OB Final

Charism

A special personal quality of attractiveness that enables an individual to influence others

Semantic Barrier

Involves a poor choice or use of words and mixed messages

Authorization Leadership

Involves making decision independently with little or no input from others

Role Negotiation

Is a process for discussing and agreeing on what team members expect of one another

Relational Testing

Is a process through which individuals make disclosure and form opinions or attributes about the other based on disclosures

Political Skull

Is an ability to use knowledge of others to influence them to act in desired ways.

Profit Motivation

Is based on Milton Freedman's view that he sole purpose of a business is to make money

Constructive Resistance

Is characterized by thoughtful dissent aimed at constructively challenging the manger to rethink the issue

Informal Leaderships

Is exerted by persons who become influential due to special skills or their ability to meet the needs of others

Immediacy

Is how quickly the repayment is made

Social Capital

Is the current or potential resources gained through ones network

Lateral Communication

Is the flow of messages at the same level across the organizations

Ethics

Is the philosophical study of morality

Negotiation

Is the process of making joint decisions when the parties involved have different preferences

Leadership Ethics

Is the study of ethical problems and challenges distinctive to and inherent in the processes, practices, and outcomes of leading and following

Vertical Conflict

Occurs between levels and commonly involves superior - subordinate and team leader team member disagreements over resources, goals, deadlines or performance results

Commitment

Occurs when individuals accept an influence attempt out of duty or obligation

Role Conflict

Occurs when someone is unable to respond to role expectations that conflict with one another

Role ambiguity

Occurs when someone is uncertain about what is expected of them

Effective Negotiation

Occurs when substance issues are resolved and working relationship are maintained or improved

Role Underload

Occurs when too little work is expected of the individual

Role Overload

Occurs when too much work is expected of the individual

Follower readiness

The amount of experience of ability the follower has to do the job

Power Distance

The extent to which one accepts that power is institutions and organizations is distributed unequally

Attitudinal Foundations

Three attitudinal foundations of integrative agreement ® Each party must approach the negotiation with a willingness to trust the other party ® Each party must convey a willingness to share information with the other party ® Each party must show a willingness to ask concrete questions of the other party

Active Listening

We are genuinely interested in understanding the other person's point of view. We actively check our understanding before we prompt the other person to go further § Often used on counselling problems § Intent to help the other person through their problems § Biggest mistake people make in this kind of listening is jumping in too early or changing the focus onto themselves Involves understanding the various type of listening responses and matching your response to the situation

Disclosures

closure ® Is an opening up or revelation to another of something about oneself ® Can be positive or negative ® Deeper disclosures ◊ More intensely personal revelation, ie. personal details ◊ Only appropriate very high-quality where people trust each other ® Scorekeeper ◊ Is a test is passed the relationship progresses, if this happens they can act as ladders ◊ If a test is failed then individuals begin to hold back and interactions may take a negative tone

Vroom-Jao model for a mangers use of alternative decision-making methods

§ AI □ (first variant on the authority decision) □ The manager solves the problem or makes the decision alone, using information available at that time. § AII □ (second variant on the authority decision) □ The manager obtains the necessary information from team members and then decides on the problem's solution. The team members provide the necessary information but do not generate or evaluate alternatives. § CI □ (first variant on the consultative decision) □ The manager shares the problem with team members individually, getting their ideas and suggestions without bringing them all together. The manager then makes a decision. § CII □ (second variant on the consultative decision) □ The manager shares the problem with team members, collectively obtaining their ideas and suggestions. The manager then makes a decision. § G □ (the team or consensus decision) □ The manager shares the problem with team members as a total group and engages them in consensus seeking to arrive at a final decision.

Team Resources and Setting

§ Appropriate goals, well-designed reward systems, adequate resources and appropriate technology are essential to support the work of teams § Performance suffers when □ Goals are unclear □ Focuses too much on individual levels accomplishment □ When resources are insufficient § Team in the right place can go a long way

Supportive Communication principles

§ Are a set of tools focused on joint problem solving

Implicit Leadership Theories

§ Are out beliefs or understandings about the attributes associated with leaders and leadership § Implicit theories cause us to naturally classify people as leaders or non leaders

Team or group Dynamics

§ Are the forces operating in teams that affect the ways members work together § Especially important and at risk when teams are □ Taking on new members □ Addressing disagreements on goals □ Resolving decision making delays □ Reducing personality friction □ Managing conflicts

BATNA

§ Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement

Stages of Conflict

§ Conflict antecedent □ Establish the conditions from which the conflicts are likely to emerge § Perceived conflict □ When conditions become the basis for substantive or emotional difference between people or groups § Felt conflict □ When conflict is felt it experienced as tension and that motivated the person to take action to reduce feelings of discomfort § Manifest conflict □ Is expressed openly in behaviour □ In this stage removing or correction the antecedents results in conflict resolution the failing results in conflict suppression ® Conflict suppression no change in antecedent conditions occurs when though the manifest conflict behaviours may be temporality controlled

Culture and Conflict

§ Cultural differences must be considered for their conflict potential § People who are not able or willing to recognize and respect cultural differences can cause dysfunctional conflicts in multicultural teams

Social Exchange Theory

§ Describes how relationships initiate and develop through processes of exchange and reciprocity

The Milgram Experiment

§ Experiment devised by Stanley Milgram (1961) to study obedience and authority § Naïve subjects ("teachers") told to administer shock to confederate victims ("learners") if they did not answer the question correctly □ Simulated shock generator with 30 clearly marked voltage levels (15 to 450 volts) □ Range from Slight Shock to Danger: Severe Shock § Subjects were 40 males between the ages of 20 and 50 recruited for the experiment □ Believed they were to participate in a study of punishment and learning at Yale University § Predictions □ 40 psychiatrists from a medical school, believed that by the tenth shock, when the victim demands to be free, most subjects would stop the experiment. They predicted that by the 300‐volt shock, when the victim refuses to answer, only 3.73 percent of the subjects would still continue and, they believed that "only a little over one‐ tenth of one percent of the subjects would administer the highest shock on the board."

Effective Power Bases

§ Expert and referent power are position related to performance and commitment § Use of reward and legitimate power are unrelated to organizational outcomes § Coercive power is negatively related to employee satisfaction and commitment

Forming Stage of Team Development

§ Focusing around the initial entry of members to a team § During this stage individuals ask a number of questions as they begin to identify with other groups members and the team itself "What can the group offer me?" "What can I contribute?"

Creativity

§ Generates unique and novel responses to problems § Determines how well people, teams do in response to complex challenge

Approaches to Distributive Negotiation

§ Hard Distributive Negotiation □ Takes place when each party hold out to get its own way □ Leads to competition □ May lead a win-lose outcome in which one party dominates and gains § Soft Distribute Negotiation □ Takes place when on party or both seek concession just to get things over with □ Soft approach leads to accommodation

Team Creativity Drivers

§ If you want teams to be creative then they should have creative membership and the special decision technique such as brainstorming § Techniques for team creativity □ Associative play ® Making up and telling stories, engaging in art projects and building toy models that come to mind when dealing with a problem □ Cross-pollination ® Switching members among teams to gain insights from diverse interests, backgrounds and experiences when working on problems □ Analogies and metaphors ® Using analogies and metaphors to describe a problem and open pathway to creative thinking

Integrative Bargaining

§ In integrative bargaining, there is more than one issue § The parties have different preferences across bargaining issues § The best way to create joint value is by being open and straightforward about the parties' preferences and the intensity thereof § Value is by generating options and be exploiting creativity various difference among the parties § Create value by expanding the pie and then claim value

Physical Barriers

§ Include interruptions from noises, visitors, the like, that interfere with communication § Setting priorities and planning can eliminate physical barriers

Resistance

§ Involves individuals saying no, making excuse, staling, arguing

Shared Leadership

§ Is a dynamic, interactive influence process among team members working to achieve goals § Occurs laterally among the team members and vertically with the team leader

Feedback orientation

§ Is a persons overall receptivity to feedback § Those with higher feedback orientation are better able to control and overcome their emotional reactions to feedback

Information Power

§ Is a possession of or access to information that is valuable to others § Can come from one's position in the organization or from personal relationships § From formal or informal networks

Joharia Window

§ Is a tool that helps understand the relationship with self and others § Shows use that we know some things about ourselves that other know ("open") and some things about ourselves that others don't know ("hidden") § Also some things we don't know about ourselves that we don't know but others do (blind spot)

Storming Stage of Team Development

§ Is one of the high emotionality and tension among members § Hostility and infighting may occur, cliques form § In the process membership expectations tend to be clarified and attention shifts toward obstacles standing in the way of team goals, individuals begin to understand one another interpersonal styles and efforts are made to find ways to accomplish team goals

Norming Stage of Team Development

§ Is reached when members start to work together as a coordinated team § Sometimes called the initial integration § Turmoil of storming stage gives a way to a precautions balancing of forces § Some individuals may perceive this stage as one of ultimate maturity, but that is a premature sense of accomplishment that needs to be carefully managed in order to reach the next level of team development

Feedback Seeking

§ Is seeking feedback about yourself from others □ Seek feedback ® To gather information for increasing performance ® To learn what others think about them ® To regulate one's behaviour □ Feedback seeking is lower for those who have been in a job for longer, even though these employees find feedback just as valuable as newer employees

Connection Power

§ Is the ability to call on connection and networks both inside and outside the organization for support in getting things done and in meeting one's goal § Crosses both positional and personal power

