OB test 3

Feedback

(enhances the effect of specific, difficult goals.) plays a key role in all of our lives and lets people know if they are headed towards their goals or are off course. Objective information about individual or collective performance

Managerial Implications of group size

*If a high-quality decision is the main objective, then a three-to-five-member group would be appropriate. However, if the objective is to generate creative ideas, encourage participation, socialize new members, engage in training, or communicate policies, then groups much larger than five could be justified.

List of Process Theories

1) Adam's equity theory 2) Vroom's expectancy theory 3) Goal-setting theory

managerial implications of Maslow's theory

1) It is important for managers to focus on satisfying employee needs related to self-concepts. 2) a satisfied need may lose its motivational potential

List of Content Theories

1) Maslow's need hierarchy theory 2) Alderfer's ERG theory 3) McClelland's need theory 4) Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory

Five Principal top-down approaches

1) Scientific management 2)job enlargement 3) job rotation 4) job enrichment 5) job characteristics model

organizational functions

1) accomplish complex, interdependent asks that are beyond the capabilities of individuals. 2)generate new or creative ideas and solutions 3)coordinate interdepartmental efforts 4)provide a problem-solving mechanism for complex problems requiring varied information and assessments 5)implement complex decisions 6) socialize and train newcomers

categories of motivation

1) content theories 2) process theories

Three concepts within Vroom's model

1) expectancy 2) instrumentality 3)valence

aspects of performance management

1) goal setting 2) feedback and coaching 3) rewards and positive reinforcement

functions of feedback

1) instructional 2)motivational

three types of goal orientation

1) learning goal orientation 2)performance-prove goal orientation 3)performance-avoid goal orientation

Key implications of Herzberg's Theory

1) managers are encouraged to pay attention to hygiene factors and motivators. 2)recognizing good performance is important.

practical implications of Equity Theory

1) research on ______ emphasizes the need for managers to pay attention to employees' perceptions of what is fair and equitable. 2)managers benefit by allowing employees to participate in making decisions about important work outcomes. 3)employees should be given the opportunity to appeal decisions that affect their welfare 4) managers can promote cooperation and teamwork among group members by treating them equitably 5) employees' perceptions of justice are strongly influenced by the leadership behavior exhibited by their managers. 6) managers need to pay attention to the organization's climate for justice.

managerial implications of ERG

1) revolves around the frustration-regression aspect of the theory. Managers should keep in mind that employees may be motivated to pursue lower level needs because they are frustrated with higher-order needs. 2) consistent with the finding that individual and cultural differences influence our need states. People are motivated by different needs at different times in their lives.

three steps to follow when implementing a goal-setting program

1) set goals * for complex tasks employees need to be trained *because of individual differences it may be necessary to establish different goals for employees performing the same job. 2)promote goal commitment 3)provide support and feedback

core job characteristics

1) skill variety 2) task identify 3) task significance 4) autonomy 5) feedback

skills to build social capital

1) social perception 2)impression management 3)persuasion and social influence 4)social adaptability

Three major threats to group effectiveness

1)Asch effect 2)group think 3) social loafing

three forms of equity relationships

1)equity 2)negative inequity 3) positive inequity

Toucan's Five Stage Model

1)forming 2)storming 3)norming 4)performing 5)adjourning

important dimensions of group structure

1)functional roles of group members 2) group size 3)gender composition

four basic intrinsic rewards

1)meaningfulness 2)choice 3)competence 4)progress

general criteria for the distribution of rewards

1)performance results 2)performance: actions and behaviors 3)nonperformance considerations

Role Theory

1)role overload 2)role conflict 3)role ambiguity

Individual functions

1)satisfy the individual's need for affiliation 2)develop, enhance, and confirm the individual's self-esteem and sense of identity. 3)give individuals an opportunity to test and share their perceptions of social reality 4)reduce the individual's anxieties and feelings of insecurity and powerlessness 5)provide a problem-solving mechanism for personal and interpersonal problems

McClellan's Need Theory

Based on the need for achievement, need for affiliation, and need for power.

