observation and hypothesizing

formation

A concise statement, including the purpose, description, and limitations of the research will then help to form a working hypothesis. It is important that the scientist be objective in his review of the facts in making his hypothesis. In other words, he must look at the facts in an unbiased manner. Sometimes these facts appear to be random and unrelated. Through a process of inductive reasoning, one tries to account for all of the facts and their relationships to each other. In using inductive reasoning, the experimenter draws a conclusion that he assumes will apply to all situations set up similarly to his test situation, even though he cannot possibly have examined all possible test scenarios. For example, if he has observed that paraffin candles will float in water and tests of several different candles have confirmed this, then by inductive reasoning he may conclude that all paraffin candles float in water. This type of reasoning can lead you to believe very strongly that something is true even if you cannot absolutely prove it. It is also important to realize that inductive reasoning leads to the creation of something new. It is arrived at through the process of creative thinking, not the application of algorithms such as a computer program. Hypotheses are formed from the creative activity of thought. Many scientists have called their hypotheses "lucky guesses" or "inspired hunches." It is important when forming hypotheses to avoid presuppositions or preconceived ideas about the outcome of an experiment based on personal preference for a particular outcome. We say the observations must be objective, not subjective.

theory and law

A hypothesis which appears to be verified by experiments and observations must be able to stand the test of time. A good scientist will publish his hypothesis along with his experimental results for other scientists to review. These scientists will repeat the tests and try to support or disprove the hypothesis. The hypothesis will be judged based on the result of these findings. A good hypothesis is able: 1. to explain the data that relates to the specific problem and 2. to lead to correct predictions, some of which produce new evidence or experiments. If a hypothesis can successfully fulfill these two functions and stand the test of repeated examination, it will become a theory. A theory is not necessarily "true" but is a generalized model used to explain observations, to answer questions, and to predict answers to related evidence and problems. The ability of a theory to predict expected future observations is an excellent measure of the accuracy and reliability of the theory. Sometimes, two or more theories could explain the same event. Sometimes, there is no way to reproduce an event or situation, and only the results of past events are available as evidence. The scientific evidence resulting from a historical event may be considered for credibility; however, absolute proof or conclusions cannot be determined. Often, conflicting theories and hypotheses are based on the same evidence. A law is a relationship (many times, a mathematical one) that is accepted as true under the same set of conditions and has been verified and tested time and time again. Scientific predictions can be made from laws. We use deductive reasoning when we use these laws to make predictions about how a system will behave under given conditions. In other words, we are simply applying general rules to a specific case in hand. It is important to separate law from theory. Theories explain how things happen, but laws explain what happens under similar conditions and is broadly agreed upon by the scientific community.We will study some of the laws of chemistry in this course. Not all theories stand the test of time or review. If a theory consistently fails to confirm the expected predictions after extensive research, it is probably unreliable. Alternate theories should then be considered by scientists. If a theory is correct, it will provide insight into the cause and effect relationships of a particular phenomenon.

presupposition

Initial idea which is believed to be true and is used as a basis (starting point) from which further reasoning and conclusions are made.

observation

Observing and hypothesizing (guessing) form the basic framework upon which all scientists operate, yet really seeing what is happening is much more difficult than it might seem. This fact is evident, for example, when several people are witnesses to the same auto accident and are asked to give an account of the happening. Each is an "observer," but each gives a different version and description of the sequence of events. In the field of science, all relevant observations and data should be accurately recorded. Concentration, awareness of detail, and a great deal of patience are necessary to be a good observer. Practice helps to perfect this skill. Suppose your task was to collect data about changes that occur during the burning of a candle. This would require careful observation of a burning candle. Of course, the way this "burn" appears could differ depending on the environment. These observations should be carried out under laboratory conditions where the experiment can be controlled. There are two possible types of observations one might take when observing. One type is qualitative. Qualitative observations are those which simply describe what you see, hear, feel or in any manner sense about the process without taking measurements. For example, the candle is smooth, white, round, and smells "oily." Actual measurements might also be taken during the observation process. These observations are quantitative. An example might be that the candle was 4.0 ± 0.2 mm in diameter.

hypothesizing

One of the mental skills we exercise each day is the process making hypotheses. This process is one in which we systematically collect evidence and at some point develop a logical explanation or "educated guess" as to why the evidence is as it is. However, most of us are neither systematic nor logical in our collection of data or even in our thought processes. As a result, many of our hypotheses are ill-founded and in error. A sound hypothesis which has been verified is one that is based on good evidence and can be duplicated over and over.

theory

a generalized model used to explain how something happens and is used to predict answers to related evidence and problems.

deductive reasoning

a prediction made or conclusion drawn from insight gained from an established principle or law

law

a statement that explains what something does under similar conditions and is broadly agreed upon by the science community.

hypothesis

a supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation.

quantitative

description based on numbers, mathematics, or measurements

inductive reasoning

drawing a conclusion from many observations concerning a possible common cause and forming a general rule

qualitative

generalized descriptions based on senses

subjective

ideas resulting from personal feelings, emotions, bias, or person

objective

real reasoning based on data or facts