Old Testament Final

Covenant Lawsuit

Distinct genre in which God sues Israel for breach of contract for violation of the Sinai covenant. Used in Hosea.

Judah

The Southern Kingdom of Israel that split up in 922 BC when the country disputed the placement of their capital (where the temple was built). Fell in 586 BC. Lasted longer than the Northern kingdom but fell because they failed to uphold the covenant.

586 BCE

The fall of Judah by Babylonians, namely Nebuchadanezzar. Deserved punishment for false faith in the temple

722 BCE

The fall of the Northern Kingdom by Assyrians. Part of God's judgement against the Israelites for infidelity.

Leviathan

Used as an adversary or enemy in Ugaritic and Hebrew. Seven-headed serpent that was defeated by Baal or God. God uses Leviathan's might to emphasize Job's weakness and frailty.

Unifying themes versus Conflicting ideologies in dominating the OT. Examples from 2 of 3 main parts of OT.

1. Multiple gods to monotheism and Israel's religion to everyone's religion. Strong example - 1st commandment. You shall other have no other God before me. Doesn't state that there is only one God, but it says you have to put God above all others. Baal and Marduk, acknowledges them even with Elijah and in other books. The idea that other religions are ok and religions primarily rely on where you live. If you win a war, your god beat the other god type of deal. Then monotheism arises Isaiah 43:10, second Isaiah states that he is the only God and there are no others. Changes from Israelites religion to a religion for all people (within Jonah too). Large contradiction that occurs halfway in the old testament. Examples. As people change, God changes too. Different views of God, anthropomorphism, his responses. 2. Different sources and historians writing about the same topic. J and P source is the easiest example. In the story of Noah, there are many repeats and nuances that differ. Even in Abraham's story, many repetitions and problems with the work. The constant switch of sources and integration of different authors in works raises the question of the validity of the bible in a way. Constantly updating but why? The different authors even arises in David's story. Did David kill Goliath? and if he did, how did he do it? Multiple misunderstandings that contradict each other. Makes it hard to follow the storyline. Even in prophets, the frame and epilogues are usually added afterwards. Multiple authors leads to confusing ideas. In Job, there is a speaker that is not referenced in the epilogue. 2 Isaiahs, multiple Jeremiah's, Koholeth. Conflicting Ideology - low hanging fruit is Job contradicting if you be good, good will happen Counter - People who believe that the OT has more unifying themes throughout its books will probably assume that God's power and omnipotence is something that unwavers. This is not true however. When really scrutinizing over the bible, even God is shown to have contradictory elements. In the J and P sources for example, one God is shown to have a masterplan while the other consults Abraham on what to do. One says let it be and it is done while the other cannot find Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. This contradicts God's power and omnipotence as God should not question. This calls in to mind that the bible's description of God is completely subjective and based off of one's own idiosyncratic beliefs (which can differ). God is not static but rather a changing deity. Likewise, people may turn towards the consequence of not following God's plan as another unifying element. Yet, once again, this is something that is consistent. Saul, who followed God's plan pretty well but maybe not down to every detail was punished severely. Meanwhile, David who did not follow God's commands, was punished in a menial manner. He was given the kingdom forever through his descendants. Even if you do follow God's plan, there is no guarantee of safety or prosperity either. Nothing is set in stone, but rather random and contradictory.

Lament

Also called petition. They are appeals for divine help in distress. They are divided subdivided into individual petitions and communal petitions. Book of lamentations, Jeremiah, psalms, Job.

I Samuel 16:7 "Do not look on his appearance or on the height of his stature, because I have rejected him; for the Lord sees not as man sees; man looks on the outward appearance, but the Lord looks on the heart."

The Lord speaking to Samuel on how not to judge on appearance but of heart

II Samuel 7:12-16 and 12:11 When your days are fulfilled and you lie down with your fathers, I will raise up your offspring after you, who shall come forth from your body, and I will establish his kingdom. He shall build a house for my name, and I will establish the throne of his kingdom for ever. I will be his father, and he shall be my son. When he commits iniquity, I will chasten him with the rod of men, with the stripes of the sons of men; but I will not take my steadfast love from him, as I took it from Saul, whom I put away from before you. And your house and your kingdom shall be made sure for ever before me; your throne shall be established for ever.'" 'Behold, I will raise up evil against you out of your own house; and I will take your wives before your eyes, and give them to your neighbor, and he shall lie with your wives in the sight of this sun