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

§ Is the study of manger-subordinate relationship quality § Some subordinates have high-quality LMX relationships characterized by trust, respect, liking and loyalty

Social Facilitation

§ Is the tendency for one's behaviour to be influenced by the presence of others in a group § Social Facilitation theory suggests □ That working in the presence of others creates emotional arousal or excitement that stimulates behaviour and affects performance

Performing Stage of Team Development

§ Marks the emergence of a mature and well-functioning team § Team members can now deal with complex tasks and handle internal disagreements in creative ways § Structure is stable and members are motivated by team goals and generally satisfied

Virtual teams

§ Members work together through computer mediation

Importance of Communication

§ Nature of communication is changing in organizations § Widely available information is empowering people and societies § Communication is glue that holds a company together

Adjourning Stage of Team Development

§ Teams disband when their work is finished § Especially important for the many temporary teams § Members must be able to quickly change jobs, do them right, and reconvene later if needed

Ethical Aspects of Negotiation

§ The motivation to behave ethically in negotiation can be put to the test by each party's desire to get more than the other from negotiation and/or by belief that there are insufficient resources to satisfy all parties § Companies may try to rationalize or explain questionable ethics as unavoidable, harmless, justified § Ones someone's unethical once they will probably do it again

Inter-Team Dynamics

□ Occur as groups cooperate and compete with one another □ What happens between teams □ Positive side of inter-team dynamics, competition works to stimulate them to become more cohesive, work harder and focus on key tasks □ Negative side, when manufacturing and sales units don't get along, interteam dynamics may drain and divert work energies ® Members may spend too much team focusing on their animosities or conflicts

Intergroup Conflict

□ Occurs among groups in organizations □ Conflict among function groups or departments Cross functional teams and task forces is one way of trying to minimize such conflicts through horizontal communication

Interorgniazational Conflict

□ Occurs between organizations □ Ford vs. Honda □ McDonalds vs. Burger King Disagreements between unions and organizations, government etc

Horizontal Conflict

□ Occurs between persons or groups working at the same organizational level

Interpersonal Conflict

□ Occurs between two or more individuals in opposition to each other □ Teammates conflict vs. two people conflict

Administration Leadership

□ Occurs in formal, managerial roles and focuses on alignment and control aimed at driving business results

Disconfirmation

□ Occurs when an individuals feels their self-worth is being questioned People will withdraw from a conversation

Crisis decision

□ Occurs when an unexpected problem can lead to disaster if not resolved quickly and appropriately □ Ex. acts of terrorism, workplace violence, IT failure, security breaches, ethical scandals, environment catastrophes Managers often cut themselves off which creates an issues for the flow of information

Silence

□ Occurs when employees chose not to share input that could be valuable

Compliance

□ Occurs when individuals accept another's influence because of the positive or negative outcomes tied to it □ When people comply they are going along with it because they have to not want too □ Extrinsic form of motivation, results in minimal effort □ Not very affective in the long run

Defensiveness

□ Occurs when individuals feel they are being attacked and need to protect themselves □ Ex. people get angry, aggressive in communication, lash out

Avoidance

□ Occurs when individuals ignore or deny a problem rather than comfort it □ Major barrier to openness and honesty in communication □ The fear of avoidance comes with a lack of understanding of how to approach difficult conversations

Upward Leadership

□ Occurs when leaders at lower levels influence those at higher levels to create change Often missed in discussion of leadership, but is critical for organizational change and effectiveness

Self- Intersted Politics

□ Occurs when people work to shift otherwise ambiguous outcomes to their personal advantage Politics that benefit, protect, enhance self-interest without consideration of the welfare of co-workers or the organizations

Role Ambiguity

□ Occurs when the communication of task expectation is unclear or upsetting in some way

Intrapersonal Conflict

□ Occurs within the individual because of actual or perceived pressures from incapable goals or expectations □ Approach-approach conflict ® Occurs when a person must choose two positive and equally attractive alternatives ® Ex. having to choose a promotion vs. new job □ Avoidance-avoidance conflict ® Occurs when a person must choose between two negative and equally unattractive alternatives ® Ex. transferring job to another town or being fired □ Approach-avoidance conflict ® Occurs when a person has to decide to do something that has both negative and positive consequences ® Ex. being offered a promotion but has unwanted responsibilities that come with it

WIn-Lose Strategies

□ One party achieves its desires at the expense to the exclusion of the other party's desires □ High assertiveness and low cooperativeness situation can result in □ Competition ® Seeks victory by force, superior skill or domination □ Authoritative command ® Uses formal authority to end a conflict □ These fail to address the root cause of conflict and tend to suppress the desire of at least one party

Reflecting

□ Opening type of responses □ Involves paraphrasing back what the speaker said, summarizing what was said or taking a step further by asking a question to clarify or elaboration

Adaptive Leadership

□ Operates in the interface between the administration and entrepreneurial systems and fosters conditions for emergence

Relationship Goals

□ Outcomes that relate to how well people involved in the negotiation are able to work with one another once the process is done □ Ex. union members and management representative

2 factors play into whether to be silent or have a voice

□ Perceived efficacy of voice ® Whether the employee believes their voice will make a difference □ Perceived risk ® Employees will be less likely to voice if they believe speaking up to authority will damage their creditability or relationships

Outdoor Experience Approach

□ Places team in variety of physically challenging situations □ By having to work together to mast difficult obstacles, team members are supposed to grow in self-confidence, gain more respect for each other's capability and leave with a great capacity for and commitment to teamwork

Moral Problem

□ Poses major ethical consequences for the decision maker or others □ Ex. laying people off in a recession

Supportive Leadership

□ Promotes a friendly work climate by focusing on subordinate needs and well-being

Directive Leadership

□ Provide clarity and direction for subordinates

Certain Environments

□ Provide full information on the expected results for decision making alternatives □ Ex. putting money in an interest account

Uncertain Environments

□ Provide no information to predict expected results for decision-making alternatives □ Uncertainty forces decision makers to rely heavily on unique, novel and innovative alternatives

Risk Environments

□ Provide probabilities regarding expected results for decision making alternatives □ Try to eliminate uncertainty by assigning probabilities to alternatives, made by objective statistical procedures or personal institution

Four dimensions of Feedback Orientation

□ Utility ® Represents the belief that feedback is useful in achieving goals or obtaining desired outcomes □ Accountability ® Is the feeling hat one is accountable to act on the feedback they receives □ Social Awareness ® Is considered of others views of oneself and being sensitive to others views □ Feedback self-efficacy Is an individuals perceived competence interpreting and responding to feedback appropriately

Servant Leadership

□ View in which servant leaders selflessly serve others first

Competitive Listening

□ We are more interested in promoting out point of view than in understanding what the other person has to say

passive listening

□ We let the other person express their point of view at the risk of not understanding

The Decision to Decide

□ What really matters? ® Small problems should not get the same attention as big problems □ Might the problem get resolved? ® Putting problems in rank, last is less significant ® Smaller problems often resolve themselves □ Is this my, or our problem? ® Other people can handle the problem ® Delegate problems to people who deal with them the most □ Will time spent make a difference? ® A really effective decision maker recognizes the difference between problems that realistically can be solved and those that are not simply solved

Iron Law of Responsibility

□ When power imbalances get bad, they trigger forces that rise up to take power away to restore the balance □ Ex. when lobbying groups work to take an organizations power away by passing regulations

Dysfunctional Conflict

□ Works to the groups or organizations disadvantage □ Diverts energies, hurts group cohesion, promotes interpersonal hostilities and creates a negative environment □ Destructive emotional conflict ® When two co workers don't want to work together because of interpersonal issues □ Destructive substantive conflict ® When members of a work unit fail to act because they cannot agree on task goals

Organizational silos

◊ Are unites that are isolated from one another by strong department or divisional lines ◊ Units tend to communicate more inside than outside, they often focus on protecting turf and information rather than sharing it Direct contrast to what we need in today's organizations, which is timely and accurate information

Naïve Cynicism

◊ Cognitive bias that occurs when people expect more egocentric bias in others than actually is the case? ◊ Consequences? ® In what ways is naïve cynicism related? ◊ Social loafing

Common Ream Norms

◊ Ethics Norms } We are trying to make ethical decisions or are we not ◊ Organizational and personal pride norms } The norms of the organization } Do people stand up for what's right or not ◊ High-achievement norms } We care if we win or we don't care if we win ◊ Support and helpfulness norms } People are good listeners or everyone on the team is absolute shit and selfish ◊ Improvement and Change Norms } We always want new ways to get better, we don't change same way we've been ruining for 100 years

Electronic Communications: Tips for Writing and Sending E-Mails

◊ Use a subject line ◊ Write clearly and briefly ◊ Copy emails to other only if they really need the information ◊ Assume that your email may become public ◊ Do not use emails for emotionally laden topics } Sleep on angry emails (don't send them)

Power Wielders

◊ Uses power to advance their own interest without considering followers needs

Proactive Beliefs

◊ Viewing their role as expressing opinions, taking initiative, and constructively and challenging leaders ◊ "High potentials" } Those identified by their organizations as demonstrating strong potential to be promoted to higher level leadership positions Individuals holding proactive beliefs reported nit being able to be proactive in authoritarian or bureaucratic work climates

Passive Beliefs

◊ Viewing their roles in the classic sense of following ◊ Passive, deferential, obedient to authority ◊ Individuals with passive beliefs are often uncomfortable in empowering climates because their natural inclination is to follow rather than be empowered Passive followers are more comfortable in authoritarian climate where they receive more direction from leaders

Continuous Improvement Approach

□ The manager/team leader take responsibility for regularly engaging in team-building process □ Method can be as simple as period meetings that have team building steps □ Can include self-managed formal retreats

Social Loafing

□ The tendency for individuals to spend less effort when working collectively than when working individually ® Due to belief other will not contribute fair share (re-establish equity) ® Dispersion of responsibility -- if others do not notice, you can put in less effort (non identifiability)

Politicking

□ Twisting facts to support one's own goals and interest

Upward Referral

□ Uses the chain of common for conflict resolution □ Problems are moved up from the level of conflict individuals or teams for more senior managers to address □ If conflict is severe and recurring the continual use of upward referral may not result in true conflict resolution Higher mangers removed from day to day fail to see the real uses of a conflict and attempt to make a superficial resolution

Leadership

○ Leadership should be thought of as a process ○ Is an influence process generate when acts of leading (e.g influencing) are combined with acts of following (e.g deferring) as individuals work together to attain mutual goals

Collective Leadership

○ Represents views of leadership not as property of individuals and their behaviour but as a social phenomena constructed in the interaction

Why teams are good for organizations?

