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Maillard reaction

(/maɪˈjɑr/ my-yar; French pronunciation: ​[majaʁ]) is a chemical reaction between amino acids and reducing sugars that gives browned foods their desirable flavor. Seared steaks, pan-fried dumplings, breads, and many other foods make use of the effect. It is named after French chemist Louis-Camille Maillard, who first described it in 1912 while attempting to reproduce biological protein synthesis.[1][2](p79) The reaction is a form of nonenzymatic browning which typically proceeds rapidly from around 140 to 165 °C (284 to 329 °F). At higher temperatures, caramelization and subsequently pyrolysis become more pronounced.

Caramelization

(British English: caramelisation) is the browning of sugar, a process used extensively in cooking for the resulting nutty flavor and brown color. As the process occurs, volatile chemicals are released, producing the characteristic caramel flavor. Like the Maillard reaction, caramelization is a type of non-enzymatic browning. However, unlike the Maillard reaction, caramelization is pyrolysis, as opposed to reaction with amino acids. When caramelization involves the disaccharide sucrose, it is broken down into the monosaccharides fructose and glucose.

Acetone

(systematically named propanone) is the organic compound with the formula (CH3)2CO. It is a colorless, mobile, flammable liquid, and is the simplest ketone. Acetone is miscible with water and serves as an important solvent in its own right, typically for cleaning purposes in the laboratory. About 6.7 million tonnes were produced worldwide in 2010, mainly for use as a solvent and production of methyl methacrylate and bisphenol A.[10][11] It is a common building block in organic chemistry. Familiar household uses of acetone are as the active ingredient in nail polish remover and as paint thinner

molarity

,In chemistry, the molar concentration, is defined as the amount of a constituent divided by the volume of the mixture : It is also called molarity, amount-of-substance concentration, amount concentration, .In chemistry, the molar concentration, c_i is defined as the amount of a constituent n_i (usually measured in moles - hence the name) divided by the volume of the mixture V:[1]c_i = \frac {n_i}{V} It is also called molarity, amount-of-substance concentration, amount concentration, substance concentration, or simply concentration. The volume V in the definition c_i = n_i/V refers to the volume of the solution, not the volume of the solvent. One litre of a solution usually contains either slightly more or slightly less than 1 liter of solvent because the process of dissolution causes volume of liquid to increase or decrease.The reciprocal quantity represents the dilution (volume) which can appear in Ostwald's law of dilution.

Nitrogen's in group V, so five valence electrons. That means each of those nitrogens is looking to get another _____ electrons.

,three

If ion i's negatively charged--it's got more electrons than protons -we call it

- an anion.

All right, so acid/base reactions, really all they 08:50 come down to is donating a proton, donating H plus, a 08:54 hydrogen ion. 08:55 Acid wants to give it away. 08:57 Base wants to take it.

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Ammonia is found in trace quantities in the atmosphere, being produced from the putrefaction (decay process) of nitrogenous animal and vegetable matter. Ammonia and ammonium salts are also found in small quantities in rainwater, whereas ammonium chloride (sal-ammoniac), and ammonium sulfate are found in volcanic districts; crystals of ammonium bicarbonate have been found in Patagonian guano. The kidneys secrete NH3 to neutralize excess acid.[10] Ammonium salts are found distributed through fertile soil and in seawater. Ammonia is also found throughout the Solar System on Pluto, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Substances containing ammonia, or those that are similar to it, are called ammoniacal.

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And that's exactly what happens when you add an acid 08:11 to a carbonate. 08:11 You do get those bubbles.

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And what we produce during this chemical change, we call 01:24 these the products.

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Antimicrobial agent for food products[edit] As early as in 1895, it was known that ammonia was "strongly antiseptic ... it requires 1.4 grams per litre to preserve beef tea."[27] In one study, anhydrous ammonia destroyed 99.999% of zoonotic bacteria in 3 types of animal feed, but not silage.[28][non-primary source needed] Anhydrous ammonia is currently used commercially to reduce or eliminate microbial contamination of beef.[29][30] Pink slime (or lean finely textured beef in the beef industry) is made from fatty beef trimmings (about 50-70% fat) by removing the fat using heat and centrifugation, then treating it with ammonia to kill E. coli. The process was deemed effective and safe by the US Department of Agriculture based on a study (funded by a producer of pink slime) that found that the treatment reduces E. coli to undetectable levels.[31] There have been safety concerns about the process as well as consumer complaints about the taste and smell of beef treated at optimal levels of ammonia.[32] However, the level of ammonia in any final product has not come close to toxic levels to humans.

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By this definition, an acid is what we call a proton donor-- something that gives away protons.A base is something that accepts or takes protons.So for an acid/base reaction, you must have an acid, you must have a base.

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Chloroform has a multitude of natural sources, both biogenic and abiotic. It is estimated that over 90% of atmospheric chloroform is of natural origin

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Chloroform was once a widely used anesthetic. Its vapor depresses the central nervous system of a patient, allowing a doctor to perform various otherwise painful procedures. On 4 November 1847, the Scottish obstetrician James Young Simpson discovered the anaethestic qualities of chloroform when he and his friends were experimenting with different substances on themselves in search of a replacement for ether as a general anesthetic.

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Ethanol is marketed as giving a very clean burn and that it 04:34 produces primarily carbon dioxide and water, with very 04:37 little of the other unwanted pollutants.

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First of all with the terminology, you can see here, 01:09 on the left-hand side, what goes into 01:11 our chemical reaction. 01:12 We call these the reactants.

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For the solutions we're talking about, we're going to 1:40 focus on those aqueous solutions, solutions that are 1:43 made up in water.

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Here I've got a sugar cube, that will be my solute. 1:17 I'm going to put that into a glass of 1:18 water, that's my solvent. 1:20 And all of that mixed together, 1:21 that becomes my solution.

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If you want to build sugar, you need 11 carbon atoms, 22 00:26 hydrogen atoms, and 11 oxygen atoms.

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In particular, chloroform is produced by brown seaweeds (Laminaria digitata, Laminaria saccharina, Fucus serratus, Pelvetia canaliculata, Ascophyllum nodosum), red seaweeds (Gigartina stellata, Corallina officinalis, Polysiphonia lanosa), and green seaweeds (Ulva lactuca, Enteromorpha sp., Cladophora albida).[

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In view of its widespread use, toxicity and volatility, exposure to formaldehyde is a significant consideration for human health.[4] In 2011, the US National Toxicology Program described formaldehyde as "known to be a human carcinogen".[5][6]

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It's about 1.3 billion cubic kilometres of water. 03:40 If I put that into a more day to day measure for you, that's 03:44 about 5.2 times 10 to the 21 glasses of drinking water. 03:48 So it's an awful lot of water. 03:51 But look at that number. 03:52 That's about 100 times less than the number of atoms you 03:56 hold in your hand if you hold 12 grammes of carbon-12.

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Much like our first example, when you add an acid and a base, you do end up also forming water.

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Octane releases a lot more energy than the other 03:32 hydrocarbons we burn. 03:34 Generally speaking, it's a reasonable trend that the 03:36 larger the hydrocarbon you burn, the more 03:39 energy you will release.

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Oil is just a long chain, usually made of carbon and 4:26 hydrogen atoms, sometimes one or two oxygens, but mostly 4:30 hydrogen and carbon. 4:31 Those atoms both have very similar electronegativities. 4:34 It's a nonpolar molecule, which means it has no means of 4:37 being attracted to the water.

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Once again, we make use of oxygen in the air. 03:11 So it burns with oxygen. 03:12 And you'll notice that once again our products are carbon 03:15 dioxide and water. 03:17 Have a look at the enthalpy down at the bottom and you'll 03:19 see that once again, it's a negative value. 03:21 It's an exothermic reaction and it releases energy.

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Primarily, the fuel that we're burning when we burn that gas 02:22 in the kitchen stove is methane. 02:24 It's CH4.

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So if water has a positive end and a negative end, but hexane, this long hydrocarbon, has no positive or negative end, there will be no attraction, no affinity from one to the other.Which means they will not mix, and they will not dissolve.

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So if you were to add silver, mercury or lead to a solution containing chloride ions, hydration forces would not be strong enough to keep them apart.So that silver, mercury, or lead will snap together with that chloride and would fall out as a precipitate.You'd see a solid forming in the solution.

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So in the samples you can see, that pinky-red colour suggests 04:21 that the solution is really quite acidic. 04:24 The orange and the yellow suggest it's still acidic, be 04:26 getting towards neutral. 04:27 The green colour in the middle, 04:29 that means it's neutral. 04:30 And as we get into our blues and then into the purples, the 04:33 solution is getting more and more basic.

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So polar molecules, like water, will dissolve or mix 4:13 with other polar molecules, like ammonia.

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That gas stove, the fuel that they use is town gas. 02:12 That's usually made of a few small hydrocarbons. 02:15 That's a hydrocarbon, being a chemical 02:17 containing carbon and hydrogen.

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That means I'm going to be using this equation here, mass 03:38 equals the number of moles times the molar mass of the 03:41 element

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The fourth state of matter you might see is called aqueous. 02:51 We use the symbol "aq" for our state to denote it. 02:55 And aqueous means a solution made by dissolving 02:58 something in water.