The first passage God is speaking to Nathan to speak to David about the Davidic covenant that God is instantiating. David's kingdom will reign forever and his bloodline will contain the Son of God. The second passage is Nathan using God's words to condemn David for his adulterous behavior with Bathsheba

Wisdom Literature

This literature is concerned with the realities of human experience, from the mundane to the sublime, and with the relationship between that experience and the divine. It is a type of writing whose focus is human existence and often its relationship to the divine. It employs a variety of forms such as proverbs, dialogues, and fables. It was widely used in the Ancient Near East and is found throughout the Bible, but mostly in the writings. Universal

Frame

What surrounds the actual body of a text especially in a prophets work. It is usually added after the original text is written. Construction of several unifying parts. Lens to allow reader to look at text. Helps readers relate.

Zion

"Mount Zion" a poetic term for Jerusalem. It replaces Mount Sinai as the locus of revelation. City of David/God. High hill.

Judaism

Began during the exile. Outside of their land and still practicing the religion. Start of the modern religion as we come to know it. Adaptation away from temple-centered worship in Judah. Judeans originally referred to the group that lived in Judah but after the exile, Judaism and "Jew" are coined.

Describe 2 ways in which the Old Testament is influenced by cultural environments using examples from prophets and writings. Describe 2 ways in which the OT displays resistance to cultural environment.

Building a temple is ANE - David, Baal and Marduk have temples. 1. THE PROPHETS section. Prophecy is ANE - Elijah Cycle, Prophecy was an older ANE element that was a vocation. Adopted the styles of prophetic visions and writing styles in a way. Communicating with the deity and asking questions. Deities communicate in different ways, divine revelation, sex. Biblical prophecy is a little different because God initiates most of the communication between him and the prophets. God is also more direct with his prophets. 2. WRITINGS section. Writing formats and prayers were heavily adopted from the ANE culture. For example, the book of psalms is one of the most heavily influenced book. The writing within from its prayers to its format of parallelism stemmed from older cultures in the area namely Mesopotamia and Ugaritic. Parallelism is writing in a parallel form where one line either mirrors or opposes the following line. Additionally, the hymns, prayers, cries for help, and exaggerations were all part of ANE culture that psalms took. Form and function as prayer, hymns, and worship are ANE traditions. 3. Desire for a king. Taking elements from older traditions but embedding their own tradition into it --> large aspect of it. 1. THE PROPHETS. Monotheism is a large aspect of this. ANE cultures were heavily into polytheistic ideals. Isaiah 2 is a radical way of thinking that combats this cultural style. Instead of having multiple gods for different groups of people, there is one God is sovereign over everyone. He is the God of all people not just the Israelites. 2. THE PROPHETS. To resist cultural environments, God sends prophets. For Elijah, he challenges Baal and his spread of influence among his own people. Elijah performs miracles and actively speaks out against Ahab, a strong advocate for Baal. Strong cultural background of Baal and other gods and practices spreading throughout Israel. As a result, God sends the Babylonians (if you believe that God has a plan) in order to save them in way. By exiling them, Judaism is actually saved because they learn how to worship outside of the becoming idolatrous temple. 3. Bad portrayal of own people versus how Greeks and other people of the time definitely talked themselves up.

Satan

Character in Job that is one of God's sons from his divine counsel. Name translates to the "accuser". Messes with God and bets that Job only worships him because he has everything. Job's suffering is because of him.

I Kings 18:36-37 "O Lord, God of Abraham, Isaac, and Israel, let it be known this day that thou art God in Israel, and that I am thy servant, and that I have done all these things at thy word. Answer me, O Lord, answer me, that this people may know that thou, O Lord, art God, and that thou hast turned their hearts back."

Elijah is speaking to God in front of the Israelite people asking for a miracle to disprove the priests of Baal

Isaiah 40 1-2, 49:6 Comfort, comfort my people, says your God. Speak tenderly to Jerusalem, and cry to her that her warfare[a] is ended, that her iniquity is pardoned, that she has received from the Lord's hand double for all her sins. "It is too light a thing that you should be my servant to raise up the tribes of Jacob and to restore the preserved of Israel; I will give you as a light to the nations, that my salvation may reach to the end of the earth."

First passage is God speaking to Isaiah comforting the people after their exile is over Second passage is God speaking. God told Isaiah to be a light for all his people, a servant's mission.