○ Teams are beneficial as settings where people learn from one another and share job skills and knowledge. ○ The learning environment and the pool of experience within a team can be used to solve difficult and unique problems. ○ Opportunities for social interaction within a team can provide individuals with a sense of security through work assistance and technical advice. ○ Team members provide emotional support for one another in times of special crisis or pressure. ○ Many contributions individuals make to teams can help members experience self‐esteem and personal involvement

Alternative to direct Negotiation

§ Third party negotiation □ A neutral third party works with persons involved in a negotiation to help them resolve impasses and settle disputes § Arbitration □ A neutral third party acts as a "judge" and has the power to issue a decision that is binding on all parities § Mediation □ A neutral third party tries to engage the parties in a negotiated solution through persuasion and rational argument

Ringleman Effect (Social Loafing)

® German psychologists, asked people to pull the rope as hard as they could, first alone then as a team ◊ Productivity dropped as more people joined the rope-pulling test ◊ Since their individual contributions are less noticed people don't work as hard

Kelman's two forms of commitment in response to influence attempt

® Identification ◊ Displayed when individuals accept an influence attempt because they want to maintain a positive relationship with the person or group making the influence request ® Internalization ◊ Occurs when the individual accepts influence because the indicate behaviour is congruent with their value system ◊ You believe in the ideas and actions you are being asked to undertake

Key to Power

® Important ◊ The things you control must be important ® Scarcity ◊ A resource must be perceived as scare ® Non-substitutability ◊ The resource cannot be substituted with something else

Channel Richness

® Indicates the capacity of a channel to convey information ® Richest channels are face to face, telephone, video conferences and text, then email and reports and letter When messages are complex and open ended richer channels are needed to achieve effective communication

Four Common Types of Role Conflict

® Intrasender Role Conflict ◊ When the same person sends conflicting expectations ◊ Ie. I need help with the PowerPoint and do the report right now ® Intersender Role Conflict ◊ When different people send conflicting and mutually exclusive expectations ◊ You should criticize everything so were better, co-workers tells you "you're too negative" ® Person-Role Conflict ◊ When a person's values and needs come into conflict with role expectations ® Inter-role Conflict ◊ Expectations of two or more roles held by the same individual become incompatible. S ◊ Ex. the conflict between work and family demands

Win-Win Strategies

® Involve recognition that something is wrong and needs attention through problem solving ® Win-win eliminate the responses for continuing or resurrecting the conflict because nothing has been avoided or suppressed ® Solution to the conflict ◊ (1) achieves each party's goals, ◊ (2) is acceptable to both parties (3) establishes a process whereby all parties involved see a responsibility to be open and honest about facts and feelings.

Risk Management

® Involves anticipating risk and factoring them into decision making ® Identity critical risk and then developing strategies and assigning responsibilities for dealing with them □ Strategic risk ® Threats to overall business success □ Operational Risks ® Threats inherent in the technologies used to reach business success □ Reputation Risk ® Threat to a brand or to the firm's reputation

Noise

® Is anything that interferes with the effectiveness of communication

Transactional leadership

® Is leadership that is based on a fairly straight forward exchange between the leader and the followers ® Transactional leadership behaviour involves ◊ Contingent reward behaviour ◊ Management by exception

Transformational Leadership

® Is leadership that provides followers with a new vision that instills true commitment ® Transformational leaders change the belief's and attitudes of followers to correspond with a new vision and motivates them to achieve performance beyond expectation

Power Distance Orientation

® Is the extent to which on accept that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally ® These people have lower efficacy, as they have less confidence in their ability to execute on their own ® Depend on leaders for structure and direction ® Working in greater hierarchy of authority and lower job autonomy

Rule of Conformity

® Is the greater the cohesiveness the greater the conformity of members to team norms ® When the performance norms are positive in highly cohesive teams the results are conformity to the norm which should have a positive effect on both team performance and member satisfaction ® When performance norms are negativity in highly cohesive team, the this creates the worst case situation for team leader and organization ◊ These two extremes are two-mixed case situations for team in low cohesions ◊ Little conformity to either positive or negative norms the team will most likely fall on the moderate or low side

Receiver

® Is the individual or group of individuals to whom a message is directed ® Impacted by the knowledge and experiences of the receiver and their relationship to the sender

Encoding

® Is the process of translating an idea or though into a message consistent of verbal, written, nonverbal symbols (such as gestures) or some combination of them

How to reverse social loafing

® Make individual performance more visible ◊ Keeping group size small ® Make sure that the work is interesting ◊ Intrinsic motivation should counteract social loafing ® Increase feelings of indispensability ◊ Use training and the status system to provide group members with unique inputs ® Increase performance feedback ◊ Increase feedback from the boss, peers, customers ® Reward group performance Members more likely to monitor and maximize performance when the group receives rewards for effectiveness

Disadvantages to Self-Management Teams

® May be hard for some team members to adjust the to the "self-managing: responsibilities ® Higher-level managers may have problems dealing with the loss of the first-line supervisions

Willing Followership

® Means that others follow because they want to, not because they have too ® When leaders operate from a willing followership model, others follow out of intrinsic motivation and power comes from personal sources

Low Context Cultures

® Messages are expressed mainly by the spoken and written word ® Ex. Canada, Australia, U.S

Advantages of Diversity

® Multiple perspectives ® Greater openness to new ideas ® Multiple interpretations ® Increased creativity ® Increased flexibility Increased problem-solving skills

Workarounds

® Occurs when people go around rules to accomplish a task or goal because the normal process or method isn't producing the desired result Involve seeking assistance from influential people

Sender

® Or information source ® Is a person trying to communicate with someone else ® Seeks to change attitudes

Advantages of Self Management Teams

® Productivity and quality improvements ® Production flexibility and faster response to technological change ® Reduced absenteeism and turnover ® Improved work attitudes and quality of work life

Criteria of Effective Negotiation

® Quality of Outcomes ◊ The negotiation results in a "quality" agreement that is wise and satisfactory to all sides ® Harmony in relationships ◊ The negotiations is "harmonious" that foresters rather than inhibits good interpersonal relationships ® Efficiency Negotiation is "efficient" and no more time consuming or costly than absolutely necessary

Proactive Follower Orientation

® Reflects the beliefs that follower should act in ways that are helpful, useful, and productive to leadership outcomes ® They believe followers are important contributors to the leadership process and that a strong follower role (voice) is necessary for accomplishing the organizations mission ® Want to work in an environment of support and reinforced beliefs ® Lower hierarchy of authority, greater autonomy, and higher supervision support

Heroic Leadership Views

® Seek leadership as the result of acts of great leaders who inspire and motivate others to accomplish extraordinary things ◊ Similar to "Romance of Leadership" - leave our process and context

How to avoid escalating commitment

® Set advance limits on your involvement and commitment to a particular course of action; stick with these limits ® Make your own decisions, don't follow the lead of others because they are also prone to escalation ® Carefully determine just why you are continuing a course of action; if there are insufficient reason to continue, don't Remind yourself of the costs of a course if action; consider saving theses costs as a reason to discontinue

Performance Norms

® Set expectations for how hard members work and what the team should accomplish ® All members are expected to work very hard and that high performance is the goals ® The performance norm is low and weak; members are left to work hard or not as they like it, little concerns for others ® Norms like attendance, punctuality, preparedness, criticism, social behaviour are also important

Transformational Leadership: Research Evidence

® Transformational leadership is strongly related to follower motivation and satisfaction, leader performance, leader effectiveness, and group and organization performance. ® Transformational leadership is especially effective during times of change and for obtaining employees' commitment to change. ® They also enhance employee's perception of the give core job characteristics of the job characteristics model Research indicates that the best leaders are both transactional and transaction

High Context Cultures

® Words convey only a part of the message, the rest of the message should be inferred from body language and additional contextual cues ® Ex. Asian and Middle Eastern Cultures

Associated Power

□ Arises from influence with a powerful person on whom others depend □ Individuals have association power when they know people in key positions or have networks of relationships with the higher-ups who connect them to influential others □ "Its not what you know but who you know"

Solomon Asch: Complains in an unambiguous situation

□ Asch(1951;1956)completed two studies that demonstrate how easily conformity occurs □ Naïve subject is brought in to lab with 6‐8 confederates □ Asked to make a judgment about line length □ Subject is seated next to last □ In 12 of 18 trials confederates provide the wrong answer - DV is whether subject follows □ Ordinarily subjects make mistakes 1% of the time, in this experiment 36.8% of the time □ Results: ® 33% went along with the group on a majority of the trials ® 25% remained completely independent ® 75% conformed at least once ® When tested alone (no confederates), subjects got more than 98% of the judgments correct ® When tested with confederates, they only got 66% of the judgments correct