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The methane, the CH4, the fuel that I've highlighted in red, 02:31 reacts with your oxidant, your oxygen gas, that I've 02:34 highlighted in blue. 02:35 And they produce your typical products, 02:37 carbon dioxide and water. 02:39 You can also see from the enthalpy that 02:41 it's a negative value. exothermic value,

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Universal indicator A Universal indicator is a pH indicator composed of a solution of several compounds that exhibits several smooth colour changes over a pH value range from 1-14 to indicate the acidity or alkalinity of solutions

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We also talked about the fact that polar covalent compounds will also feel an attraction for water and be allowed to dissolve.

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Where did this number, the mole, come from? 01:13 It's the number of atoms that we find in 01:15 12 grammes of carbon-12. 01:17 So you can see here I'm holding 01:19 a handful of carbon-12. 01:21 So that's 12 grammes that I've got there in my hand. 01:24 A mole is however many atoms I have in my hand right there. 01:29 How many atoms am I holding there? 01:30 I'm holding 6.022 times 10 to the 23 atoms. 01:36 That's a lot of atoms just in one handful of carbon-12. 01:41 This is our measure of a mole. 01:44 This number, 6.022 times 10 to the 23, is so important it 01:50 gets its own name.

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You find it in biology labs. 00:49 It's sets that liquid that they store awful looking 00:51 biological specimens in, to preserve them, prevent them 00:54 from going off. 00:55 That's the stuff that they've used in the past. 00:57 So let's draw our formaldehyde.

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ammonia can act as a ligand in transition metal complexes. It is a pure σ-donor, in the middle of the spectrochemical series, and shows intermediate hard-soft behaviour. For historical reasons, ammonia is named ammine in the nomenclature of coordination compounds. Some notable ammine complexes include tetraamminediaquacopper(II) ([Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+), a dark blue complex formed by adding ammonia to solution of copper(II) salts. It is known as Schweizer's reagent.

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barium hydroxide octahydrate is the 07:24 technical name-- if you want to impress your friends-- of 07:26 that first chemical. 07:27 We've ammonium thiocyanate for the second one. 07:30 And again, the all important part of this chemical 07:32 reaction, that enthalpy--

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etrol, the primary ingredient that we use for our combustion 03:02 reaction, is octane. 03:04 It has this formula here, C8H18.

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hydrochloric acid, and this one here, 04:55 sodium hydroxide. 04:56 As you can see about the colours I have in these two 04:58 test tubes, the hydrochloric acid up here-- 05:02 that is an acid. 05:03 We can tell by the pink substance there. 05:05 It's got its hydrogen ion here that it's really to give away, 05:07 if only someone will take it. 05:09 And then over here in the purple, and we have our base. 05:12 The And you can see that there is an immediate colour change. 05:41 The resulting solution that I get is greening colour. 05:44 If you remember the chart we looked at earlier, that green 05:47 colour means the solution is now neutral.sodium hydroxide is a base

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it will become aqueous. 4:02 It will dissolve in water.

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taking place during the burning of ethanol, here once 04:45 again I've highlighted my fuel, the 04:47 ethanol, in red, C2H5OH. 04:50 Once again, the combustion reaction occurs when it reacts 04:53 with oxygen and it produces once again 04:55 carbon dioxide and water. 04:57 Check your enthalpy and you'll see that once again, it's a 05:00 negative value, an exothermic reaction providing us with 05:04 that heat, that thermal energy.

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water-- 00:18 we keep talking about-- if you want to build that, you need 00:20 two hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom.

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Acetylene is the fuel they use in _____ So it burns with oxygen to create a very hot flame. You may have seen before.

...oxy torches for welding.

two hydrogen atoms that have bonded together

.Hydrogen gas

Because they have the same electronegativity though, they're not going to give and take.They both want that extra electron

.So what they will do is they will each share their one electron.

How would you express the number 8.73 x 10-2 in every-day notation?

0.0873

Sodium has an electronegativity of

0.9.

How many valence electrons would you expect to find orbiting these atoms? Potassium, K Iodine, I Carbon, C

1 7 4

For a man of about 68 kg (150 lb), typical total body-cholesterol synthesis is approximately ________, and total body content is approximately ___, primarily located within the --------. Typical daily dietary intake of additional cholesterol, in the United States, is 200-300 mg.[8]

1 g (1,000 mg) per day,35 g ,membranes of all the cells of the body

sodium. is, element number___ over in group I. And that means it has _____valence electron.

11, one

an magnesium atom. has

12 protons, 12 electrons. It's originally electrically neutral.2 valence electrons,

How many protons, neutrons and electrons are in the atom below?25/12 Mg

12 protons, 13 neutrons, 12 electrons

How many valence electrons should be used in creating a Lewis structure for methanol (CH3OH)?

14

When we're naming and when we're writing them, we write 1)the anion first and the cation second. 2)the cation first and the anion second.

2

- we've got carbon and three oxygens joined together.And when they all get together like that and group together,overall, they have a charge of

2 minus.

make an ionic compound from copper ions and nitrate ions. copper is ___ and then that nitrate ion, _____ has a ____ negative charge.

2 plus,N O3,single

carbonate, is minus

2.

Chlorine has an electronegativity of 3.0. Sodium has an electronegativity of 0.9.That's a difference of

2.1 which is quite large.Chlorine really wants that extra electron. Sodium doesn't mind so much, happy to let it go.So in this case

Which of the following is the best representation of a chemical equation showing solid sodium metal reacting with water to make aqueous sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas? 2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g) sodium (s) + water (l) → sodium hydroxide (aq) + hydrogen (g) 2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) reacts to give 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g) 2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2

2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g) You've selected a chemical equation showing the correct products and reactants. The arrow differentiates between reactants and products... and you didn't forget the states of matter!

how many electrons we can fit in around an atom.

2n squared,So, for example, if I'm in the first shell, n equals 1. 1 squared, 1 times 1 is just one. And n times 2, that's 2.So in that first shell, I can fit two electrons.If we move out to the second shell, 2 squared is 4, times 2, that's 8.

Chlorine has an electronegativity of

3.0.

Let's have a look at water.If we look at the electronegativities on the oxygen and the hydrogen, oxygen is .

3.5and hydrogen is 2.1

zinc is an element, you'll find it's element number

30

So vinegar at home is just a

4% solution of this acetic acid.

How many valence electrons would you find around elemental C, F and S atoms respectively?

4, 7, 6 Correct. You can use the group number to correctly predict the number of valence electrons that any atom in groups I - VIII will have.

How would you express the number 42,300,000 in scientific notation?

4.23 x 107 we need to shift the decimal place 7 places to be between the 4 and the 2. As it's a large number, the 10x value should be positive.

How would you express the number 428000 in scientific notation?

4.28 x 105

Technetium

43 Group 7

Order please Penta,hexa,mono ,Tri,Di ,Tetra

5,6,1,3,2,4

How many protons would you expect each of the following atoms to have? (Use your periodic table)Nitrogen Silver Argon

7 47 18

If an aluminium atom has 13 protons, 14 neutrons and 10 electrons, it would best be represented as:

A cation, Al3+ Aluminium must have 13 protons - that's what makes it aluminium. It has 3 less negatively charged electrons, which means it will develop a charge of 3+. The positive charge means it is a cation.

also known as a molecular ion, is a charged chemical species composed of two or more atoms covalently bonded or of a metal complex that can be considered to be acting as a single unit.

A polyatomic ion,

Formula: C2H4O2 Molar mass: 60.05 g/mol Density: 1.05 g/cm³ Melting point: 16 °C Boiling point: 118 °C

Acetic acid is an organic compound with the chemical formula CH₃COOH. It is a colourless liquid that when undiluted is also called glacial acetic acid

took two aluminium cations, each with a 3 plus charge,that would take me up to a total of plus 6. To balance that out, I need three of the oxygen anions because 3 times minus 2 is minus 6.I've got plus 6. I've got minus 6.And the total is 0.

Al2O3

The elements in the very first and very last group of the periodic table (Groups I and VIII) are called the:

Alkali metals and noble gases (or inert gases)

__are non-polar because they cannot be dissolved in water, as do polar molecules.

Alkynes

Examples of polar molecules of materials that are gases under standard conditions are:

Ammonia (NH3) Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S).

Anesthesia

Anesthesia, or anaesthesia (from Greek ἀν-, an-, "without"; and αἴσθησις, aisthēsis, "sensation"),[1] is a temporary state consisting of unconsciousness, loss of memory, lack of pain, and muscle relaxation.Anesthesia is a unique medical intervention which does not itself offer any particular medical benefit and instead enables the performance of other medical interventions. The best anesthetic is therefore one with the lowest risk to the patient that still achieves the end points required to complete the other intervention. There are many different needs and goals of anesthesia. The goals (end points) are traditionally described as unconsciousness and amnesia, analgesia, and muscle relaxation. To reach multiple end points one or more drugs are commonly used (such as general anesthetics, hypnotics, sedatives, paralytics, narcotics, and analgesics), each of which serves a specific purpose in creating a safe anesthetic.