Jeremiah 1:10, 15:18, 7:1-3 See, I have set you this day over nations and over kingdoms, to pluck up and to break down, to destroy and to overthrow, to build and to plant. Why is my pain unceasing, my wound incurable, refusing to be healed? Wilt thou be to me like a deceitful brook, like waters that fail? "Stand in the gate of the Lord's house, and proclaim there this word, and say, Hear the word of the Lord, all you men of Judah who enter these gates to worship the Lord. Thus says the Lord of hosts, the God of Israel, Amend your ways and your doings, and I will let you dwell in this place

First passage is God speaking to Jeremiah about his call and commission as a prophet. Second passage is about Jeremiah complaining to God about his pain and suffering. Third passage is Jeremiah speaking the word of God to the people of Israel proclaiming judgement to them

What is the covenant and in what ways is it a significant aspect of the Old Testament?

First, which covenant? Covenants come from P source. Davidic covenant - sword will never leave the house of David, his descendants will be kings forever. Mentioned in Kings from Nathan. It made Jerusalem God's chosen city where David's descendants would reign. Unconditional covenant that doesn't rely on the well-being of David or his sons. Significance - unconditional, God's promise with man, God has a plan. Original covenant - With Noah, will never flood the Earth ever again for the sake of all living things. "Be fruitful and multiply". Foreshadows covenant with Abraham. Abraham covenant - God's promise to Abraham and his descendants. His ancestors must circumcise their babies. His descendants will be the number of the stars and God will be their God. Sets up the narrative for the future story. Talks about Canaan, the Promised Land for his people.

Exile

Forced migration. A reoccurring theme of being exiled. The Babylonians and Assyrians conquered both the Northern Kingdom and Judah, exiling them to their own countries leaving only the poor behind. Began Judaism as we know it. Exile was Yahweh's use of foreign powers to punish his people. Exile was not simply geographic displacement but had become a reflection of the spiritual, even existential, condition of estrangement from Yahweh

Amos 8:4-6 Hear this, you who trample upon the needy, and bring the poor of the land to an end, saying, "When will the new moon be over, that we may sell grain? And the sabbath, that we may offer wheat for sale, that we may make the ephah small and the shekel great, and deal deceitfully with false balances, that we may buy the poor for silver and the needy for a pair of sandals, and sell the refuse of the wheat?"

God is speaking to Amos about the betrayal of the Israelite people who are not upholding their side of the covenant. Basket of fruit analogy

Hosea 1:2 "Go, take to yourself a wife of harlotry and have children of harlotry, for the land commits great harlotry by forsaking the Lord."

God is speaking to Hosea, telling him to take a wife of harlotry because the Israelites commit harlotry by not upholding their side of the covenant

Jonah 4:11 And should not I pity Nin′eveh, that great city, in which there are more than a hundred and twenty thousand persons who do not know their right hand from their left, and also much cattle?"

God speaks to Jonah saying that he pities Nineveh because they do not understand. Jonah is upset.

Jesse

Is the father of David and part of the important lineage that would lead to Christ. David is his youngest son.

I Samuel 8:19-20 "No! but we will have a king over us, that we also may be like all the nations, and that our king may govern us and go out before us and fight our battles."

Israelite people wanting a king to be elected before the time of Saul and David, the original kingdom

Nebuchadanezzar

King of Babylon that captured Jerusalem. Led as God's instrument of justice and reform against the idolatrous people in Judah. Exiled many of the people.

Ahab

King of Northern Kingdom who is the son of Omri. Married Jezebel a woman from outside of Israel who worshipped Baal. He brought about peace due to inter-marrying with other countries. Marries Jezebel a Baal worshipper and basically worships him. Did evil in the eyes of the lord. Elijah warned him.

Ecclesiastes 1:2, 3:1 Vanity of vanities, says the Preacher, vanity of vanities! All is vanity. For everything there is a season, and a time for every matter under heaven

Koholeth in the beginning of the book, reflecting on meaningless of life. The second passage is Koholeth speaking that there is a time for everything

Hosea

Longest of Minor Prophets. Northern Kingdom Prophet. 788-747 BCE. Paired with Amos. Talks about the disrespect of the covenant and the poor. Assyria is the external threat. Disconnected from original text. Prophetic literature. Uses a lot of marriage/sexual imagery between God and the land of Israel. Israel's infidelity. Also uses metaphor of Israel and God as father and child. Uses covenant lawsuits. Covenant is central to the book

Second Isaiah

Major Prophet. Exile. Very radical. Century 539 BCE around the time of Persian reign. Brings about the notion of monotheism for the very first time. Theme of return from exile, post Cyprus the Great. Takes key themes from the Torah and gives them new meanings (exodus, monotheism). New meaning for Israelites - be prophets for others.