Alderfer's ERG Theory

Differs from Maslow in 3 major respects: 1) Existence needs 2) Relatedness needs 3) Growth needs Believes that more than one need may be activated at a time.

hygiene factors

Factors that comprise job dissatisfaction. These are not motivational. Those who do not experience job dissatisfaction have no grievances about _____.

Herzberg's Motivator-Hygiene Theory

Found separate and distinct clusters of factors associated with job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. He labeled these factors motivators because each was associated with strong effort and good performance. Predicts that managers can motivate individuals by incorporating "motivators" into an individual's job.

Edwin Lock's Goal-Setting Theory

Four motivational mechanisms: 1) Goals Direct Attention 2) Goals Regulate Effort 3)Goals Increase Persistence Within 4) Goals Foster the Development and Application of Task Strategies and Action Plans

Relatedness needs

The desire to have meaningful relationships with significant others

Adjourning

The work is done; it is time to move onto other things.

need for achievement

Three common characteristics in people: 1) they prefer working on tasks of moderate difficulty 2) they prefer situations in which performance is due to their efforts rather than to other factors, such as luck. 3)they desire more feedback on their successes and failures than do low achievers.

norm

an attitude, opinion, feeling, or action - shared by two or more people - that guides their behavior.

performance management

an organizationwide system whereby managers integrate the activities of goal setting, monitoring and evaluating, providing feedback and coaching, and rewarding employees on a continuous basis. * Contrasts with the haphazard tradition of annual performance appraisals, a generally unsatisfying experience for everyone involved.

de-norming

as the project evolves, there is a natural erosion of standards of conduct. Group members drift in different directions as their interests and expectations change.

job dissatisfaction

associated primarily with factors in the work contexts or environment. Specifically, company policy and administration, technical supervision, salary, interpersonal relations with one's supervisor, and working conditions.

Trust

at the core of using 360-degree feedback to enhance productivity. Determines how much an individual is willing to contribute for an employer.

operant behavior

behavior that is learned when one "operates on" the environment to produce desired consequences. This is the response-stimulus model (R-S). EX: teaching pigeons how to pace figure-eights and how to bowl by reinforcing the under-weight (and thus hungry) birds with food whenever they more closely approximated target behaviors.

law of effect

behavior with favorable consequences tends to be repeated, while behavior with unfavorable consequences tends to disappear.

physical nonsexual contact

behaviors in which the harasser makes physical nonsexual contact with the target

physical sexual contact

behaviors in which the harasser makes physical sexual contact with the target

Derogatory attitudes - personal

behaviors that are directed at the target that reflect derogatory attitudes about the target's gender.

Derogatory attitudes -impersonal

behaviors that reflect derogatory attitudes about men or women in general

Motivation

boils down to the decision of how much effort to exert in a specific task situation. This choice is based on a two-stage sequence of expectations (effort→performance and performance→outcome)

Job rotation

calls for moving employees from one specialized job to another. Rather than performing one job, workers are trained and given the opportunity to perform two or more separate jobs on a rotating basis.

reducing inequity equity ratios

can be changed by attempting to alter one's outcomes adjusting one's inputs. EX: negative inequity may be resolved by asking for a raise or a promotion or by reducing inputs.

restoring equity

can be done by altering one's equity rations behaviorally or cognitively, or both.

goal ladders

chains of progressively more difficult and challenging goals

Kenneth Thomas' model of intrinsic motivation

combines elements of job design, the concept of empowerment, and cognitive evaluation theory. Uses the concept of building blocks to show managers how to construct the right conditions for four basic intrinsic rewards.

core job dimensions

common characteristics found to a varying degree in all jobs.

role episode

consists of a snapshot of the ongoing interaction between two people. Within any given role episode, there is a role sender and a focal person who is expected to act out the role.

vertical loading

consists of giving workers more autonomy and responsibility

contingent consequences

control behavior in four ways: 1) positive reinforcement 2)negative reinforcement 3)punishment 4)extinction

nonperformance considerations

customary or contractual, where the type of job, nature of the work, equity, tenure, level in hierarchy, and so forth are rewarded.

