post intervention data collected -control group, baseline data collected, post data collected -participants not randomized into experimental or control groups
reliability
-extent to which the instrument produces the same results if the behavior is repeatedly measured with the same scale -assess the consistency, stability, accuracy, precision, equivalence, and homogeneity
EBP perspective for literature review
-focus on critical appraisal of research studies, systemic reviews, clinical practice guidelines, and other relevant data -help determine if you have the best evidence -development/refinement of clinical question which will guide EBP or QI
Community-Based Participatory Research
-goal is to access the voice of the community to plan context-appropriate action -participants are equal partners in development of solution/intervention
Case Study
-goal is to capture a unique story -describe differences/similarities of a case -researcher takes etic perspective -may describe one or many cases (often choose a case the most can be learned from) -multiple methods/sources of data collection (interviews, field observation, document review, journals) -search for patterns among multiple sources -uses quantitative and qualitative data
Mixed Methods Research
-qualitative and quantitative methods in the same study -both types of data collected concurrently and sequentially -involves integration of findings
Ethnographic Model
-goal is to describe and interpret cultural or social groups and systems -understand participants' world view -participants have been a part of the group for a period of time -researchers "enter the world" of participant -purposive sampling -key informants -emersion in study setting; observation, field work, interviews -data collection/analysis is simultaneous -explore data for cultural symbols (domains) -use quotes from participants to reinforce emic view
Grounded Theory Method
-goal is to uncover social processes -explores how people define reality and how their beliefs are related to their actions -seeks to construct a theory that is grounded in data collected -interviews in natural setting -purposive sampling -data collection/analysis is simultaneous -constant comparative method -theoretical sampling
Phenomenological Method
-goal is to understand the human experience -topic little is known about -researcher's perspective is bracketed -purposive sampling -intensive dialogue -data saturation -thematic analysis
characteristics of experimental design (quant.)
-highest evidentiary strength -highest level of control -complicated and costly -sometimes impossible due to ethics
data analysis for qualitative research
-how new data were handled (usually transcripts of recorded interviews) -goal is to find commonalities and differences that are grouped into broad categories to capture the phenomena -themes are derived from context
developmental studies (relationship and difference studies non-experimental quant.)
-includes a time dimension -how do things change over time -cohort studies -case control studies
non-probability sampling (non-experimental)
-inclusion group NOT random -less generalizable -less representative -convenience, quota, purposive
causes of lack of rigor in qualitative research
-inconsistency in adhering to philosophy to approach being used -poorly developed methods -insufficient time spent collecting data -poor observations -failure to give careful considerations to all data -lack of attention to detail
value of EBP
-increase likelihood of identifying the bets method to diagnose/treat -implementation of best practices -look for areas of improvement (what interventions can help patients)
equivalence (reliability)
-instrument produces same results even with "equivalent" or parallel instruments or procedures are used -assessed with inter-rate reliability or parallel/alternate form reliability
stability (reliability)
-instrument produces same results with repeated measurements -assessed with test-retest reliability and parallel or alternate form reliability
non-probability sampling quota (non-probability)
-knowledge about characteristics of the population of interest used to build representativeness into the sample -identifies strata of population and proportionally represent strata -reduce bias
sample size
-largest sample possible (quant) -data saturation (qual)
special sampling strategies (non-probability)
-matching -snowballing (network sampling)
time series design (quant. quasi-experimental)
-more data points (extra pretest and extra posttest) -still one group with intervention -no control
characteristics of quasi-experimental design (quant.)
-more practical and less costly -sometimes only ethical option -lower evidentiary strength -lower control
cluster sampling (probability)
-multistage (cluster) sampling -random sampling of units (clusters) that progresses from large to small -ADVANTAGES: more economical -DISADVANTAGES: more sampling errors, appropriate handling of data complex
one-group pretest-posttest design (quant. quasi-experimental)
-no control group -experimental group, baseline data, intervention, post intervention data
data collection methods for qualitative research
-observation -interviews -focus groups -text
qualitative literature review
-often little is known about topic before study -literature review may appear more abbreviated -use literature review to interpret/discuss the study findings, draw conclusions, identify limitations, and suggest recommendations for future studies
What should you look at when critiquing qualitative research studies?
-phenomenon of interest -purpose -method -sampling -data collection -IRB approval? -data analysis (credibility, auditability, fittingness) -findings -conclusions and recommendations
stratified random sampling (probability)
-population divided into strata or subgroups -allows more representativeness -needs a large population (sample size) -variables often stratified -ADVANTAGES: enhanced representativeness, disproportionally small stratum, oversampled to adjust for underrepresentation -DISADVANTAGES: time consuming, costly, enrolling is challenging
cohort studies (relationship and difference studies, developmental studies, non-experimental quant.)