Aspirin

Aspirin (BAN, USAN), also known as acetylsalicylic acid (/əˌsɛtəlˌsælɨˈsɪlɨk/ ə-set-əl-sal-i-sil-ik) [ASA], is a salicylate drug, often used as an analgesic to relieve minor aches and pains, as an antipyretic to reduce fever, and as an anti-inflammatory medication.[2] Aspirin also has an antiplatelet effect by inhibiting the production of thromboxane, which under normal circumstances binds platelet molecules together to create a patch over damaged walls of blood vessels. Because the platelet patch can become too large and also block blood flow, locally and downstream, aspirin is also used long-term, at low doses, to help prevent heart attacks, strokes, and blood clot formation in people at high risk of developing blood clots.[3] It has also been established that low doses of aspirin may be given immediately after a heart attack to reduce the risk of another heart attack or of the death of cardiac tissue.[4][5] Aspirin may be effective at preventing certain types of cancer, particularly colorectal cancer.The main side effects of aspirin are gastrointestinal ulcers, stomach bleeding, and ringing in the ears, especially in higher doses. In children and adolescents, aspirin is not recommended for flu-like symptoms or viral illnesses, because of the risk of Reye's syndrome.[9]

If you were going to balance the following chemical reaction that shows the burning of propane in oxygen, C3H8 (g) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + H2O (g), the correct balanced equation would be: C3H8 (g) + 5O2 (g) → 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (g) C3H8 (g) + O2 (g) → 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (g) C3H8 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g) C3H8 (g) + 14O2 (g) → 3CO2 (g) + 8H2O (g)

C3H8 (g) + 5O2 (g) → 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (g) Well done. Your balanced equation has the same number of each element on both sides.

Choose the reaction that best represents the complete combustion of butane (C4H10): C4H10 (l) + O2 (g) → 4C (s) + 5H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2C4H10 (l) + 18O2 (g) → 4CO2 (g) + 10H2O (g) 2C4H10 (l) + 13O2 (g) → 8CO2 (g) + 10H2O (g) C4H10 (l) + 6O2 (g) → 4CO2 (g) + 5H2O (g)

C4H10 (l) + 13O2 (g) → 8CO2 (g) + 10H2O (g) Great job! Combustion of simple hydrocarbons ideally yields carbon dioxide and water and you've correctly balanced the equation too.

Caffeine

C8H10N4O2 Caffeine is a bitter, white crystalline xanthine alkaloid and a stimulant drug. Caffeine is found in varying quantities in the seeds, leaves, and fruit of some plants, where it acts as a natural pesticide that paralyzes and kills certain insects feeding on the plants, as well as enhancing the reward memory of pollinators. It is most commonly consumed by humans in infusions extracted from the seed of the coffee plant and the leaves of the tea bush, as well as from various foods and drinks containing products derived from the kola nut. Other sources include yerba maté, guarana berries, guayusa, and the yaupon holly.In humans, caffeine acts as a central nervous system stimulant, temporarily warding off drowsiness and restoring alertness. It is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive drug, but unlike many other psychoactive substances, it is legal and unregulated in nearly all parts of the world. Beverages containing caffeine, such as coffee, tea, soft drinks, and energy drinks, enjoy great popularity. In North America, 90% of adults consume caffeine daily.[1]

Methane is a chemical compound with the chemical formula

CH 4.

Chloroform

CHCl3 Chloroform is an organic compound with formula CHCl3. It is one of the four chloromethanes.[6] The colorless, sweet-smelling, dense liquid is a trihalomethane, and is considered hazardous. Several million tons are produced annually as a precursor to PTFE and refrigerants, but its use for refrigerants is being phased out.

Which of the following reactions correctly shows solid CaCl2 dissolving in water? (You may find your table of cations and anions useful) CaCl2 (s)→Ca2+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) CaCl2 (s)→Ca2+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq) CaCl2 (s)→ Ca2+ (l) + 2Cl- (l) CaCl2 (aq)→ Ca2+ (s) + 2Cl- (s)

CaCl2 (s)→Ca2+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq) Well done. Your choice correctly shows that originally, the calcium chloride is a solid, but when placed in water it dissolves by breaking up into aqueous Ca2+ cations and 2 aqueous Cl- anions.

Given that the calcium ion has a charge of +2 and the fluoride ion has a charge of -1, the correct molecular formula for calcium fluoride would be:

CaF2 Excellent. The cation first, anion second and the overall charge of the compound is neutral.

Capsicum

Capsicum is a genus of flowering plants in the nightshade family Solanaceae. Its species are native to the Americas, where they have been cultivated for thousands of years. In modern times, it is cultivated worldwide, and has become a key element in many regional cuisines. In addition to use as spices and food vegetables, Capsicum species have also found use in medicines.The fruit of Capsicum plants have a variety of names depending on place and type. The piquant (spicy) varieties are commonly called chili peppers, or simply "chilies". The large, mild form is called red pepper, green pepper, or bell pepper in North America and typically just "capsicum" in New Zealand,[3] Australia, and India. The fruit is called paprika in some other countries (although paprika can also refer to the powdered spice made from various capsicum fruit).

________generally don't dissolve in water. However, you can dissolve in water if you combine them with just an alkali metal. if they are the only types of cation present, then they would dissolve.Then they would be fine.

Carbonates

Carminic acid

Carminic acid (C22H20O13) is a red glucosidal hydroxyanthrapurin that occurs naturally in some scale insects, such as the cochineal and the Polish cochineal. The insects produce the acid as a deterrent to predators. Carminic acid is the colouring agent in carmine. Synonyms are C.I. 75470 and C.I. Natural Red 4. The chemical structure of carminic acid consists of a core anthraquinone structure linked to a glucose sugar unit. Carminic acid was first synthesized by organic chemists in 1991.[2] Formula: C22H20O13 Molar mass: 492.38 g/mol Melting point: 120 °C

Polar molecules

Chemical bonding is the result of either an atom sharing one or more outer orbit electrons with another atom or an atom taking outer orbit electrons from the atom with which it is bonding. Normally, an atom has an even distribution of electrons in the orbits or shells, but if more end up on one side that the other in a molecule, there can be a resulting electrical field in that area.

When paper burns in the presence of oxygen and becomes ash, it could be described as a:

Chemical change, because the chemical identity of the paper has changed (it's now ash)

Cholesterol

Cholesterol, from the Ancient Greek chole- (bile) and stereos (solid) followed by the chemical suffix -ol for an alcohol, is a hydrocarbon organic molecule. It is a sterol (or modified steroid),[3] a lipid molecule and is biosynthesized by all animal cells because it is an essential structural component of animal cell membranes that is required to maintain both membrane structural integrity and fluidity. Cholesterol enables animal cells to (a) not need a cell wall (like plants & bacteria) to protect membrane integrity/cell-viability and thus be able to (b) change shape and (c) move about (unlike bacteria and plant cells which are restricted by their cell walls).

Chromatography

Chromatography is the collective term for a set of laboratory techniques for the separation of mixtures

Wavelength (nm) Color Complementary Color 400-424 Violet 424-491 Blue 491-570 Green 570-585 Yellow 585-647 Orange 647-700 Red

Complementary Color Green-yellow Yellow Violet Blue Cyan-Blue Cyan

Sodium fluoride, NaF, a common additive in commercial toothpaste products

Compound

In order, you would say that water, a cup of coffee and zinc could be described as?

Compound, mixture, element

If a bond was going to form between carbon and chlorine, what type of bond would you expect it to be?

Covalent bond because the difference in electronegativity is less than 1.6 Electronegativity difference is the key and your periodic table tells you that the EN of C is 2.5 and Cl is 3. The difference is 0.5; less than 1.6 which makes it a covalent bond. The C and Cl will share electrons to gain a stable octet.

Mineral oils

Crude oil, or petroleum, and its refined components, collectively termed petrochemicals, are crucial resources in the modern economy. Crude oil originates from ancient fossilized organic materials, such as zooplankton and algae, which geochemical processes convert into oil.[8] The name "mineral oil" is a misnomer, in that minerals are not the source of the oil—ancient plants and animals are. Mineral oil is organic. However, it is classified as "mineral oil" instead of as "organic oil" because its organic origin is remote (and was unknown at the time of its discovery), and because it is obtained in the vicinity of rocks, underground traps, and sands. Mineral oil also refers to several specific distillates of crude oil.

CuNO32 is written as

Cu(NO3)2 Copper(II) nitrate

Cyan

Cyan color models, it is located midway between blue and green, making it the complementary color of red. Its name is derived from the Ancient Greek κυανός, transliterated kýanos, meaning "dark blue"

Cyclooxygenase

Cyclooxygenase (COX), officially known as prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase (PTGS), is an enzyme (EC 1.14.99.1) that is responsible for formation of important biological mediators called prostanoids, including prostaglandins, prostacyclin and thromboxane. Because the "COX" term is used for the stem symbol for "cytochrome c oxidase" family of genes and gene products including proteins, the "PTGS" symbol is officially used for the prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase (cyclooxygenase) family of genes and proteins. Pharmacological inhibition of COX can provide relief from the symptoms of inflammation and pain. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID), such as aspirin and ibuprofen, exert their effects through inhibition of COX. The names "prostaglandin synthase (PHS)" and "prostaglandin endoperoxide synthetase (PES)" are still used to refer to COX.