Disruptive Bargaining Moves

□ Asses and improve your BATNA □ Assess the other person's BATNA and associated reservation point □ Try to "anchor" with an ambitious (albeit realistic) first offer. Start with outlandish positions, If in the end the difference is spilt, you're better off than otherwise □ Never accept a first offer, even when it's perfectly acceptable. Always react with surprise and shock □ Re-anchor if the other party opens with an unacceptable offer □ Do not make unilateral concessions □ Do not make concessions that are consistently greater than your opponent

Parochialism

□ Assumes that the ways of your culture are the only ways of doing things

Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristics

□ Bases a decision on incremental adjustments to an initial value determined by historical precedent or some reference point Ex. is an executive who takes salary recommendation for key personal by simply adjusting their current base salaries by a percentage, salary becomes the reference point

Availability heuristic

□ Bases a decision on recent events relating to the situation at hand □ Ex. is the product development specialists who decides not to launch a new product because of a recent failure launching another one

Representativeness heuristics

□ Bases a decision on similarities between the situation at hand and stereotypes of similar occurrence □ Ex. is the team leader who selects a new member because the individual comes from a department that is known to do well

Informational Foundations

□ Best Alternative to a Negotiated agreement (BATNA) □ Both parties must know what they will do if an agreement cannot be reached

Structural Holes Theory

□ Broker ® Is the knowledge, skills, and intellectual assets employees bring to the workplace. □ Structural Holes ® Are the gaps between individuals and groups in a social network Brokers develop relationship that link formerly unconnected actors by building bridges that provide greater access to information resources and opportunities

Satisficing Decision

□ Choose the first alternative that appears to give an acceptable or satisfactory resolution of the problem

How to influence Team Cohesiveness

□ Cohesiveness tends to be high in teams that are homogenous makeup ® Ie. similar age, attitudes, needs, backgrounds □ Teams should be small in size, so people have a better respect for each other □ Cohesiveness is between when groups are physically isolated from one another and they experience performance success or crisis

Expert Power - Personal Power

□ Comes from special skills and abilities that others need but do not posses themselves □ Often determined by the individuals performance records over time and the alternative sources of knowledge available

Reward Power

□ Comes from the abilities to administer outcomes that have positive valence (provide positive rewards) and remove or decrease outcomes that have negative valence (remove negative rewards) □ Ex, money, promotions, enriched jobs, shitty task, bad work schedule

Politics arise i organizations because

□ Conflict interests □ Limited resources (ex. 75% average; jobs) □ Ambiguity in decision making (ex. subjective grading)

Cross Functional Team

□ Consists of members from different functions or work units □ Come together to achieve more horizontal integration and better lateral relations □ Expected result is higher performance driven by the advantages of better information and fast decision making

Functional Conflict

□ Constructive conflict □ Results in positive benefits to the group □ Can bring important problems to the surface so they can be addressed □ Causes decision to be carefully considered □ Increases amount of information used for decision making □ Provides opportunities for creativity

Control

□ Control over access to things other people need such as information, resources, and decision making

Restricted Communication Networks

□ Counteracting team □ Link subgroups that disagree with one another's positions □ Subgroups emerge due to issues specific agreements, ie. cliques □ Subgroups contest each other positions and this creates poor communication □ Counteracting teams might be set up to stimulate conflict and criticism to help improve creativity or double check decisions

Substance goals

□ Deal with the outcomes that relate to the content issues under negotiation Ex. salary

Authority Rule

□ Decision by authority rule □ The manager or leader makes a decision for the team □ Time efficient and done without inputs □ Decision is bad or good depending on manager/leader

Majority Rule

□ Decision by majority rule □ Takes place in a formal vote when team members can agree or disagree about situations □ Voting, can be seen as the easy way out □ Can raise problems, the process of majority rules creates coalition, especially when votes are take and results are close □ Minority "losers" may be left out and have less motivation to implement the "winners" plan

Minority Rule

□ Decision by minority rule □ Two or three people dominate or railroad the group into making the decisions they want □ "Does anyone object" "No, okay lets move forward with this then" Forces of bullying may get the team in a certain direction but the decisions success will probably be low

Unanimity

□ Decision by unanimity □ All team members agree on the course of action taken □ "logically perfect" hard to obtain in actual practice

Consensus

□ Is a groups decision that has the expressed support of most members □ When one discussion leader to an alternative favored by most □ Everyone had a chance to say their piece □ Requires the opportunities for any dissenting members to feel that they are able to have their voice heard when they speak

Powerlessness

□ Is a lack of autonomy and participation □ Occurs when power imbalances make people feel that they have no option but to do what others say □ Have debilitating effects □ Powerless people often try to regain some sense of control over themselves and their work environment ® Ex. absenteeism , tardiness, theft, vandalism, grievances, counterproductive behaviour □ The problem in organizations is not power but powerlessness this means to gain and use power responsibly, we need to expand the power of others rather than restrict it to a few

Followership

□ Is a process through which individuals choose how they will engage with leaders to co - produce leadership and its outcomes

Hindsight Trap

□ Is a tendency to overestimate the degree to which an event that has already taken place could have been predicted

Relational Violation

□ Is a violation of the "boundary of acceptable behaviour in a relationship" □ Sabotage, work screw-up

Objective Thinkers

□ Is anxious about how personal needs will be met in the group, wants clear goals □ Person may act in a passive, reflective and even single minded manner while struggling to fit in between individuals goals and group direction □ Best team response is to engage in a discussion to clarify team goals and expectations

Probing

□ Is asking for additional information that helps elaborate, clarify, or repeat of necessary □ Don't change the subject before the current subject is resolved

Bathsheba Syndrome

□ Is epitomized when men and women in the pinnacle of power with strong personal integrity and intelligence engage in unethical and selfish behaviour because they mistakenly believe they are above the law □ Ex. Donald trump things hes above the law

Formal Leadership

□ Is exerted by persons appointed or elected to positions of formal authority in organizations □ Ex. Teacher, manager, politician etc

Tough Battler

□ Is frustrated by a lack of identity in the new group and make act aggressively or reject authority □ "Who am I in the group?" □ Best team response may be to allow the new member to share their skills and interests, and talk about how their skills can help

Effective Team Criteria

□ Is one that achieve high levels of task performance, member satisfaction and team viability □ Task performance ® An effective team achieves its performance goals in the standard sense of quantity, quality, and timeliness of work results □ Member Satisfaction ® An effective team is one who's members believe that their participation and experiences are positive and meet important personal needs □ Team Viability ® The members of an effective team are sufficiently satisfied to keep working together on an ongoing basis ® They want to keep doing tasks, look forward to them

Bureaucracy

□ Is organizing form in which division of labour, specification of titles and duties, hierarchal reporting relationships and provide efficiency of control

Problem Solving Team

□ Is set up to deal with a specific problem or opportunity □ Ex. president of a company might convene a task force toe examine the possibility of implementing flexible hours

Political Savvy

□ Is skill and adroitness at reading political environments and understanding how to influence effectively in these environments.

Framing Error

□ Is solving a problem in the context perceived -- either negative or positive □ Negative is glass is half empty, positive glass is half full □ Attribute Framing ® The tendency to evaluate a characteristic more positively when it is presented in positive terms than in negative terms ® Example: Ground beef that is 75% lean is rated as tasting better and less greasy than ground beef that is 25% fat □ Risky Choice Framing The tendency to avoid risks when potential gains are emphasized and to take risks when potential losses are emphasized

Advising

□ Is telling someone what to do □ Close response because it would end the conversation □ Can hurt the other person in this situation

Power

□ Is the ability of a person or group to influence or control some aspect of another person or group Often associated with control over resources others need

Collective Intelligence

□ Is the ability of a team to performance well across a range of tasks □ Strong correlation between collective intelligence and two process variables ® Social sensitives within the teams and absence of conversational domination by a few members □ Collective intelligence has to do with gender ® Proportion to females on the time ® Females in their studies scored higher than males on social sensitivity

Referent Power - Personal Power

□ Is the ability to alter another's behaviours because the person wants to identify with you as the power sources □ Identification comes from a feeling of oneness with another and is based on the sense of wanting to be associated with another person or to feel part of a group To retain referent power its holders are under constant pressure to maintain their exemplary images and live up to other expectations

Presence

□ Is the act of speaking without any words Hitler and Steve jobs are both very good at this

Synergy

□ Is the creation of a whole greater than the sum of its parts □ Works within a team, and across teams as their collective efforts harnessed to serve the organization as a whole □ "People working together and accomplishment more through teamwork than they ever could by working alone"

Cohesiveness

□ Is the degree to which members are attracted to a group and motivated to remain a part of it □ Think of as "feel-good factor" want to maintain good relationships □ Can be a sources of need satisfaction, providing loyalty, security and esteem for team member □ Depends on personal satisfaction

Motivation to Lead

□ Is the extent to which individuals choose to assume leadership training, roles and responsibilities

Equivalence

□ Is the extent to which the amount given back is roughly the same as what was received

Upward Communication

□ Is the flow of messages from lower to higher organizational levels □ Keeps higher level informed about the lower levels

Human Capital

□ Is the knowledge, skills, and intellectual assets employees bring to the workplace.