-prospective, longitudinal, repeated measures -collects data from same group at multiple points -can study incidence of the DV, changes over time -ISSUES: time consuming/costly, testing effects, mortality/attrition
case control studies (relationship and difference studies, developmental studies, non-experimental quant.)
-retrospective, ex post facto studies -"cases" that have already been diagnosed (DV) are compared to similar "controls" that don't have diagnosis to assess whether they differ in their exposure to an IV -ISSUES: not randomized, unable to rule out competing hypothesis
After-Only Experimental Design (quant. experimental)
-same as RCT expect no baseline data collected
After-only nonequivalent control group design (quant. quasi-experimental)
-same as nonequivalent control group design except no baseline data collected
Randomized Controlled (Clinical) Trial (quant. experimental)
-sample selected from population -baseline data collected -subjects randomized into intervention group and control group -post intervention data collected
simple random sampling (probability)
-sampling frame (list of who can be sampled; e.g. households, individuals, etc.) -subset then chosen/selected -members randomly selected -ADVANTAGES: not subject to conscious bias, representativeness is maximized -DISADVANTAGES: time consuming, usually insufficient method of obtaining random sample
quasi-experimental design (quant.)
-still aim to test cause and effect relationship -still involve intervention -random assignment and sometimes control group missing
quantitative literature review
-theoretic/conceptual framework -primary and secondary sources -research question and hypothesis -data analysis, discussion, conclusions -implications, recommendations
construct validity
-to what extent does the instrument measure the theoretical construct, attribute, trait? -ways to asses: hypothesis testing, convergent validity, divergent/discriminant validity, contrasted/known groups, factor analysis
how do nurses us qualitative research?
-understand the patient experience -assess the patient's status and progress -provide anticipatory guidance (proactive guidance)
probability sampling (experimental and quasi-experimental)
-uses randomization to assign elements -more generalizable -more representative -simple random, stratified random, cluster sampling
literature review for qualitative research
-usually less information is available -may need to review related/similar subjects or populations -may wait to do this after to study to avoid biases
critiquing non-probability samples
-what motivated people to participate/not participate? -representative?
When are non-experimental designs used? (quant.)
-when assigning participants to treatments isn't ethical -when researchers interested in natural unfolding of events and differences/relationships among variables
Issues in Qualitative Research
1. Naturalistic setting (issue of context, how to structure) 2. Emergent nature of design (changes as you hear responses) 3. Researcher-participant interaction 4. Researcher as instrument (researcher has bias)
3 factors to test causality (quant.)
1. cause and effect have to be associated 2. cause has to proceed effect 3. association can't be explained by another variable
3 steps of qualitative data analysis
1. description (codes) 2. analysis (reflexive thought, bracketing, themes) 3. interpretation (who cares, themes and findings come together)
sampling strategies (4)
1. identify target population 2. delineate the accessible population 3. develop a sampling plan 4. obtain approval from IRB
experimental design components (quant.)
1. randomization (subjects assigned randomly to control/experimental groups so other variables that impact dependent variables distributed across groups and selection bias decreases) 2. control (placebo or usual treatment so there are consistent data collection procedures) 3. manipulation (some sort of treatment, exposure, intervention, etc. that is "manipulated")
components of research process (review)
1. research question and hypothesis 2. design and method 3. outcome of the analysis
how are nursing theories used in research?
1. theory generated as outcome of research study 2. theory used as research framework 3. research to test a theory
how far back should you look for literature?
3-5 years; landmark studies may be included though
What is the ideal time frame for a literature search?
5 years
constant comparative method
A component of the Grounded Theory Method in which observations are compared with one another and data collection is constantly changed to fit people
accessible population
Available population that meets the criteria
Which source provides the most information on nursing evidence-based practice?
CINAHL
A nurse researcher finds four useful resources. What is an appropriate next action?
Decide whether the four resources provide a strong enough base for the topic.
The first step in the qualitative research process is to do what?
Define the phenomenon
Qualitative research findings can be used in nursing practice to do what?
Describe a phenomenon
The nurse researcher identifies the focus of grounded theory as what?
Describing the process that is at the heart of the inquiry
sampling error
Difference between the population mean and the mean of the sample
A nurse researcher completes a study and finds there is a need for continued research. What is the most appropriate response?