In the Lewis structure below, how many valence electrons make up the bond between the 2 carbon atoms?

Each bond contains 2 valence electrons, meaning a double bond contains 4 valence electrons.

---------is a measure of how much an atom wants to take on electrons as part of a chemical bond.

Electronegativity

Solid iron metal, Fe, the primary ingredient in steel

Element

2HgO (s) → 2Hg (l) + O2 (g), ∆H = +90.7 kJ/mol The above reaction could be described as: Endothermic, as the positive enthalpy shows that the reaction absorbs energy as it proceeds Exothermic, as the positive enthalpy shows that the reaction absorbs energy as it proceeds Exothermic, as the positive enthalpy shows that the reaction releases energy as it proceeds Endothermic, as the positive enthalpy shows that the reaction releases energy as it proceeds

Endothermic, as the positive enthalpy shows that the reaction absorbs energy as it proceeds

Ethanol

Ethanol, also called ethyl alcohol, pure alcohol, is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid with the structural formula CH 3CH 2OH, often abbreviated as C 2H 5OH or C 2H 6O

Look at the following chemical reaction: HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → H2O (l) + NaCl (aq), ∆H = -56.2 kJ/mol It is best described as: Exothermic Neither endothermic or exothermic, as no heat is absorbed or released Endothermic It starts out as an endothermic reaction, but becomes exothermic when finished

Exothermic Well spotted. The negative energy value at the end of the equation shows the energy is being released by this process making it exothermic.

Fermentation

Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts sugar to acids, gases and/or alcohol. It occurs in yeast and bacteria, but also in oxygen-starved muscle cells, as in the case of lactic acid fermentation

Formaldehyde

Formaldehyde is an organic compound with the formula CH₂O or HCHO. It is the simplest aldehyde and is also known by its systematic name methanal. The common name of this substance comes from its similarity and relation to formic acid. Wikipedia Formula: CH2O

Oxygen (O) is an atom in group VI. In order to form an ion, it would most likely prefer to: Gain 2 electrons and form the O2- anion Lose 2 electrons and form the O2- anion Gain 2 electrons and form the O2+ cation Lose 2 electrons and form the O2+ cation

Gain 2 electrons and form the O2- anion

The atoms or molecules are separated and free to move around in any direction within the space they occupy

Gas

water is a compound, made of the elements

H and O

Which of the following reactions describes an acid-base reaction: 2Ag+ (aq) + S2- (aq) → Ag2S (s) Zn2+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq) →Zn(OH)2 (s) HCl (aq) + KOH (aq) → H2O (l) + KCl (aq) 2HCl (aq) + Pb2+ (aq) → PbCl2 (s) + 2H+ (aq)

HCl (aq) + KOH (aq) → H2O (l) + KCl (aq) Correct! The HCl gives away the H+, the OH- takes it and you make water as a result.

Henry Moseley

Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley (23 November 1887 - 10 August 1915) was an English physicist. Moseley's outstanding contribution to the science of physics was the justification from physical laws of the previous empirical and chemical concept of the atomic number. This stemmed from his development of Moseley's law in X-ray spectra. Moseley's Law justified many concepts in chemistry by sorting the chemical elements of the periodic table of the elements in a quite logical order based on their physics.

Hexane

Hexane /ˈhɛkseɪn/ is an alkane of six carbon atoms, with the chemical formula C6H14.The term may refer to any of the five structural isomers with that formula, or to a mixture of them.[2] In IUPAC nomenclature, however, hexane is the unbranched isomer (n-hexane); the other four structures are named as methylated derivatives of pentane and butane. IUPAC also uses the term as the root of many compounds with a linear six-carbon backbone, such as 2-methylhexane (C7H16), which is also called "isoheptane". Hexanes are significant constituents of gasoline. They are all colorless liquids at room temperature, odorless when pure, with boiling points between 50 and 70 °C. They are widely used as cheap, relatively safe, largely unreactive, and easily evaporated non-polar solvents.

Other non-polar gases include:

Hydrogen (H2) Nitrogen (N2) Oxygen (O2) Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Methane (CH4) Ethylene (C2H4)

anomer

In carbohydrate chemistry, an anomer is a special type of epimer. It is one of two stereoisomers of a cyclic saccharide that differs only in its configuration at the hemiacetal or hemiketal carbon, also called the anomeric carbon.[1] Put simply, the anomeric carbon is the carbonyl carbon, for example a ketone or aldehyde functional group, in a carbohydrate molecule. Anomerization is the process of conversion of one anomer to the other. Anomerization is the anomeric analogue of epimerization.

Coordination complex

In chemistry, a coordination complex or metal complex consists of a central atom or ion, which is usually metallic and is called the coordination centre, and a surrounding array of bound molecules or ions, that are in turn known as ligands or complexing agents.[1][2] Many metal-containing compounds, especially those of transition metals, are coordination complexes

Alcohol

In chemistry, an alcohol is an organic compound in which the hydroxyl functional group is bound to a carbon atom. In particular, this carbon center should be saturated, having single bonds to three other atoms.Some alcohols, mainly ethanol and methanol, can be used as an alcohol fuel

Iron oxide

Iron oxides are chemical compounds composed of iron and oxygen. All together, there are sixteen known iron oxides and oxyhydroxides.

hydrogen, hiding up in the top, left corner, that's actually one of the nonmetal.

It belongs on the right-hand side of the periodic table when it comes to its behaviour.

most gold jewellery isn't actually just made of gold.

It's an alloy

Lewis structure

Lewis structures are diagrams that show the bonding between atoms of a molecule and the lone pairs of electrons that may exist in the molecule. A Lewis structure can be drawn for any covalently bonded molecule, as well as coordination compounds

The atoms or molecules are closely packed together, able to slide and move around one another

Liquid

Litmus

Litmus is a water-soluble mixture of different dyes extracted from lichens, especially Roccella tinctoria. It is often absorbed onto filter paper to produce one of the oldest forms of pH indicator, used to test materials for acidity

_________ is a classic example of a compound with extensive conjugation (11 conjugated double bonds), giving rise to an intense red color . Charge-transfer complexes tend to have very intense colors for different reasons.

Lycopene

Exothermic reactions

Many chemical reactions release energy in the form of heat, light, or sound. These are exothermic reactions. Exothermic reactions may occur spontaneously and result in higher randomness or entropy (ΔS > 0) of the system. They are denoted by a negative heat flow (heat is lost to the surroundings) and decrease in enthalpy (ΔH < 0). In the lab, exothermic reactions produce heat or may even be explosive.

It is the simplest alkane and the main component of natural gas

Methane.CH 4.

Moseley's law

Moseley's law is an empirical law concerning the characteristic x-rays that are emitted by atoms. The law was discovered and published by the English physicist Henry Moseley in 1913. It is historically important in quantitatively justifying the conception of the nuclear model of the atom, with all, or nearly all, positive charges of the atom located in the nucleus, and associated on an integer basis with atomic number. Until Moseley's work, "atomic number" was merely an element's place in the periodic table, and was not known to be associated with any measureable physical quantity.

...

Nitrogen

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, usually abbreviated to NSAIDs /ˈɛnsɛd/ en-sed—but also referred to as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents/analgesics (NSAIAs) or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medicines (NSAIMs)—are a class of drugs that provides analgesic (pain-killing) and antipyretic (fever-reducing) effects, and, in higher doses, anti-inflammatory effects.The term nonsteroidal distinguishes these drugs from steroids, which, among a broad range of other effects, have a similar eicosanoid-depressing, anti-inflammatory action. As analgesics, NSAIDs are unusual in that they are non-narcotic and thus are used as a non-addictive alternative to narcoticNSAID identification on label of generic Ibuprofen an OTC NSAID The most prominent members of this group of drugs, aspirin, ibuprofen and naproxen, are all available over the counter in most countries.[1] Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is not considered an NSAID because it has little anti-inflammatory activity. It treats pain mainly by blocking COX-2 mostly in the central nervous system, but not much in the rest of the body.[2]

The centre of the atom, containing the protons and neutrons

Nucleus

hydroxide ion - consisting of one oxygen atom and one hydrogen atom, hydroxide has a charge of −1. Its chemical formula is

OH−.

Organic oils

Organic oils are produced in remarkable diversity by plants, animals, and other organisms through natural metabolic processes. Lipid is the scientific term for the fatty acids, steroids and similar chemicals often found in the oils produced by living things, while oil refers to an overall mixture of chemicals. Organic oils may also contain chemicals other than lipids, including proteins, waxes and alkaloids. Lipids can be classified by the way that they are made by an organism, their chemical structure and their limited solubility in water compared to oils. They have a high carbon and hydrogen content and are considerably lacking in oxygen compared to other organic compounds and minerals; they tend to be relatively nonpolar molecules, but may include both polar and nonpolar regions as in the case of phospholipids and steroids.[7]

_________is classified as a mild analgesic. It is commonly used for the relief of headaches and other minor aches and pains and is a major ingredient in numerous cold and flu remedies.