Team Composition

□ Is the mix of abilities, skills personalities and experiences that the members bring to the team □ Team is more likely to perform better when the members have skills and competencies that best fit task demand

Interest

□ Is the motive behind the exchange Can range from pure self-interest to mutual interest

Communication

□ Is the process of sending and receiving symbols with the attached meanings

Bargaining Zone

□ Is the range between one's party minimum reservation point and the other party's maximum

Deflecting

□ Is the shifting the conversation to another topic □ We deflect to another topic we risk coming across as uninterested in what is being said or being too preoccupied to listen □ Best listeners keep deflecting to a minimum

Early Trait Approach

Leadership study assumed that leaders are endowed with certain traits or qualities that explain their leadership status and success

Behavioural Approach

Leaderships study focusing on relevant leadership behaviour and examining their efforts on performance and other outcomes

Interactions Patterns

- Decentralized communication networks - Centralized communication networks - Restricted communication networks

Stages of Team Development

- Forming Stage - Storming Stage - Norming Stage - Performing Stage - Adjourning Stage

Team

- Is a group of people holding themselves collectively accountable for using complementary skills to achieve a common purpose

Heterogeneous Teams

- Members differ in many characteristics - Mix of diverse personalities, experiences, backgrounds, ages, and other personal characteristics may create difficulties as members try to define problems, share information, mobilize talents and deal with obstacles and opportunities

Teamwork

- Occurs when team members live up to their collective accountability for goal accomplishment

Counteracting the Tendency to Loaf: Identifiability/Visibility - Identifiability

- People are motivated when they believe that their work is identifiable and separable from the work of others - Divide tasks - Assign roles - Measure individual inputs - Limit group sizes

Personal Creativity Drivers

- Task exercise - Task Motivation - Creative Decisions § Work with high energy § Hold ground in face of criticism § Accept responsibility for what happens § Are resourceful even in difficult situations § Are both systematic and intuitive § Are objective, step back and question assumptions § Use divergent thinking, think outside of the box § Use convergent thinking, syntheses and find correct answers § Use lateral thinking, look at diverse ways to solve problems § Transfer learning from one setting to another

What teams do

- Teams that recommend things □ Are set up to study specific problems and recommend solutions □ Teams typically work with a target completion date and disband when the purpose has been fulfilled § Teams that run things □ Ex. is a top-management team composed of a CEO and other seniors executives □ Key issues addressed by top management teams include identifying overall organizations purposes and goals § Teams that make or do things □ Are work units that perform ongoing tasks such as marketing sales, system analysis, manufacturing or working on special projects assignment due dates □ Have to have good working relationship with each other, the right technologies and operating systems and the external support needed to achieve performance effectiveness

Decision Biases

- confirmation error - hindsight trap - framing error

Collective Intelligence

- is the ability of a team to perform well across a range of tasks - Fuels a team to excel again and again

Ways Teams Make decisions

- lack of response - authority rule - minority rule - majority rule - Consensus - Unanimity

Leaders create ethical climates

Are ethical values, norms, attitudes, feelings and behaviours of employees in an organization

Team Decisions

Are made by all members of the team

Complex Adaptive System

Are system that adapt to evolve in the process of interacting with dynamic environment

Task Structure

Describe whether the task is highly defined (high structure) or the position of the leader

Empowering Leadership

Enables power sharing with employees by clarifying significance of the work, providing autonomy, expressing confidence in the employees capabilities and removing hindrance to performance

Distributive Negotiation

Focuses on position staked out or declared by the parties involved, each of whom is trying to claim certain portions of the available pie

Communication Channels

Jobs are arranged in hierarchical fashion with specified job descriptions and formal reporting relationships

Target

Or aspiration point (your ideal outcome)

Granting

Refers to actions people take to bestow an identity of a leader or follower onto another person

Personal Power

Resides in the individual and is independent of position; it is generated in relationships with others

Role

Set of expectation for a team member or person in a job

Distributed Leadership

Shares responsibility among members for meeting team task and maintenance needs

Shared Value View

States that organizations should create economic value in a way that also creates value for society

Position Power

Stems from formal hierarchy or authority vested in a particular role or position

Decoupling

Taking action to eliminate or reduce the required contract between conflicting parities

Quality Circle

Team meets regularly to address quality issues

Multiskilling

Team members are capable of performing many different jobs Expected benefits: □ Better work quality □ Faster response to change □ Reduced absenteeism □ Improved quality of life and work attitudes

Reservation Point

The point beyond which you will not accept a deal and will turn to your BATNA

Bargaining Zone

The range between the buyer's high and the seller's low

Managed Interdependence

Workflow conflicts exists managers can adjust the level of interdependency among teams or individuals

Vertical leadership

is formal leadership

Team Task

§ Nature of the task is always important because different tasks place different demands on teamwork □ Technical Demands ® Include the degree to which it is routine or not, the level of difficulty involves, and the information requirements ® Task complex in technical demands require unique solutions and information processing □ Social Demands ® Involves the degree too which interpersonal relationships, egos, controversies over ends and means an the like come into play ® Complex in social demands pose difficulties for reaching agreement on goals and methods to accomplish them

Entry of New Member

§ New members may worry about □ Participation ® "Will I be allowed to participate?" □ Goals ® "Do I share the same goals as others?" □ Control ® "Will I be able to influence what takes place?" □ Relationships ® "How close do people get?" □ Processes ® "Are conflicts likely to be upsetting?"

Non-verbal communication

§ Occurs through facial expression, body motions, eye contact and other physical gestures § What someone is really thinking/ their inner thoughts § Are they lying? Affect impressions

Interpersonal Barriers

§ Occurs when individuals are not able to objectively listen due to personality issues (lack of trust, personality clashes, a bad reputation, stereotypes) § When strong interpersonal barriers are present, receiver and senders often distort communication by evaluating and judging a message or failing to communicate effectively

Co-Leadership

§ Occurs when leadership is divided so that no one person has unilateral power to lead § Helps overcome problems related to the limitations of a single individual and of abuses of power and authority Allows organizations to capitalize on the complementary and diverse strengths of multiple individuals

Conflicts

§ Occurs when parties disagree over substantive issues or when emotional antagonisms create friction between them

Conflict Resolution

§ Occurs when the reasons for a conflict are eliminated

Assets and Liabilities of Team decisions

§ Positive side □ Team decision by consensus and unanimity offer the advantages of bringing more information, knowledge, and expertise to bear on problems □ Create broader understanding of the financial decision □ Strengths commitments of members to support and follow through the decision § Negatives □ Team decision can be imperfect □ Usually takes team longer than individual to make a decisions □ Social pressures many conform so members to do things they go against □ Railroading can always be an issue

Interactive Negotiation

§ Principle negotiation § Focuses on the merits of the issues and the parties involved to try to enlarge the available pie rather than stake claims to certain portions of it

Political Climates

§ Refers to whether people in organizations work "within" or "around formal politics and producers in getting their work done § When people work around formal politics and procedure the climate is perceived as more political § Less political climates involve straightforward activities where there is less need to interpret and watch out for behaviours happening behind the scene

Personal Power

§ Resides in the individual and comes from personal qualities distinct form positions of power, such as reputation, charm charism, perceived worth and the right to respect from others

Norm of Reciprocity

§ Says that when one party does something for another that party is indebted to the other until the obligation is repaid

Distributed Leaderships

§ Sees leadership as a group phenomenon that is distributed among individuals § Based on three main premises □ Leadership is an emergent property of a group or network ® It is co-constructed in interactions among people □ Distributed leadership is not clearly bounded ® Occurs in context and is affected by local and historical influences Distributed leadership draws from the variety of expertise across the many, rather than relying on limited expertise of one or a few leaders

Input Foundations for Teamwork

§ Shows team effectiveness being influenced by both team inputs "right players in the right seats" § Team effectiveness = Quality of inputs X (Process Gains - Process losses) □ Team inputs establishes the initial foundation for team performance □ Set the stage for processes like communication, conflict, decision making □ Stronger the input foundation is the more likely it is processes will be smooth and performance will be effective

Active Listener:Soler

§ Sit straight (this is important in conveying the message that 'I am here with you') § Open posture (indicating openness to listening to anything the speaker choose to share) § Lean forward (indicating an interest in the speakers words) § Eye contact (another way of expressing interest and reassurances) § Relax (a relaxed posture puts the speaker at ease)

Team Size

§ Size of the team has an impact § Team gets bigger more people to divide up the work □ Can boost performance and satisfaction but only to a point § Communication and coordination problems will arise due to the number of people in the team □ Satisfaction can dip, absenteeism, social loafing may increase § Ideal number of people in a group is between 5 and 7 □ >5 too small, too much responsibility □ <7 too many people, complicated § If there's voting you want an uneven team

Contingency approach

§ State that the relationships between the leader behaviour and leadership effectiveness depends on the situation Ie. is contingent upo

Contextual Causes of Conflict

§ Task and workflow interdependencies □ Can cause disputes and open disagreements among people and teams who are required to cooperate to meet challenging goals □ Conflict potential is high when interdependence is high § Conflict escalates with structural differentiation □ When different teams and work units pursue different goals with different time horizons § Conflict escalates with domain ambiguities □ When individuals or teams lack adequate task direction or goals and misunderstand customer jurisdiction or scope of authority § Actual or Perceived resource scarcity □ Can foster destructive conflict § Power or value of asymmetries □ Can create conflict □ The exists when independent people or teams differ substantially from one another in status and influences or in values Ex. low power person needs help from a high power person