Document this in the report conclusion
Commentary in a peer-reviewed journal is considered research. True/False
False
Power analysis
Formula used for estimating optimum sample size; statistical technique that will use certain parameters to determine what sample is needed to test hypothesis os the study
quantitative research
The process of testing relationships, differences, and cause and effect interactions among and between variables
Researchers involved in qualitative research commonly engage in fieldwork. True/False
True
factor analysis (construct validity)
a statistical procedure that identifies how well scale items cluster together and measure the same concepts
transferability in qualitative research
ability of findings to be transferred to other contexts/settings; context critical for reader to assess whether it is transferable to their situation or not
Test-retest reliability (stability)
administer same scale to same subjects 2+ times and test their correlation (Pearson r)
steps of developing a research question
basic idea brainstorming literature review identify variables research question ask "so what" (will this contribute to nursing science)
theoretical/conceptual framework
basis for development of research questions/hypotheses; everything stems from literature
testability
can be observed, measured, and analyzed
cross-sectional studies (relationship and difference studies non-experimental quant.)
collects data from one point in time
meta-analysis journal articles
combines data from numerous studies
mixed-methods study
combines qualitative and quantitative methods in a single study in a way that is strategic and integrated
systematic review journal articles
combines results from numerous studies
contrasted or known groups (construct validity)
do 2+ groups that are expected to differ in their measurements actually differ significantly?
random error
due to chance or transient subjects or environmental factors
randomization (pathway to control in quant.)
each member of a population has an equal chance of being assigned to particular treatment
sample
elements that make up population
constancy in data collection procedures (pathway to control in quant.)
ensure data are collected from each participant in same way, under same conditions, use same measurement tools, by trained data collectors; also called intervention fidelity if study involves direct intervention
Dependability/Auditability in qualitative research
ensure process described in enough detail for someone to replicate study; detailed audit trail ensures every decision is written down
rigor in qualitative research
establish credibility, dependability, transferability, confirmability; trustworthiness essential for rich research
EBP requires _____ and _______ of research findings
examination; application
inter-rate reliability (equivalence)
for scales used by raters/observers; when 2+ trained raters score same subjects, the scores should be highly correlated; agreement is measured with kappa statistic (ranges from 0-1, 0.8 and higher indicated good inter-rater reliability, 0.68-0.8 acceptable, less than 0.68 poor)
conceptual definition
general meaning that defines/explains concepts as it is rooted in theoretical literature
model
graphic or symbolic representation of phenomenon; found in methods section
relationship between conceptual framework and hypothesis
hypothesis is related to the variables and must be in line with the framework
literature review
in research report is summary of current empirical/theoretical knowledge about topic that provides basis for study conducted; summary and synthesis of what we know
emic view
insiders view; participant's world view
theory
interrelated concepts that provide systematic review of phenomenon; relationships proposed, predictors made; logical way of collecting data (describe, explain, predict); organizer
non-experimental design (quant.)
investigator did not manipulate the independent variable; study is observational (explore events, people, situations as they occur, can be descriptive or test relationships/differences among variables)
feasibility of study (quant.)
is this study realistically able to happen?
what does it mean that a hypothesis is developed a priori?
it is developed before the study analysis takes place
"Knowledgeable Consumer"
knowing that one study doesn't change clinical practice; use critical appraisal skills to evaluate process when reviewing research
more valid measurements mean...
lower systematic error and less bias; enhanced internal and external validity of the study as a whole
beliefs
multiple realties; reality is socially constructed and context dependent (meaning of observation defined by circumstances/context)
Where is qualitative research conducted?
naturalistic setting; setting people live in daily; context of where people are is important to understand phenomenon
purpose of sampling
not cost-effective or feasible to study an entire population
measurements in quantitative studies produce what?
numerical data to analyze
methods for data collection in qualitative research
observation, interviews, text as source of data; often includes participant's body language in field notes
measurement and error
observed score = "true" score + random error and systematic error
what does it mean that a researcher's perspective is "bracketed?"
they identify their own biases
why don't qualitative studies include a hypothesis?
they want to avoid bias
evidence-based practice
using best research and clinical expertise to inform clinical decision making
discussion of results and EBP in qualitative research
usually describes process, conditions, description of experience; themes identified and quotes used to support themes; facilitate understanding of phenomena
variables vs. concepts
variables are more concrete than concepts; represent only portion of the concept
Micro-Range/Situation-Specific Theories
very specific, limited number of concepts; narrow in scope; look at small aspect of phenomena