Paracetamol

Paracetamol

Paracetamol (/ˌpærəˈsiːtəmɒl/ or /ˌpærəˈsɛtəmɒl/), also known as acetaminophen Listeni/əˌsiːtəˈmɪnəfɨn/, or APAP, chemically named N-acetyl-p-aminophenol, is a widely used over-the-counter analgesic (pain reliever) and antipyretic (fever reducer).[7][8] Paracetamol is the International Nonproprietary Name (INN), Australian Approved Name (AAN) and British Approved Name (BAN), while acetaminophen is the United States Adopted Name (USAN) and Japanese Adopted Name (JAN).[9][10][11]

Covalent molecules that are likely to dissolve in water are typically:

Polar molecules, attracted to water which is itself a polar molecule Excellent work. Other polar molecules that have a negative and positive regions feel an attraction to the regions of opposite charge present on polar water molecules.

Polytetrafluoroethylene

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a synthetic fluoropolymer of tetrafluoroethylene that has numerous applications. The best known brand name of PTFE-based formulas is Teflon by DuPont Co., who discovered the compound.PTFE is a fluorocarbon solid, as it is a high-molecular-weight compound consisting wholly of carbon and fluorine. PTFE is hydrophobic: neither water nor water-containing substances wet PTFE, as fluorocarbons demonstrate mitigated London dispersion forces due to the high electronegativity of fluorine. PTFE has one of the lowest coefficients of friction against any solid. PTFE is used as a non-stick coating for pans and other cookware. It is very non-reactive, partly because of the strength of carbon-fluorine bonds and so it is often used in containers and pipework for reactive and corrosive chemicals. Where used as a lubricant, PTFE reduces friction, wear and energy consumption of machinery. It is also commonly used as a graft material in surgical interventions.

Which sub-atomic particles make up the nucleus of an atom?

Protons and neutrons

Octet Rule Definition:

Refers to the principle that bonded atoms share their eight outer electrons. The octet rule is a 'rule' that is sometimes broken.

Reye syndrome

Reye syndrome or Reye's syndrome is a potentially fatal syndrome that has numerous detrimental effects to many organs, especially the brain and liver, as well as causing a lower than usual level of blood sugar (hypoglycemia).[1] The classic features are a rash, vomiting, and liver damage. The exact cause is unknown and, while it has been associated with aspirin consumption by children with viral illness, it also occurs in the absence of aspirin use.

Dmitri Mendeleev

Russian chemist and inventor. He formulated the Periodic Law, created his own version of the periodic table of elements, and used it to correct the properties of some already discovered elements and also to predict the properties of elements yet to be discovered.In 1863 there were 56 known elements with a new element being discovered at a rate of approximately one per year. Other scientists had previously identified periodicity of elements. John Newlands described a Law of Octaves, noting their periodicity according to relative atomic weight in 1864, publishing it in 1865.

Rust

Rust is an iron oxide, usually red oxide formed by the redox reaction of iron and oxygen in the presence of water or air moisture. Several forms of rust are distinguishable both visually and by spectroscopy, and form under different circumstances. Wikipedia Related topicsRust is permeable to air and water, therefore the interior metallic iron beneath a rust layer continues to corrode.

Which molecular formula accurately describes sulphur hexafluoride?

SF6 Excellent. The key here was recalling that the prefix "hexa" means that there must be 6 fluorine atoms.

The locations that electrons orbit around the centre of the atom

Shells

, we don't add chlorine as a disinfectant to the spa.Largely because it's hot and it gets aerated, and we allknow the smell that becomes associated with chlorine disinfection.

So people use bromine instead.

lone pair electrons.

So they're pairs of electrons remaining around an atom, that aren't involved in the bonding, but are essential to show that that atom has its octet, that it has eight valence electronsIn chemistry, a lone pair is a valence electron pair which is not shared with another atom[1] and is sometimes called a non-bonding pair. Lone pairs are found in the outermost electron shell of atoms. They can be identified by using a Lewis structure. Electron pairs are therefore considered lone pairs if two electrons are paired but are not used in chemical bonding. Thus, the number of lone pair electrons plus the number of bonding electrons equals the total number of valence electrons around an atom.

CO2

So to tell him that there's two, we use our prefixes.We put the "di" prefix in front ,So this would be carbon dioxide.

oxygen gas

So yes, the oxygen gas that you and I breathe to live is actually two oxygen atoms are joined together to make O2. So this is the gas that we're breathing, two oxygen atoms.Oxygen is in group VI on your periodic table.It has six valence electrons.

Match up each element with another that you would expect to have similar chemical properties: (Use your periodic table) Sodium, Na Argon- Ar Neon, Ne Bromine- Br Chlorine, Cl Potassium- K

Sodium, Na Potassium- K Neon, Ne Argon- Ar Chlorine, Cl Bromine- Br

The atoms or molecules are closely packed together, held rigidly with limited freedom of movement

Solid

Everything around us is made of matter! The commonly defined states of matter are:

Solid, liquid, gas

Stereoisomerism

Stereoisomers are isomeric molecules that have the same molecular formula and sequence of bonded atoms, but that differ only in the three-dimensional orientations of their atoms in space

Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry is the calculation of relative quantities of reactants and products in chemical reactions

What would you expect to happen when you mix a AgNO3 solution with a Na2S solution? You will need your solubility table in order to answer this question. The Na+ ions will combine with the NO3- ions to make a precipitate, NaNO3 (s) There will be no reaction between these two chemicals The Ag+ ions will combine with the S2- ions to make a precipitate, Ag2S (s) The Ag+ ions will combine with the Na+ ions to make a precipitate, NaAg (s

The Ag+ ions will combine with the S2- ions to make a precipitate, Ag2S (s) Excellent. Your solubility table says that sulphides (S2-) are insoluble and form precipitates with any cation other than alkali metals. So, sulphide is fine with Na+, but when you mix it with Ag+, they are insoluble together and a precipitate forms.

he Lewis structure was named after Gilbert N. Lewis, who introduced it in his 1916 article_____[They are similar to electron dot diagrams in that the valence electrons in lone pairs are represented as dots, but they also contain lines to represent shared pairs in a chemical bond (single, double, triple, etc.).

The Atom and the Molecule.

If an atom is found to contain 11 protons, 11 electrons and 12 neutrons, then you could say with certainty that:

The atom is sodium because the number of protons defines the element

Prostaglandin

The prostaglandins are a group of hormone-like lipid compounds that are derived enzymatically from fatty acids and have important functions in the animal body. Every prostaglandin contains 20 carbon atoms, including a 5-carbon ring.

endothermic reactions.

There are other chemical reactions that must absorb energy in order to proceed. These are endothermic reactions. Endothermic reactions cannot occur spontaneously. Work must be done in order to get these reactions to occur. When endothermic reactions absorb energy, a temperature drop is measured during the reaction. Endothermic reactions are characterized by positive heat flow (into the reaction) and an increase in enthalpy (+ΔH

Most hydrocarbon liquids are non-polar molecules. Examples include:

Toluene Gasoline

____ are often colored because of transitions of electrons between d-orbitals of different energy. (see Transition metal#Coloured compounds).

Transition metal compounds

The electrons furthest from the centre of the atom

Valence electrons

The sub-atomic particles most responsible for the chemical behaviour of an element are the:

Valence electrons

Which sub-atomic particles are primarily responsible for the bonding behaviour of an atom?

Valence electrons

VSEPR theory

Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory is a model used, in chemistry, to infer, from the number of electron pairs surrounding their central atoms, the geometry of individual molecules.[1] It is also named Gillespie-Nyholm theory after its two main developers. The acronym "VSEPR" is occasionally pronounced "vesper" or "vuh-seh-per".The premise of VSEPR is that the valence electron pairs surrounding an atom tend to repel each other, and will therefore adopt an arrangement that minimizes this repulsion, thus determining the molecule's geometry. The sum of the number of atoms bonded to a central atom and the number of lone pairs formed by its nonbonding valence electrons is known as the central atom's steric number.

This is a positively charged ion .

We call this a cation

Which of the four Lewis structures below correctly represents nitrogen trichloride (NCl3)

Well done. All atoms have an octet and we're using the correct number of valence electrons.

A chemical change occurs:

When atoms join together, separate or are otherwise re-arranged to alter the identity of matter

AZX system.