Cultural Views of Leadership Effectiveness

§ Universal Facilitators of Leadership Effectiveness □ Being trustworthy, just, and honest □ Having foresight and planning ahead (visionary) □ Being positive, dynamic, encouraging, motivating, and building confidence (inspirational) □ Being communicative, informed, a coordinator, and team integrator (team builder) § Universal Impediments to Leadership Effectiveness □ Being a loner and asocial □ Being non-cooperative and irritable □ Being dictatorial (autocratic) § Culturally Contingent Endorsement of Leader Attributes □ Being individualistic □ Being status conscious □ Being a risk taker

Common Causes of Conflicts in Organizations

§ Unresolved prior conflicts □ When conflicts go unresolved, they remain latent and often emerge again in the future as the basis for conflicts over the same or related matters. § Role ambiguities □ When people aren't sure what they are supposed to do, conflict with others is likely; task uncertainties increase the odds of working at cross-purposes at least some of the time. § Resource scarcities □ When people have to share resources with one another and/or when they have to compete with one another for resources, the conditions are ripe for conflict. § Task interdependencies □ When people must depend on others doing things first before they can do their own jobs, conflicts often occur; dependency on others creates anxieties and other pressures § Domain ambiguities □ When people are unclear about how their objectives or those of their teams fit with those being pursued by others, or when their objectives directly compete in win-lose fashion, conflict is likely to occur. § Structural differentiation □ When people work in parts of the organization where structures, goals, time horizons, and even staff compositions are very different, conflict is likely with other units.

Classical Decision Model

§ Views decision makers as acting in a world of complete certainty § Optimizing Decisions □ Give the absolute best solution to a problem Ideal situation of complete information moving through each step logically

Behaviour Decision Model

§ Views decision makers as acting only in terms of what they perceive about a particular situation § Humans have □ Cognitive limitations ® Limits on what we are able to know at any point of time ® Limitations restricts our information processing capability □ Bounded rationality ® Where things are interpreted and made sense of as perception and only within the context of the situation ® Make decisions within a box of simplified view of a more complex reality

Ethics Double Check

§ When you are the decision maker, decision making is not just a process followed for the good of the organization, it involves your values and your morality and potential adverse impact on them should be anticipated § Criteria Questions □ Assess a decision in terms of utilities, rights, justice, caring □ Utility ® Does the decision satisfy all constituents or stakeholders □ Rights ® Does the decision respect the rights and duties of everyone? □ Justice ® Is the decision consistent with the cannon of justice? □ Caring ® Is the decision consistent with my responsibilities to care

Socialized Power Orientation :)

® A focus on power for collective (e.g. societal) rather than personal benefit

How to Influence Team Norms

® Always act as a positive role model ◊ Be an example of the norm ® Discuses team goals and team norms ◊ That can help gain achievement ® Select members who can and will live up to the desired norms ® The right training and support, and their rewards should be positively reinforced desired behaviours ® Hold regular meetings to discuses team performance and plan how to improve in the future

Disadvantages of Diversity

® Ambiguity ® Complexity ® Confusion ® Miscommunication ® Difficulty in reaching single agreement Difficulty in agreeing on specific action

Linking-pin

® Are expected to understand the operations, members, needs and norms of their host teams ® They are suppose to knowledge the team work better with other in order to accomplish mutual tasks

Communication Channels

® Are the pathways through which messages are communicated

Characteristics associated with good followers

® Being industrious ◊ Hard working, productive, above and beyond ® Having enthusiasm ◊ Excited, outgoing, happy ® Being a good organizational citizen ◊ Loyal, reliable, team player

Buffering

® Build a inventory or buffer between the teams so that any output slowdown or excess is absorbed by the inventory and does not directly pressure the target group ® This reduces conflict but this technology is increasingly out of favour because it increases inventory cost

Characteristics of Transformational Leaders

® Charisma ◊ Provides vision and sense of mission, instills pride, gains respect and trust. ® Inspiration ◊ Communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, expresses important purposes in simple ways. ® Intellectual stimulation ◊ Promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful problem‐ solving. ® Individualized consideration ◊ Gives personal attention, treats each employee individually, coaches, advises

Personal Charismatics :(

® Charismatic leaders with personalized power orientation

Feedback

® Communicates how one feels about something that another person has said or done ® Two way communication is more effective here

Characteristics associated with ineffective followers

® Conformity ◊ Easily influenced, follows trends, soft spoken ® Insubordination ◊ Arrogant, rude, bad tempered ® Incomplete ◊ Uneducated, slow, inexperienced ◊ Most impactful

Ways to build Power Bases

® Establish competence and value added to the organization ◊ This builds personal and position power by proving your ability to perform at higher levels and having competencies that are hard to replace ◊ High competency and value added make and induvial or work unit non substitutable ◊ The increase others' dependency on your ◊ Goal for individuals and teams is to increase non-substitutability by making their work more critical, relevant, visible and central to organizational performance ® Developing information and connection power ◊ Do this by building relationships and networks ◊ Information comes from formal access to information, informal access to information and the opportunity to distribute or share information with others

Delphi Technique

□ A useful decision technique when teams members are unable to meet face to face □ It's a virtual version basically collects online responses to a set of questions, summarizes Reponses and send the summary to a panel □ Process is repeated until a consensus is reached and clear decision emerges

Functional silos Problem

□ Also called Functional Chimney problem □ Occurs when members of one functional team fail to interact with others from other functional teams Cross functional team helps break down the barriers of poor integration and poor coordination with other parts of the organization by creating a forum where members from different function work together as one team

Relation Orientations Tasks

□ Also known as considerations, involve concern for relationship and socioemotional support □ Focuses on human relationships

Task Oriented Behaviour

□ Also known as initiating structure, involves providing direction and enforcing performance standards needed to drive production □ Focuses on production

Systematic Thinking

□ Approaches problem in a rational and analytical fashion □ Step by step Often recommended for superior decision making

Intuitive thinking

□ Approaches problems in a flexible and spontaneous fashion □ Imaginative response Potential for creative problem solving and innovation

Virtual Teams Advantages

□ Are cost and time efficiency, and bringing people together who are not near each other □ Can store information electronically for continuous access Focuses task accomplishment and decision making by reducing the emotional considerations that may surface in face to face meetings

Non programmed decisions

□ Are created to deal with a unique problem or opportunity at hand □ Ex. marketing team responding to a new product by a foreign competitor

Status Difference

□ Are differences between persons of higher and lower ranks § The higher level decision maker may end up taking the wrong actions because of biased and inaccurate information supplied from below □ Sometimes called the "mum" effect □ Best way to counter the mum effect is to develop strong trusting relationships

Self-Managing Teams

□ Are empowered to make decision to manage themselves day-to-day work □ Sometimes called self-directed work teams □ Most self managing teams have 5-15 people ® Big enough to have mix of skills, but small enough to function efficiently

Consultative Decisions

□ Are made by one individual after seeking input from or consulting with members of a group

Formal Teams

□ Are official and designated to serve a specific purpose ® Ex. divisions, teams, departments ® Other teams can be created to solve problems or do defined tasks ® Can be temporary or permanent and vary in size and composition □ Interlocking networks of formal teams create the basis structure of an organizations ® Vertical dimension the team leader at one level is a team member at the next higher level

Informal Systems

□ Are patterns of activity and relationships that arise in everyday activities when individuals and groups work to get things done □ Highly changeable and occurs through personal connection

Implicit Followership Theories

□ Are preconceived notions about prototypical and anti protocol followership behaviours □ Asking leaders (managers) to describe characteristics associated with followers (effective followers, ineffective followers) it then analyzes the data to identify prototypical and anti-prototypical follower characteristics

Team Norms

□ Are rules or standards for the behaviour of a group □ Help to guide group members own behaviours and predict what others will do □ When people violate norms its up to the team to bring them back

Heuristics

□ Are simplifying strategies or "rules of thumb" used to make decisions

Power Bases

□ Are sources of power (position, personal, information, connection) that individuals and subunits develop in organizations □ A lack of power limits ability to have a real influence □ Persons with power are able to advance important initiative and gain access to key resources

Informal Teams

□ Are unofficial and emerge to serve special interest □ Informal teams develop through personal relationships and create their own interlocking networks

Team Building

□ Is a collaborative way to gather and analyze data to improve teamwork □ Team building begins when someone notices an actual or potential problem with team effectiveness, data is gathered to examine the problem

Lack of Response

□ Decisions by lack of response □ One idea after another is suggested without any discussions taking place □ When an idea is finally accepted all others have been bypassed and rejected due to no critical evaluation or lack there of □ May happen in early team's development when new members are struggling to fit in □ Common in low performance teams as people just don't care enough □ Lack of response drives decisions, its easy to make the wrong decision

Participative Leadership

□ Democratic form of leadership that focuses on consulting with subordinate and taking their suggestions into accounts before making decisions

Reciprocal Alliances

□ Describe a form of power arising from connections with other developed through reciprocity □ "I owe you one" □ Obligation to return the favour

Leader Position Power

□ Describers the amount of formal authority associated with the position of the leader

Force

□ Describes power that occurs against another's will

Findings from Situational Theories

□ Directive Leadership ® Needed when subordinates want guidance and direction in their job □ Supportive Leadership ® Is needed when subordinates want emotional support □ Achievement‐Oriented Leadership ® Is needed when subordinates need to take initiative □ Participative Leadership ® Is needed when subordinates need limited direction and support □ Fiedler's Leader‐Match ® The leader cannot change his or her style and therefore needs to change the situation to match the leader style. ® Match can be made in two ways by selecting the appropriate style to fit the situation or by training managers to change the situation to make it fit their leadership style