procedural justice

defined as the perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions.

shaping

defined as the process of reinforcing closer and closer approximations to a target behavior.

cyberloafing

defined as using the internet for nonwork-related activities such as communicating with friends via email and social media, Web surfing, shopping and gaming.

traditional appraisals

discourage two-way communication and treat employee involvement as a bad thing. Employees are discouraged from participating in a performance review, and when the do, their responses are often considered "rebuttals."

bottom-up approach

driven by employees rather than managers.

task roles

enable the work group to define, clarify, and pursue a common purpose. Keep the group moving in the right direction.

job enrichment

entails modifying a job such that an employee has the opportunity to experience achievement, recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and advancement. These are incorporated through vertical loading.

cognitive strategy

entails psychologically distorting perceptions of one's own or one's comparison person's outcomes and inputs.

positive inequity

exists for an individual when his or her ratio of perceived outcomes is greater than that of a relevant co-worker.

negative inequity

exists for an individual when his or her ratio of perceived outcomes is less than that of a relevant co-worker.

equity

exists for an individual when his or her ratio of perceived outcomes to incomes is equal to the ratio of outcomes to inputs for a relevant co-worker.

informal group

exists when the members' overriding purpose of getting together is friendship or common interests.

role conflict

experienced when "different members of the role set expect different things of the focal person." EX: when internalized values, ethics, or personal standards collide with others' expectations.

sexual propositions

explicit requests for sexual encounters

extrinsic rewards

financial, material, and social rewards qualify as ______ because they come from the environment. Often fail to motivate.

Process Theories of Motivation

focus on explaining the process by which internal factors and cognitions influence employee motivation. These are more dynamic than content theories.

content theories of motivation

focus on identifying internal factors such as instincts, needs, satisfaction, and job characteristics that energize employee motivation.

Ash Effect

following what the majority of strangers do. The distortion of individual judgement by a unanimous but incorrect opposition.

formal group

formed by a manager to help the organization accomplish its goals. Typically wear such labels as work group, project team, committee, corporate board, or task force. *Fulfill two basic functions: 1)organizational 2)individual

maintenance roles

foster supportive and constructive interpersonal relationships. Keep the group together.

forming

group members tend to be uncertain and anxious about such things as their roles, who is in charge, and the group's goals.

line of sight

having a clear _____ allows employees to understand the organization's strategic goals and know what actions they need to take, both individually and as team members.

individualistic v. collectivist cultures

higher role ambiguity in the former than the latter.

Vroom's Expectancy Theory

holds that people are motivated to behave in ways that produce desired combinations of expected outcomes. Can be used to predict motivation and behavior in any situation in which a choice between two or more alternatives must be made.

storming

individuals test the leader's policies and assumptions as they try to determine how they fit into the power structure.

mathematical modeling approach

involves building a mathematical model around certain desired outcomes of group action such as decision quality. Results of this research are inclusive. Statistical estimates of optimum group size have ranged from 3 to 13.

360-degree feedback

involves letting individuals compare their own perceived performance with behaviorally specific (and usually anonymous) performance information from their manager subordinates, and peers. Even outsiders may be involved in what is sometimes called full-circle feedback. *We favor anonymity and discourage linking _____ to pay and promotion decisions. Trust is the issue.

job enlargement

involves putting more variety into a worker's job by combining specialized tasks of comparable difficulty. Some call this horizontally loading the job.

Top-Down Approach

management is responsible for creating efficient and meaningful combinations of work tasks for employees. If done correctly, the theory is that employees will display higher performance, job satisfaction, and employee engagement, and lower absenteeism and turnover.

Maslow's need hierarchy theory

motivation is a function of five basic needs: 1) physiological 2) safety 3) love 4) esteem 5) self-actualization When one need is satisfied, the next higher need must be satisfied.

role ambiguity

occurs when "members of the role set fail to communicate to the focal person expectations they have or information needed to perform the role, either because they do not have the information or because they deliberately withhold it.

role overload

occurs when "the sum total of what role senders expect of the focal person far exceeds what he or she is able to do."