X is the atomic symbol. Z. This is at the atomic number of your atom. A mass number of the atom protons and neutrons combined within the nucleus.The mass number.\

Carbon dioxide has the molecular formula CO2. This means that:

Your answer: 1 atom of carbon combines with 2 atoms of oxygen to make 1 carbon dioxide molecule Correct. The molecular formula, CO2, tells you how you build the compound using atoms

How many atoms are present in 0.350 moles of gold? (Reminder: NA = 6.022 x 1023)

Your answer: 2.11 x 1023 atoms

Given the charges on the zinc cation (Zn2+), aluminium cation (Al3+), chloride anion (Cl-) and sulphate anion (SO42-), the correct molecular formula for zinc chloride and aluminium sulphate would be: ZnCl2 and Al2(SO4)3 Zn2Cl and Al3(SO4)2 ZnCl2 and Al2(SO4) ZnCl and AlSO4

ZnCl2 and Al2(SO4)3

The sulfur mustards, or sulphur mustards,

[2] commonly known as mustard gas, are a class of related cytotoxic and vesicant chemical warfare agents with the ability to form large blisters on the exposed skin and in the lungs. Pure sulfur mustards are colorless, viscous liquids at room temperature. When used in impure form, such as warfare agents, they are usually yellow-brown in color and have an odor resembling mustard plants, garlic, or horseradish, hence the name. Mustard gas was originally assigned the name LOST, after the scientists Wilhelm Lommel and Wilhelm Steinkopf, who developed a method for the large-scale production of mustard gas for the Imperial German Army in 1916.[3]

Galvanization,

a general term, is either the work of covering with metal by the use of a galvanic current or the coating of iron or steel with zinc to protect it from rusting.Galvanization is the process of applying a protective zinc coating to steel or iron, in order to prevent rusting. The term is derived from the name of Italian scientist Luigi Galvani. Although galvanization can be done with electrochemical and electrodeposition processes, the most common method in current use is hot-dip galvanization, in which steel parts are submerged in a bath of molten zinc. In industry, the term GI stands for galvanized iron, referring to a common galvanized steel used in many applications such as air ducts and trash cans.

most gold jewellery are actually made of

a mixture of gold and copper.Gold is a very soft metal. So mixing copper, that makes harder.

A salted bomb is

a nuclear weapon designed to function as a radiological weapon, producing enhanced quantities of radioactive fallout, rendering a large area uninhabitable.[1] The term is derived both from the means of their manufacture, which involves the incorporation of additional elements to a standard atomic weapon, and from the expression "to salt the earth", meaning to render an area uninhabitable for generations. T

An important class of alcohols are the simple acyclic alcohols, the general formula for which is CnH2n+1OH. Of these ethanol (C2H5OH) is the alcohol found in__________; in common speech the word alcohol refers to ethanol.

alcoholic beverages

The first group, group I on your periodic table, these are referred to as the

alkali metals,

the second group,these are called the

alkaline earth metals.

Carmin

also called crimson lake, cochineal, natural red 4,[1] C.I. 75470,[1] or E120, is a pigment of a bright-red color obtained from the aluminium salt of carminic acid, which is produced by some scale insects, such as the cochineal scale and the Polish cochineal, and is used as a general term for a particularly deep-red color of the same name. Carmine is used in the manufacture of artificial flowers, paints, crimson ink, rouge, and other cosmetics, and is routinely added to food products such as yogurt and certain brands of juice, the most notable ones being those of the ruby-red variety.

Pepper spray,

also known as OC spray (from "oleoresin capsicum"), OC gas, and capsicum spray, is a lachrymatory agent (a chemical compound that irritates the eyes to cause tears, pain, and temporary blindness) used in policing, riot control, crowd control, and personal self-defense, including defense against dogs and bears.[1][2] Its inflammatory effects cause the eyes to close, taking away vision. This temporary blindness allows officers to more easily restrain subjects and permits people using pepper spray for self-defense an opportunity to escape. Although considered a less-than-lethal agent, concerns have been raised about a number of deaths where being pepper sprayed may have been a contributing factor.[3] The actual compound, however, is not lethal.

Biological warfare (BW)—

also known as germ warfare—is the use of biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi with intent to kill or incapacitate humans, animals or plants as an act of war. Biological weapons (often termed "bio-weapons", "biological threat agents", or "bio-agents") are living organisms or replicating entities (viruses, which are not universally considered "alive") that reproduce or replicate within their host victims. Entomological (insect) warfare is also considered a type of biological weapon. This type of warfare is distinct from nuclear warfare and chemical warfare, which together make up NBC, the military acronym for nuclear, biological, and chemical (warfare or weapons), all of which are considered "weapons of mass destruction" (WMDs). None of these fall under the term conventional weapons which are primarily effective due to their destructive potential.

hematite,

also spelled as haematite, is the mineral form of iron(III) oxide (Fe O ), one of several iron oxides.

, the charge on the aluminium is plus 3, whereas the charge on the oxide, the oxygen anion, is minus 2 Al3 + O-2

aluminium oxide

, NH3

ammonia Ammonia, or azane, is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3. It is a colourless gas with a characteristic pungent smell. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to food and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building-block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals and is used in many commercial cleaning products. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous. The global industrial production of ammonia for 2012 was anticipated to be 198 million tonnes,[7] a 35% increase over the estimated 2006 global output of 146.5 million tonnes.[8]

Photosynthesis is an example of

an endothermic chemical reaction. In this process, plants use the energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen. This reaction requires 15MJ of energy (sunlight) for every kilogram of glucose that is produced: sunlight + 6CO2(g) + H2O(l) = C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g)

is the mixture of sodium and chlorine to yield table salt. This reaction produces 411 kJ of energy for each mole of salt that is produced: Na(s) + 0.5Cl2(s) = NaCl(s) An example of

an exothermic reaction

Negatively charged ions are called

anions.

Isotopes

are variants of a particular chemical element such that, while all isotopes of a given element have the same number of protons in each atom, they differ in neutron number. The term isotope is formed from the Greek roots isos (ἴσος "equal") and topos (τόπος "place"), meaning "the same place". Thus, different isotopes of a single element occupy the same position on the periodic table. The number of protons within the atom's nucleus is called atomic number and is equal to the number of electrons in the neutral (un-ionized) atom. Each atomic number identifies a specific element, but not the isotope; an atom of a given element may have a wide range in its number of neutrons. The number of nucleons (both protons and neutrons) in the nucleus is the atom's mass number, and each isotope of a given element has a different mass number. For example, carbon-12, carbon-13 and carbon-14 are three isotopes of the element carbon with mass numbers 12, 13 and 14 respectively. The atomic number of carbon is 6, which means that every carbon atom has 6 protons, so that the neutron numbers of these isotopes are 6, 7 and 8 respectively.

Water is a polar molecule because

because of the way the atoms bind in the molecule such that there are excess electrons on the Oxygen side and a lack or excess of positive charges on the Hydrogen side of the molecule.

Copper(II) nitrate, Cu(NO₃)₂, is an inorganic compound that forms a _______.

blue crystalline solid

simple chalk that we use on a blackboard.

calcium carbonate he charge on the cation, the calcium, is plus 2.The charge on the anion, the carbonate, is minus 2.The charges match up. caco3

the rare earth metals.are sometimes separated into two parts,

called lanthanides and actinides.

The active ingredient in pepper spray is

capsaicin, which is a chemical derived from the fruit of plants in the Capsicum genus, including chilis. Extraction of oleoresin capsicum from peppers requires capsicum to be finely ground, from which capsaicin is then extracted using an organic solvent such as ethanol. The solvent is then evaporated, and the remaining waxlike resin is the oleoresin capsicum.

our lead pencil, ah, which always makes, because lead pencils ironically aren't made of lead.but

carbon

Plastics are made primarily of________ , often oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes things like_____ to give them some interesting properties.

carbon and hydrogen, fluorine and chlorine

CH4, the methane.If you have a look at the two atoms that we're using to build it, the___and_______-, in particular their electronegativities, carbon has an electronegativity of _________

carbon and hydrogen,2.5, hydrogen 2.1.

Fuels that we use for all kinds of transport are made primarily of ______Also sometimes _________

carbon and hydrogen.,oxygen.

General Form of a Combustion Reaction hydrocarbon + oxygen →

carbon dioxde + wate

So carbon firstI just write carbon.Then I look at what's coming next.I've got chlorine.I changed the ending to "ide," so carbon and chloride.To tell you I've got four of those chlorides, it becomes_____

carbon tetrachloride.

If we move out into nature, the trees, the plants, the grass, that's all _______________

carbon, hydrogen,nitrogen, and oxygen.

Fats, oils, proteins, carbohydrates,vitamins, and food--glorious food in general-- primarily made up of

carbon,hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.

Diamonds are, like your lead pencil, also made of

carbon.

We can draw structures like this one, ____, which is a relative of the red food colouring you find in all your favourite foods.

carminic acid

name of the ___does not change.name of the ___does change.

cation ,anion

Positively charged ions are called

cations.

The vast majority of simple inorganic (e.g. sodium chloride) and organic compounds (e.g. ethanol) are

colorless.

blue salt, that rich blue colour, is very indicative of the presence of

copper.Cu

I'm looking at chlorine trying to bond with another chlorine atom.

covalent bond

Let's have a look at water.If we look at the electronegativities on the oxygen and the hydrogen, oxygen is 3.5and hydrogen is 2.1.Now, the difference between them is 1.4.That's less than 1.6.So this will be a ______.They will share electrons.But it's more than 0.5. And that means that while they are sharing, there's no question that oxygen wants those electrons

covalent bond

f they're not willing to participate in a give-and-takerelationship, the other option is to share.So they share electrons between one another This is called a ,

covalent bond

If the electronegativity difference is 1.6 or less, it tends to be

covalent in nature.