Task Activities

□ Directly contribute to the performance of important task □ Ex. initiating discussions, sharing info, clarifying things

Informal Channels

□ Do not follow the chain of command □ They coexists with the formal channels □ Most networking happens here □ Common informal communication Grapevine ® Transfers information through networks of friendship and acquaintances ® Have the advantage of being able to transmit information quickly and efficiently ® Advantages ◊ Being apart of the grapevine provides a sense of security ie. "being in the known, and provides social satisfaction ® Disadvantages ◊ Transmit incorrect or untimely information Rumors

Constituency Negotiation

□ Each party represents a boarder constituency Ex. representatives of management and favour negotiating a collective bargaining agreement

Evaluative vs. Descriptive Statements

□ Evaluative ® Reasons of conclusion not stated ® Not particular useful; negative statements also create defensiveness □ Descriptive Indicates why -> conclusion

FIRO-B Theory (Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation-B Theory)

□ Examines differences in how people relate to one another based on their needs to express and receive feelings of inclusion, control, and affection □ William Schultz ® Suggest that teams whose members have compatible needs are likely to be more effective than teams who's members are incompatible

Spotlight questions

□ Expose a decision to the public scrutiny and full transparency ® "How would I feel if my family found out about this decision? ® "How would I feel if my decisions were published in the lock newspaper or posted on the internet? ® What would the person you know or know of who has the strongest character and best ethical judgment do in this situation?"

Techniques to consider (Supportive Communication principles)

□ Focus on the problem not the person ® Use "I" instead of you □ Focus should be on joint problem solving ® Framing of the message should be a shared problem and tone should be how can we fix this □ Specific/ not global and objective/not judgmental ® Don't use words never or always □ Own the communication and be Congruent ® Take responsibility for what you say/do

Formal Channels

□ Follow the official chain of command □ Ex. a company chart indicates the proper rooting for official messages passing from one level to another part of the hierarchy

Downward Communication

□ Follows the chain of command from top to bottom □ Lower-level personnel need to know what higher levels are doing and be reminded of key policies and strategies, objectives and technical development □ Sharing information minimizes rumors and inaccuracies, while providing a sense of security

Two Types of Informal Teams

□ Friendship groups ® Consist of persons who like one another ® Ie. do stuff together □ Interest Groups ® Consist of persons who share job-related interests, such as an intense desire to learn more about computers or non work interest

Entrepreneur Leaderships

□ Fuels innovation, adaptability, and change

Followers play an important role in leadership by

□ Granting claims to leaders □ Claiming roles as followers ® If grants and claims do not align there will be conflict

Virtual Teams Disadvantages

□ Hard to get up to speed on work and work well with other people □ Interactions are different on computers Lack of face-to-face emotions, harder to make relationships

Behavioural Foundations

□ How to gain integrative agreements ® Separate people from the problem ® Don't allow emotional considerations to affect the negotiations ® Focus on interest rather than positions ® Avoid premature judgment ® Keep the identification of alternative separate from their evaluation ® Just possible agreements set by criteria or standards

Psychological Reactance Theory

□ Idea that force is met with countervailing forces □ People rebel against constraints and efforts to control their behaviour

Social Network Analysis

□ Identities the informal structures and their embedded social relationship that are active in an organization □ The analysis typically asks people to identify co workers who most often help them, who they communicate with regularly and the most with

Group Negotiation

□ The manager is part of a team or group who's members are negotiation to arrive at a common decision

Symptoms of Group Think

□ Illusions of invulnerability ® Members assume that the team is too good for criticism or beyond attack □ Rationalizing unpleasant and disconfirming data ® Members refuse to accept contradictory data or too thoroughly considered alternatives □ Belief in inherent group morality ® Members act as though the group is inherently right and above reproach □ Stereotyping competitors, as weak, evil, stupid ® Members refuse to look realistically at other groups □ Applying direct pressure to deviations to conform to the groups wishes ® Members refuse to tolerate anyone who suggest the team may be wrong □ Self-Censorship by members ® Members refuse to communicate personal concerns to the whole team □ Illusions of unanimity ® Members quickly to accept consensus prematurely, without testing its completeness □ Mind Guarding ® Members try to protect the team from hearing disturbing idea

Programmed Decisions

□ Implement solution that have already been determined by past experiences □ Deal with things a decision maker or team has already dealt with □ Every programed decision deals with ® Absences ® Comprehension ® Standard human resource issues

Leader as Normative Role Model

□ Implies or prescribes a norm or standard Display openness, honesty, trustworthiness, altruism

Trust

□ In social exchange is based on the belief in the intention and ability of the other to repay □ In social exchange trust is the foundational element upon exchange occur □ Once trust is broken its hard to keep a relationship

Disruptive Behaviours

□ In teams harm the group process and limit team effectiveness □ Ex. bullying, aggression, incivility, disrespect, withdrawing, not cooperating ® Incivility or antisocial behaviour ◊ Extremely disruptive for team dynamics and performance ◊ People who are targets of harsh leadership, social exclusion and harmful rumors work less hard

Friendly Helper

□ Insecure, suffering uncertainty of intimacy and control, tries to be helpful □ Show great support for others, behave in a dependent way and seek alliances □ They want to know if their liked □ Best team response may be to offer support and encouragement

Line-Staff Conflict

□ Involves a disagreement between line and stage persona over who has authority and control in the decisions on matters such as budgets, technology, human resources

Relational Repair

□ Involves actions to return the relationship to a positive state □ Sincere apology, actions □ Needs effective communication □ Engage in Supportive Communication Principles

Selective Listening

□ Involves blocking out information and only hearing things that the listener wants to hear

Moral Dilemma

□ Involves choosing among alternatives that contain both potential benefits and harms □ Ex. sign an outsourcing contract with a less expensive supplier in a country where employment discrimination exists but the country is poor and new jobs are necessary for economic development

Status Congruences

□ Involves consistency between a person's status within and outside a group □ Any status incongruence can cause problems □ Ex. general blended teams, millennial asked to head a project on social media even though people in the group have more experience § 3-5 people makes a good team □ 2 people too much work □ 5> too hard to coordinate

Organizational Politics

□ Involves efforts by organizational members to seek resources and achieve desired goals through informal systems and structures □ Politics represent how people get ahead and how they gain and use power and how they gain and use power, and how they get things done in organizations

Substantive Conflict

□ Involves fundamental disagreements over ends or goals to be pursed and the means for their accomplishment □ Ex. fight with a boss over a plan of action to be followed ® Team and organizational goals ® The allocation of resources ® Task distribution

Brain Storming

□ Involves generating ideas through free wheeling and without criticism □ Doesn't always work be careful ® Should have "solo thinking" before □ Rules of brainstorming ® No criticism, all is rules out ® Freewheeling is welcomes, emphasis is on creativity and imagination ® Quantity is a goals ® Piggybacking is good, everyone is encouraged on how to make their idea better

Dysfunctional Resistance

□ Involves ignoring or dismissing the request of the influencing agent Attempt to threw and undermine the manager by disruption workflow

Leadership Identity Construction Process

□ Involves individuals negotiating identities as leaders and followers

Emotional Conflict

□ Involves interpersonal difficulties that arise over feelings of anger, mistrust, dislike, fear, resentment and the like □ When emotional conflicts come into the work place it can drawn energies and distract people from tasks

Empowerment

□ Involves sharing power, information and rewards with employees to make decision to solve problems in their work

Voice

□ Involves speaking up to share ideas, information, suggesting or concerns upwards in organizations □ Helps improve decision making and promote responsive in dynamic business conditions □ Facilitates team performance

Normal Group Technique

□ Involves the structured rules for generating and prioritizing ideas □ Starts by asking the team a nominal question ex. "How do we improve the effectiveness of the team?" □ Each response is recorded and kept in a data base ® No criticism allowed □ Goal is for everyone to understand the responses □ Structured voting proceeded is then used to priorities responses to the nominal and identify the choices who have the most support □ Procedure allows ideas to be evaluated without risking inhibition and hostility and distortions that could happen in an unstructured meeting

Proxemics

□ Involves the use of space as people interact □ Ex. the office work place is important place for communicate behaviour ® Having an open office space with places for people to talk ® Open concept ® Bronfman second floor

Coercive Power

□ Involves the use of threat of punishment Ex. transferred, fired demoted, pay

Diversity- Consensus Dilema

□ Is the tendency for a diversity in groups to create process difficulties even as it offers improved potential for problem solving □ Dilemmas may be most pronounced in the critical zone of the storming and norming stages of development □ Problems may occur as interpersonal stresses and conflicts emerge from heterogeneity (quality of being diverse in character) □ Challenge to team effectiveness is to take advantage without suffering process disadvantages □ Working through diversity-consensus dilemma can slow team development and impede relationships Some teams get stuck here & cant overcome their problems

GroupThink

□ Is the tendency of cohesive group members to lose their critical evaluation capabilities □ Irving Janis □ Property of highly cohesive teams, occurs because team members are so concerned with the harmony of a group they become unwilling to criticize other ideas

Ethnocentrism

□ Is the tendency to believe one's culture and its values are superior to those of others □ Often accompanied with unwillingness to try to understand alternative points of view and to take the values they represent seriously

Esacalalting Commitment

□ Is the tendency to continues a previously chosen course of action even when feedback suggest that it is failing □ Decision makers may rationalize negative feedback as temporary condition and protect their egos

Confirmation Error

□ Is the tendency to seek confirmation for what is already thought to be true and not search for disconfirming information.