Intrinsic Motivation

occurs when an individual is "turned on to one's work because of the positive internal feelings that are generated by doing well, rather than being dependent on external factors (such as incentive pay or compliments from the boss) for the motivation to work efficiently.

instructional feedback

occurs when feedback clarifies roles or teaches new behavior.

motivational feedback

occurs when feedback serves as a reward or promises a reward.

Action Plan

outlines the activities or tasks that need to be accomplished in order to obtain a goal. Also can include dates associated with completing each task.

need for affiliation

people prefer to spend more time maintaining social relationships, joining groups, and wanting to be loved. People high in this need are not the most effective managers or leaders because they tend to avoid conflict.

performance-prove goal orientation

people with a high ______ tend to focus on performance and try to demonstrate their ability b looking better than others.

performance-avoid goal orientation

people with a high _______ focus on performance, but this focus is grounded in trying to avoid negative outcomes.

learning goal orientation

people with a high _______ view skills as malleable. They make efforts not only to achieve current tasks but also to develop the ability to accomplish future tasks.

valence

refers to the positive or negative value people place on outcomes. Mirrors out personal preferences. Ex: positive____ for reciting additional money or recogniton Ex: negative ____ comes from job stress and being laid off.

need for power

reflects an individual's desire to influence, coach, teach, or encourage others to achieve. People with a high ________ like to work and are concerned with discipline and self-respect. Negative: characterized by an "If I win you lose" mentality Postive: focus on accomplishing group goals and helping employees.

Distributive justice

reflects the perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed or allocated.

ostracism

rejection by group members

interactional justice

relates to the "quality of the interpersonal treatment people receive when procedures are implemented." Does not pertain to the outcomes or procedures associated with decision making, but rather focuses on whether or not people feel they are treated fairly when decisions are implemented.

idiosyncratic deals (I-Deals)

represent "employment terms individuals negotiate for themselves, taking myriad forms from flexible schedules to career development."

expectancy

represents an individual's belief that a particular degree of effort will be followed by a particular level of performance. Take the form of probabilities (from 0 to 1.)

voice

represents the extent to which employees who are affected by a decision can present relevant information about the decision to others. Is analogous to asking employees for their input int to the decision-making process.

sexual coercion

requests for sexual encounters or forced encounters that are made a condition of employment or promotion

intrinsic rewards

self-granted, psychic rewards. One who derives pleasure from the task itself or experiences a sense of competence or self-determiniation is said to be intrinsically motivated.

roles

sets of behaviors that persons expect of a position.

SMART

specific measurable attainable results oriented time

learning goal

strives to improve creativity and develop skills. Generally ignored by managers.

performance: actions and behaviors

such as teamwork, cooperation, risk taking, creativity

impression management

tactics designed to induce liking and a favorable first impression by others

performance results

tangible outcomes such as individual, group, or organization performance; quantity and quality of performance.

performance outcome goal

targets a specific end result. Generally overemphasized by managers.

Scientific management

that kind of management which conducts a business or affairs by standards established by facts or truths gained through systematic observation, experiment, or reasoning.

group cohesiveness

the "we feeling" that binds members of a group together, and is principal-by-product of the norming group stage.

Existence needs

the desire for physiological and materialistic well-being

Growth needs

the desire to grow as a human being and to use one's abilities to their fullest potential.

Goal Commitment

the extent to which an individual is personally committed to achieving a goal. Difficult goals lead to higher performance only when employees are committed to their goals.

Employee outcome exchange

the organization provides such things as pay/bonuses, medical benefits, challenging assignments, job security, promotions, status symbols, and participation in important decisions.

job crafting

the physical and cognitive changes individuals make in the task or relational boundaries of their work.

pay for performance

the popular term for monetary incentives linking at least some portion of the paycheck directly to results or accomplishments. Many refer to it as incentive pay, while others call it variable pay. *The general idea is to give employees an incentive for working harder or smarter.

positive reinforcement

the process of strengthening a behavior by contingently presenting something pleasing.

negative reinforcement

the process of strengthening a behavior by taking away something displeasing.

punishment

the process of weakening behavior through either the contingent presentation of something displeasing or the contingent withdrawal of something positive.

group decay

the reverse of Tuckman's model that occurs when projects last for years: 1)de-norming 2)de-storming 3)de-forming

social loafing

the tendency for individual effort to decline as group size increases.

extinction

the weakening of a behavior by ignoring it or making sure it is not reinforced.