What type of bond would you expect to form between the following pairs of atoms? N and N Cs and O C and H

covalent,ionic,covalent

You can find phosphates in your

detergents.

N20

dinitrogen oxide.

Unlike the anions, the name of the cation

doesn't change. So we would just call this a magnesium cation.

the hydrogens over here, they only ever want one bond. They're not going to be interested in ______________

double or triple bonds.So we can ignore these two places, which means we really only got one option.

halogens; fluorine- chlorine.bromine. iodine,

effective disinfectant.

The electrical charges in non-polar Carbon Dioxide are

evenly distributed

fluorine has also now changed its name. Now that it's an ion, we change the ending of the anions from fluorine to

fluoride. ie fluoride anion

____ in the top right corner, has an electronegativity of 4.0.

fluorine

the highest electronegativity on the periodic table, 4.0.

fluorine

So if a single bond contains two valence electrons, this bond here, which we call a double bond, contains

four valence electrons.

, I look at down at the bottom left corner.We have_____.They have an electronegativity of 0.7, and that's the lowest electronegativity on the periodic table.

francium and cesium

element number 79

gold

We don't call the columns, columns. We call them

groups.

alkali metals:lithium.sodium potassium

highly reactive

And then the hydrogen is

honorary nonmetal.

And we are made-- well, we're 70% water.So that's_________ And the other two major components of us are _______________

hydrogen and oxygen,carbon and nitrogen.

Water is made of

hydrogen and oxygen.

An example of a polyatomic ion is the

hydroxide ion

Resin

in the most specific use of the term is a hydrocarbon secretion of many plants, particularly coniferous trees. Resins are valued for their chemical properties and associated uses, such as the production of varnishes, adhesives and food glazing agents. They are also prized as an important source of raw materials for organic synthesis, and as constituents of incense and perfume. Plant resins have a very long history that was documented in ancient Greece by Theophrastus, in ancient Rome by Pliny the Elder, and especially in the resins known as frankincense and myrrh, prized in ancient Egypt.[1] These were highly prized substances, and required as incense in some religious rites. Amber is a hard fossilized resin from ancient trees.

Vinegar

inegar is a liquid consisting mainly of acetic acid and water. The acetic acid is produced by the fermentation of ethanol by acetic acid bacteria.

noble gases. another name too.That other name is they are called the

inert gases.Inert means that they don't react

cholesterol is essential for all animal life, each cell synthesizes it from simpler molecules, a complex 37-step process that starts with the _______. However, normal and particularly high levels of fats (including cholesterol) in the blood circulation, depending on how they are transported within lipoproteins, are strongly associated with the progression of atherosclerosis.

intracellular protein enzyme HMG-CoA reductase

When my anion is made of just one atom, all I do is changen the ending of atom to "ide." So iodine becomes ____.Chlorine becomes ____

iodide,chloride.

They can either give or take electrons, or almost give and take.When this happens, we call it an

ionic bond

when we have a large difference between the two-- one really wants, one not so much- we tend to get

ionic bonding.

If it's 1.7 or more, it tends to be

ionic in nature.

Enthalpy

is a defined thermodynamic potential, designated by the letter "H", that consists of the internal energy of the system (U) plus the product of pressure (P) and volume (V) of the system:[1] H = U + PV Since enthalpy, H, consists of internal energy, U, plus the product of pressure (P) and the volume (V) of the system, which are all functions of the state of the thermodynamic system, enthalpy is a state function. The unit of measurement for enthalpy in the International System of Units (SI) is the joule, but other historical, conventional units are still in use, such as the British thermal unit and the calorie.

A chemical weapon (CW)

is a device that uses chemicals formulated to inflict death or harm on human beings. They are classified as weapons of mass destruction though they are separate from biological weapons (diseases), nuclear weapons, and radiological weapons (which use radioactive decay of elements). Chemical weapons can be widely dispersed in gas, liquid and solid forms and may easily afflict others than the intended targets. Nerve gas, tear gas and pepper spray are three modern examples. Lethal, unitary, chemical agents and munitions are extremely volatile and they constitute a class of hazardous chemical weapons that are now being stockpiled by many nations. (Unitary agents are effective on their own and require no mixing with other agents.) The most dangerous of these are nerve agents GA, GB, and VX, and vesicant (blister) agents which are formulations of sulfur mustard such as H, HT, and HD. All are liquids at normal room temperature, but become gaseous when released. Widely used during the First World War, the effects of so-called mustard gas, phosgene gas and others caused lung searing, blindness, death and maiming.

A combustion reaction

is a major class of chemical reactions. Combustion usually occurs when a hydrocarbon reacts with water to produce carbon dioxide and water. In the more general sense, combustion involves a reaction between any combustible material and an oxidizer to form an oxidized product. Combustion is an exothermic reaction, so it releases heat, but sometimes the reaction proceeds so slowly that a temperature change is not noticeable. Good signs that you are dealing with a combustion reaction include the presence of oxygen as a reactant and carbon dioxide, water and heat as products. Inorganic combustion reactions might not form all of the products, but are recognizable by the reaction of oxygen.

Magnetite

is a mineral, one of the two common naturally occurring iron oxides (chemical formula Fe O ) and a member of the spinel group.

he molar mass M

is a physical property. It is defined as the mass of a given substance (chemical element or chemical compound) divided by its amount of substance.[1] The base SI unit for molar mass is kg/mol. However, for historical reasons, molar masses are almost always expressed in g/mol.As an example, the molar mass of water is approximately: M(H2O) ≈ 18 g⋅mol−1

butane torch

is a tool which creates an intensely hot flame using butane, a flammable gas.Consumer air butane torches are often claimed to develop flame temperatures up to approximately 1,700 K (1,430 °C; 2,600 °F). This temperature is high enough to melt many common metals, such as aluminum and copper, and hot enough to vaporize many organic compounds as well.

Mole

is a unit of measurement used in chemistry to express amounts of a chemical substance, defined as the amount of any substance that contains as many elementary entities (e.g., atoms, molecules, ions, electrons) as there are atoms in 12 grams of pure carbon-12 (12C), the isotope of carbon with relative atomic mass of exactly 12 by definition. This corresponds to the Avogadro constant, which has a value of 6.02214129(27)×1023 elementary entities of the substance. It is one of the base units in the International System of Units, and has the unit symbol mol and corresponds with the dimension symbol N.[1] In honour of the unit, some chemists celebrate October 23 (a reference to the 1023 part of Avogadro's number) as "Mole Day".

In chemistry, the Brønsted-Lowry theory

is an acid-base reaction theory, proposed independently by Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Thomas Martin Lowry in 1923.[1][2] The fundamental concept of this theory is that an acid (or Brønsted acid) is defined as being able to lose, or "donate" a proton (the hydrogen cation, or H+) while a base (or Brønsted base) is defined as a species with the ability to gain, or "accept," a proton.

An oil

is any neutral, nonpolar chemical substance that is a viscous liquid at ambient temperatures and is both hydrophobic (immiscible with water, literally "water fearing") and lipophilic (miscible with other oils, literally "fat loving"). Oils have a high carbon and hydrogen content and are usually flammable and slippery. The general definition of oil includes classes of chemical compounds that may be otherwise unrelated in structure, properties, and uses. Oils may be animal, vegetable, or petrochemical in origin, and may be volatile or non-volatile.[1] They are used for food, fuel, lubrication, and the manufacture of paints, plastics, and other materials. Specially prepared oils are used in some religious ceremonies as purifying agents.

A radiological weapon or radiological dispersion device (RDD)

is any weapon that is designed to spread radioactive material with the intent to kill and cause disruption. One version, known as a dirty bomb, is not a true nuclear weapon and does not yield the same explosive power. It uses conventional explosives to spread radioactive material, most commonly the spent fuels from nuclear power plants or radioactive medical waste. Another version is the salted bomb, a true nuclear weapon designed to produce larger amounts of nuclear fallout than a regular nuclear weapon.

Non-polar molecules

is one that the electrons are distributed more symmetrically and thus does not have an abundance of charges at the opposite sides. The charges all cancel out each other.

Nitrosyl chloride

is the chemical compound NOCl. It is a yellow gas that is most commonly encountered as a decomposition product of aqua regia, a mixture of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid. The related nitrosyl halides nitrosyl fluoride, NOF, and nitrosyl bromide, NOBr, are also known.

Phosgene

is the chemical compound with the formula COCl2. This colorless gas gained infamy as a chemical weapon during World War I. It is also a valued industrial reagent and building block in synthesis of pharmaceuticals and other organic compounds. In low concentrations, its odor resembles freshly cut hay or grass.[3] In addition to its industrial production, small amounts occur naturally from the breakdown and the combustion of organochlorine compounds, such as those used in refrigeration systems.[4] The chemical was named by combining the Greek words 'phos' (meaning light) and genesis (birth); it does not mean it contains any phosphorus (cf. phosphine).Phosgene is a planar molecule as predicted by VSEPR theory. The C=O distance is 1.18 Å, the C—Cl distance is 1.74 Å and the Cl—C—Cl angle is 111.8°.[5] It is one of the simplest acid chlorides, being formally derived from carbonic acid.