Social Power

□ Is used to recognize that power comes from the ability to influence another in a social relations □ Social power is earned through relationships, and if it isn't used properly it can be taken away

Limitations of Trait Approach

□ It is difficult to determine whether traits make the leader or whether the opportunity for leadership produces the traits (e.g. Winston Churchill, Harry Truman) □ Traits alone are not sufficient for successful leadership. Traits are only a precondition for certain actions that a leader must take in order ot be successful □ Does not tell us the actions leaders take to influence other successful □ It does not take into account the situation in which leadership occurs

Filter

□ Leave out critical details □ Leave things out to not help someone out

Virtual Communication Networks

□ Link team members through electronic communication Technology operates as the "hub member" in the centralized communication network and as an "electronic router"

Lose-Lose Strategies

□ Lose-lose conflict occurs when nobody gets what he or she wants in a conflict situation □ Lose-lose situations are likely when the conflict management strategies involve little to none assertion □ Avoidance ® Involves pretending a conflict doesn't exists □ Accommodation (or smoothing) ® Involves playing down difference and finding areas of agreement □ Compromise Occurs when each party gives up something of value to the other

Techniques when given feedback

□ Make sure it developmental ® Be positive and focus on improvement □ Be timely ® Provide feedback soon after the issue occurs so its fresh in mind □ Prepare ahead of time ® Be clear about what you want to say and how u want to say it so you stick to the issue □ Be specific ® Don't use generalities, as that will just leave them wondering □ Do it in private ® Have the discussion in a safe and comfortable space □ Limit the focus ® Stick to behaviour the person can do something about □ Reinforce ® Don't bring the person down ® Positive things too □ Show caring ® Convey a sense of caring and trying to help

Authority Decisions

□ Manager of team leader uses information that he or she possesses and decides what to do without invovling others □ Authority decisions □ Are made by one person on behalf of the team

Zero Sum Game

□ Means one person's gain is equal to another person's loss ("I win, You lose") This causes you to lose power in the long run

Dependence

□ Means that one person or group relies on another person or group to get what they want to need If is can be easily removed then the individual has power only as long as the other person is willing to give it to them

Employee Involvement Team

□ Meets regular to address workplace issues □ Ex. discuss ways to enhance quality of work, satisfy customers, raise productivity and improve the quality of work life

Homogeneous Teams

□ Members share many similar characteristics □ Normally work well together □ However, can be risks Teams composed of members who are highly similar in background, training, and experience often underperform

Achievement - Orientation Focus

□ Motivation-focused behaviour that builds subordinated' confidence in achieving high standards through a focus on excludes and goal-setting

Common Negotiation Pitfalls

□ Myth of the fixed pie ® Purely distributive approach ® Tendency to stake our your negotiations position based on the assumption that in order to gain you way something has to be taken from the other party □ Escalating Commitment ® Is high when negotiation begin with parties stating extreme demands ® Once demands are stated people don't want to back down ® Concerns for protecting someone's ego may lead to irrational escalation of a conflict □ Overconfidence ® Negotiator develop over confidence that their wants is right and the only right one ® Can lead to ignore other parties needs □ Telling Problem ® The parties don't really talk to each other, in the sense of being understood □ Hearing Problem ® The parties are unable or unwilling to listen well enough to understand what the other party is saying □ Positive negotiation is most likely when each party engages in active listening and frequently asks questions to clarify what the other is saying

Characteristics of Charismatic Leaders

□ Novel and appealing vision □ Emotional appeals to values □ Use strong and expressive forms of communication when articulating the vision □ Unconventional behavior □ Personal risk and self‐sacrifice to attain the vision □ Communicating high expectations □ Confidence and optimism

Two Party Negotiation

□ The manager negotiates directly with one other person

Rational Decision Model

□ Recognize and define the problem or opportunity ® Gather information and deliberate on what exactly needs to be done ® Three common mistakes ◊ Define the problem too broadly ◊ Focus on the problems symptoms instead of causes ◊ Choose the wrong problem to deal with □ Identify and analyze alternative courses of action ® Evaluate possible alternative courses of action and weight there benefits and costs ® Decision makers at this stage must be clear on what they know and what they need to know ® Identify key stakeholders □ Chose a preferred course of action ® A choice is made to purse one course of action ® Criteria in the decision is usually costs, benefit, timeless or results, impact on stakeholders and ethical soundness □ Implement the preferred course of action ® Actions are taken to put the preferred course of action into practice ® Workplace can suffer from lack-of-participation ◊ Occurs when important people are excluded from the decision making process ® Teams that use participation and involvement gather successful information have better insight for the decision making process □ Evaluate results and follow up as necessary ® Performance is measured against both initial goals and anticipated and unanticipated outcomes To ensure decision makers have control over their actions, careful to ensure that the desired results are achieved and undesired side effect are avoided

Idiosyncrasy Credits

□ Refer to our ability to violate norms wIith others based on whether we have enough "credits" to cover the violation □ Not enough credits then the violation creates a deficit, when the deficits become large enough or go on for too long our account becomes "bankrupt" and the deviations will no longer be tolerated □ Main point is to manage your balances

Calming

□ Refers to actions people take to assert their identity as a leader or follower

Romance of Leadership

□ Refers to the tendency to attribute organizational outcomes (both good and bad) to the acts and doings of leaders □ Reflects our needs and biases for strong leaders who we glorify or demonize in myths and stories of great and heroic leaders □ Problem is the "subordination of followership" ® Means that while we heroize leaders, we almost completely disregard followers

Politics

□ Represent how people get ahead, how they gain and use power and how they get things done (for good and bad) in organizations

Legitimate Power

□ Represents the formal hierarchical authority that comes from a positions □ It is a belief that those holding certain positions have legitimate right to prescribe behaviour "After all I am your supervisor and you should feel some obligation to do what I ask"

Zone of Indifference

□ Represents the range of requests to which a person is willing to respond without subjecting the directives to critical evaluation or judgement □ When directives fall within the zone they are obeyed routinely, but when they fall our of the zone of indifference or are not considered legitimate, they are not necessarily obeyed

How to spot Common Implicit Leadership Prototypes

□ Sensitivity ® Sympathetic, compassionate, understanding □ Dedication ® Disciplined, prepared, hard working □ Tyranny ® Domineering, power hungry, manipulative □ Charisma ® Inspiring, involved, dynamic □ Attractiveness ® Classy, well dressed, tall □ Intelligence ® Clever, knowledge, wise □ Strength ® Forceful, bold, powerful

Characteristics of High-performance Teams

□ Set a clear and challenging direction □ Keep goals and expectations clear □ Communicate high standards □ Create a sense of urgency □ Make sure members have the right skills □ Model positive team member behaviours □ Create early performance "successes" □ Introduce useful information □ Help members share useful information □ Give positive feedback

Influences on Conformity in Ash

□ Size of group ® As group increase to 3 others, conformity increases □ Presence of one dissenter increases conformity immensely □ If dissenter disagrees with both it still reduced conformity □ The more wrong the majority was the less influence The great the privacy, the less conformity

Maintenance Activities

□ Support of emotional life of the team as an ongoing social system □ Help a team stay active and health as an on-going well-functional social system □ Team members encourage others □ Maintenance leadership is poor members become really dissatisfied with each other, value of group memberships diminishes and emotional conflicts can drain task performance

Crisis Preparedness tips

□ Take the time to understand what's happening and the conditions under which the crisis must be resolved □ Attack the crisis as quickly as possible, before it gets unmanageable □ Know when to back off and wait for a better opportunity to make the progress with the crisis □ Understand the danger of all new territory □ Value the skeptic - don't look to comfortable with agreement □ When things are going wrong and no one seems to care, you may have to start a crisis to get people attention

Formal Retreat Approach

□ Takes place during an off-site retreat □ Designed to engage team members in the variety of assessment and planning tasks Often have consultants

Formal Systems

□ Tells use that is to be done in organizations and how work processes are to be coordinated and structured □ "rational" side of the organization that controls behaviour and reduces uncertainty

Centralized Communication Networks

□ The Co-acting team □ Links group members through a central place of control □ Also called wheel network or chain network □ Operates with a general hub through which one member (formal or informal team leader) collects and distributes information □ Work is divided among members and results are pooled to create the finished product □ Works well when teams tasks are routine and easily subdivided □ Hub member usually experiences the most satisfaction on successful co-acting teams

Decentralized communication Network

□ The interacting team □ Members communicate directly with one another □ Also called Star network or all-challenged network □ Operates with everyone communicating and sharing information with everyone □ Information flows back and forth not one center point Member satisfaction is normally high here

Intergroup Negotiation

□ The manager is a part of a team that is negotiating with another group to arrive at a decision regarding them both

Examples of Team Building Activities

○ The Amazing Egg Drop A classic activity. Protect your egg from destruction! ○ Crazy Catapults Build a catapult and compete for distance. ○ Marshmallow Challenge Reach new heights with our famous spaghetti and marshmallow tower! ○ The Machine Challenge assumptions under time pressure. ○ News Junkies Create a hilarious newscast using digital video cameras. ○ Outdoor Olympics Go for gold in this series of fun activities! ○ Smashing the Box An unparalleled creative brainstorming session.

Problems with Contingency Approach - Situational Factors

○ The effectiveness of each set of behaviours depends on the situation that the leader encounters ○ Path-Goal theory is concerned with two primary classes of situational factors § Employee characteristics § Environmental factors