De-f0rming

the work group literally falls apart as subgroups battle for control.

laboratory simulation approach

this stream of research is based on the assumption that group behavior needs to be observed firsthand in controlled laboratory settings. Ex: It would be difficult, at least with respect to decision quality, to justify groups larger than 5 members.

motivation

those psychological processes that cause the arousal, direction, and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed.

group

two or more freely interacting individuals who share collective norms and goals and have a common identity.

respondent behavior

unlearned reflexes, or stimulus-response (S-R). EX: shedding tears while peeling onions or reflexively drawing ones withdrawing one's hand from a hot stove.

recipient's cognitive evaluation of feedback

upon receiving feedback, people cognitively evaluate factors such as its accuracy, the credibility of the source, the fairness of the system, their performance-reward expectancies, and the reasonableness of the standards.

Employee Inputs

what an employee puts in, in order to expect a return. Includes education/training, skills, creativity, seniority, age, personality traits, effort expended, and personal appearance.

goal

what an individual is trying to accomplish; it is the object or aim of an action.

nothing demotivates people like the equal treatment of unequals

when you hire someone who sucks and treat them the same as a rock star, it deflates the rock star

never compromise on hiring

you have to be tough, even if that means not hiring people who could turn out to be great, because of the damage one person who isn't great can do.

management by objectives (MBO)

a management system that incorporates participation into decision making, goal setting, and objective feedback. The central idea is getting individual employees to "own" a piece of collective effort.

de-storming

a mirror opposite of the storming stage. Individual resistance grows.

groupthink

a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when members' strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action. Members of groupthink are friendly, tightly knit, and cohesive groups of people.

Adam's Theory of Equity

a model of motivation that explains how people strive for justice in social exchanges or give-and-take relationships. Explains how an individual's motivation to behave in a certain way is fueled by feelings of inequity or a lack of justice.

instrumentality

a performance→outcome perception. Represents a person's belief that a particular outcome is contingent on accomplishing a specific level of performance. Performance is ____ when it leads to something else. EX: Passing exams is _____ to graduating from college. Range from -1.0 to 1.0. * 1.0 = attainment of a particular outcome is dependent on task performance. *0= no relationship *-1.o = high performance reduces the change of obtaining an outcome while low performance increases the chance.

social adaptability

ability to adapt to, or feel comfortable in, a wide range of social situations

persuasion and social influence

ability to change others' attitudes or behavior in desired directions

social perception

ability to perceive accurately the emotions, traits, motives, and intentions of others

performing

activity during this stage is focused on solving task problems. As members of a mature group, contributors get their work done without hampering others. There is a climate of open communication, strong cooperation, and lots of helping behavior. Cohesiveness and personal commitment to group goals help the group achieve more than anyone individual could acting alone.

unwanted dating pressure

persistent requests for dates after the target has refused

Goal specificity

pertains to the quantifiability of a goal. (Specific high goals lead to greater performance)

Needs

physiological or psychological deficiencies that arrows behavior

sign of a feedback

positive = people tend to perceive and recall positive feedback more accurately than they do negative feedback. negative = can have a positive motivational impact

norming

questions about authority and power are resolved through unemotional, matter-of-fact group discussion. A feeling of team spirit is experienced because members believe they have found their proper roles.

outcomes in Vroom's Expectancy Model

refer to different consequences that are contingent on performance, such as pay, promotions, or recognition. An _____ valence depends on an individual's needs and can be measured for research purposes between -2 (very undesirable) to 0 (neutral) to +2 (very desirable)

Job design

refers to any set of activities that involve the alteration of specific jobs or interdependent systems of jobs with the intent of improving the quality of employee job experience and their on the-job productivity.