Jeremiah

Major Prophet. Judah. Time frame from the Rise of Babylon to the Fall of Judah (627-587). Four major units in the book (separated at one point). Deuteronomic shaped the ending. Rejects God at first like Moses upon his calling. Core of Jeremiah's work is uprooting/tearing down. Jeremiah is miserable, out of sync with people. Main focus of uprooting is temple. Israel believes that Jerusalem is protected by Yahweh and the temple. Jeremiah tells people they trust in deception. The people need to keep the covenant as opposed to making a golden calf of the temple. Later in book, theme of building and planting. Confessions of Jeremiah.

Elijah

Major, Oral prophet, didn't have a book. 9th Century BCE. Northern Kingdom Prophet. El-i-jah means "my God is Yahweh". Comes out of nowhere. conflict between Baal and God. Economic prosperity versus covenant. Sent out of Israel and performs a miracle for a widow and her son with oil and grain (who is the God of life)? Raises boy from the dead. Challenges prophets of Baal and wins. Theophany on mountain, God comes in the sound of silence. Challenges Ahab.

Amos

Minor Prophet. 750 BCE. Northern Kingdom Prophet. 2 recurring themes in book: Judgement and Day of the Lord. Book is an anthology. Talks about widening wage gap and internal struggles. Also talks about the external struggles of Assyrian domination. Oracles concerning prophecy and oracles against the nations surround Israel. Visions, Amos is a seer.

Jonah

Minor Prophet. Nineveh. 8th Century BCE. Short ironic story. No penalty for talking back to God. Jonah is sent to the Ninevites to convert them and they instantly obey. This is compared to how Israel treated their own prophets - didn't listen and tried to kill them. Makes the Israelites look bad. Opposes other prophets because sent out of country for the first time. Echoing Isaiah 2 in a sense. Monotheism, God cares about everyone. Deep theological issues.

Davidic Covenant

Nathan talked to David through God. The sword will never leave his house and he will forever hold the kingdom. Covenant between God and David which guaranteed the divine protection of the Dynasty of David. God chose Jerusalem as his chosen city. Covenant is unconditional. Essential for God's program

Cyprus the Great

Pagan Persian King that conquered Assyria and Babylon and allowed the newfound Jews to return home and rebuild their temple. Cyrus is known for his advancement of human rights, his brilliant military strategy, and his bridging of Eastern and Western cultures.

Confessions of Jeremiah

Reflects the thoughts and experiences of Jeremiah. They are significant because it shows Jeremiah's deep unhappiness with the message he was supposed to deliver, his prayers for divine retribution on those who opposed him, and his commitment to the divine call. Called a fictional autobiography. Curses the day of his birth. How God seduced him. Insight into a prophets mind.

Diaspora

Scattering or dispersion, used to refer to exiles from Judah to Babylonia. Jews outside of Zion.

parallelism

Technique found in Ugaritic and Mesopotamian poetry. Kind of thought rhyme in which an idea is developed by the use of repetition, synonyms, or opposites. Lines that express the (synonymous, opposite, and climatic) idea right next to each other. Seen a lot in psalms.

Job 1:9, 1:21, 38:4 "Does Job fear God for nought? "Naked I came from my mother's womb, and naked shall I return; the Lord gave, and the Lord has taken away; blessed be the name of the Lord." "Where were you when I laid the foundation of the earth? Tell me, if you have understanding.

The first passage is Satan retorting to God, goading him into a bet to see if Job truly loves God innately The second passage is Job praying out loud. Even though he has lost everything, he still praises God The third passage is God responding to Job's complaints and questions. No one can understand the will of God

Ephraim

The second son of Joseph, formed the tribe of Ephraim which later joined Israel. Sometimes referred to the Northern Kingdom of Israel in prophetic texts.

Koheleth

Writer of Ecclesiastes. Holds a very philosophical standpoint as opposed to the traditional Catholic sense. The frame of the story is two summaries but the middle is attributed to Koheleth. God exists but humans are unable to fathom the divine purpose. Answers hard questions that such as why good people suffer.