Avogadro's number

is the number of particles found in one mole of a substance. It is the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12. This experimentally determined value is approximately 6.022 x 1023 particles per mole.

Dissolution Reactions

is the process by which a solute forms a solution in a solvent. The solute, in the case of solids, has its crystalline structure disintegrated as separate ions, atoms, and molecules form. For liquids and gases, the molecules must be adaptable with those of the solvent for a solution to form. The outcome of the process of dissolution (the amount dissolved at equilibrium, i.e., the solubility) is governed by the thermodynamic energies involved, such as the heat of solution and entropy of solution, but the dissolution itself (a kinetic process) is not. Overall the free energy must be negative for net dissolution to occur. In turn, those energies are controlled by the way in which different chemical bond types interact with those in the solvent. Solid solutions occur in metal alloys and their formation and description is governed by the relevant phase diagram.

When impure (cast) iron is in contact with water, oxygen, or other strong oxidants, or acids,

it rusts

You may have noticed that whenever you see a carbon, one way or another,

it's got four bonds attached to it.Maybe some singles, doubles, and triples, some combination,but it will take on four bonds.

Ethanol is polar, since its oxygen molecule draws electrons towards it due to

its high electro-negativity, causing a negative charge around itself.

The last one, Li is for______.That name stays the same.And the CO3, check your table.thats called___ .So ________________

lithium,carbonate lithium carbonate.

make the ionic compound out of magnesium cations and chloride anions.When I look at them, magnesium has a charge of plus 2, while chloride is only minus 1.only way that's going to work is if I have an extra chloride anion.That way I've got 2 plus from the magnesium and 2 negatives from the chloride.

magnesium chloride , MgCl2.

And we have that middle band, These are called the

metalloids or the semiconductors.

on your periodic table, ionic bonds tend to form between ,

metals and nonmetals

So all of the elements on the left-hand side, they are all

metals in their naturally occurring state.

most of the periodic table is actually made up of

metals.

Lead iodide can be obtained as a yellow precipitate by reacting solutions of lead(II) ______________ Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

nitrate and potassium iodide:

NO2

nitrogen dioxide

I have two compounds, both made of nitrogen and oxygen. So if I simply said _____, how would you know what The first one, NO2, is somewhat of a pollutant, not very good for us.

nitrogen oxide

Common examples of non-polar gases are the

noble or inert gases, including: Helium (He) Neon (Ne) Krypton (Kr) Xenon (Xe)

Since Chloroform is more soluble in fats than in water, it is also classified as

non-polar.

covalent bonds tend to form between

nonmetals and nonmetals.

The difference is less than 0.5.And that means we call it a

nonpolar molecule.

Precipitation Reactions

occur when cations and anions of aqueous solutions combine to form an insoluble ionic solid, called a precipitate. Whether or not such a reaction occurs can be determined by using the solubility rules for common ionic solids. Since not all aqueous reactions form precipitates, one must consult the solubility rules before determining the state of the products and writing a net ionic equation. Being able to predict these reactions allows scientists to calculate what ions are present in a solution, and allows industries to form chemicals by extracting certain elements from these reactions.

An ammonium ion is made up of ____ it has a charge of +1, an its chemical formula is ________

one nitrogen atom and four hydrogen atoms:,NH4+.

Aqua regia

or nitro-hydrochloric acid is a highly corrosive mixture of acids, a fuming yellow or red solution. The mixture is formed by freshly mixing concentrated nitric acid and hydrochloric acid,[1] optimally in a volume ratio of 1:3. It was named so because it can dissolve the so-called royal or noble metals, gold and platinum. However, titanium, iridium, ruthenium, tantalum, niobium, hafnium, zirconium, osmium, rhodium and tungsten are capable of withstanding its corrosive properties

An analgesic,

or painkiller, is any member of the group of drugs used to achieve analgesia — relief from pain. The word analgesic derives from Greek ἀν-, "without", and ἄλγος, "pain".[1]Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the peripheral and central nervous systems. They are distinct from anesthetics, which reversibly eliminate sensation, and include paracetamol (known in the US as acetaminophen or simply APAP), the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as the salicylates, and opioid drugs such as morphine and oxycodone.In choosing analgesics, the severity and response to other medication determines the choice of agent; the World Health Organization (WHO) pain ladder[2] specifies mild analgesics as its first step.

Brownian motion

or pedesis (from Greek: πήδησις /pɛ̌ːdɛːsis/ "leaping") is the random motion of particles suspended in a fluid (a liquid or a gas) resulting from their collision with the quick atoms or molecules in the gas or liquid. The term "Brownian motion" can also refer to the mathematical model used to describe such random movements, which is often called a particle theory

You'll notice that every time you draw a hydrogen, it's simply attached to the

outside of the molecule with a single bond.

The second or the last element, we change the ending So oxygen will become __________ Fluorine will become ___________

oxide...fluoride.

phosgene gas (COCl2), an industrial chemical used in

pharmaceutical production

Lead(II) iodide (PbI2) or

plumbous iodide is a bright yellow solid at room temperature, that reversibly becomes brick red by heating. In its crystalline form it is used as a detector material for high energy photons including x-rays and gamma rays.Lead iodide is toxic due to its lead content. In the nineteenth century it was used as an artists' pigment under the name Iodine Yellow, but it was too unstable to be useful.[3]

Polar molecules will dissolve in water because water is

polar too.

There are also situations where we have a group of atoms--not just one atom, share electrons.And they also gain or lose a couple extra from somewhere else.And in doing so, they form ions.We call these

polyatomic ions.

KI

potassium iodide.

The potassium will give off a slightly

purple flame.

Nuclide

refers particularly to a nucleus rather than to an atom. Identical nuclei belong to one nuclide, for example each carbon-13 nucleus is composed of 6 protons and 7 neutrons. The nuclide concept (referring to individual nuclear species) emphasizes nuclear properties over chemical properties, while the isotope concept (grouping all atoms of each element) emphasizes chemical over nuclear. The neutron number has large effects on nuclear properties, but its effect on chemical properties is negligible for most elements. Even in the case of the very lightest elements where the ratio of neutron number to atomic number varies the most between isotopes it usually has only a small effect, although it does matter in some circumstances (for hydrogen, the lightest element, the isotope effect is large enough to strongly affect biology). Since isotope is the older term, it is better known than nuclide, and is still sometimes used in contexts where nuclide might be more appropriate, such as nuclear technology and nuclear medicine.

Rows., as we move across your periodic table, I'm are simply call

rows.

Chlorine's in group VII.That means it has _____ valence electrons.

seven

.So here, I've got some washing soda. Washing soda is

sodium carbonate.sodium ion is plus 1.The charge on the carbonate anion, that's minus 2 Na2CO3.

Sodium is plus 1.Chloride is minus 1.So they are alreadyI simply need one of each to make sure I end up with a neutral compound overall And there it is,

sodium chloride.

So in this case, the second one, the Na is for sodium.And NO3, if you look up your table, you'll find that' called nitrate.This is

sodium nitrate. NaNO3

In chemistry, epimers are

stereoisomers that differ in configuration of only one stereogenic center other than the last asymmetric carbon atom and anomeric carbon atom. All other stereocenters in the molecules, if any, are the same in each. In chemical nomenclature, one of the epimeric pairs is given the prefix epi- for example in quinine and epi-quinine. When the pairs are enantiomers, the prefix becomes ent-.

SO2 SO S2O SO3

sulphur dioxide sulphur monoxide disulphur monoxid sulphur trioxide

what's an ion?I.

t's a charged atom

Organic compounds

tend to be colored when there is extensive conjugation, causing the energy gap between the HOMO and LUMO to decrease, bringing the absorption band from the UV to the visible region. Similarly, color is due to the energy absorbed by the compound, when an electron transitions from the HOMO to the LUMO.

As we move down a group on your periodic table, it's been specifically arranged so that

the electron configuration of every element in that group is actually quite similar. In particular, the valence electron configuration is the same for every element in that group.

, group VII, elements are called

the halogens.

The higher the electronegativity, the more it wants those electrons.The lower the electronegativity,

the more happy it is to let them go, give it to someone else.

The last group, group VIII on your periodic table, these are called

the noble gases.They are also often called the inert gase

In the right-hand side we have

the nonmetals.

down at the bottom of the periodic table, we have what are called

the rare earth metals.

We then move into the middle of the periodic table. We refer to these elements here as

the transition metals.

Nitrogen loves having_____________.And these patterns occur over and over again.

three bonds and one lone pair

lycopene is responsible for the color of

tomatoes

We've now got three pairs of electrons being shared. So we draw three lines between the two and we called this a ________.Inside a, we have ______ electrons being shared.

triple bond, six valence

Oxygen loves

two lone pairs of electrons and two bonds.

covalent bond occurs when we have

two nonmetals bonding together.

But the oxygen on the left needs two more electrons. The oxygen on the right needs two more.So they don't share one pair each.They share

two pairs each.

When we're drawing our Lewis structure, we don't draw thesecircles and dots.What we do is we put a single line between these two atoms. This single line we refer to as a single bond.That single bond contains

two valence electrons that are being shared by the atoms at either end of that bond.

John Newlands

was the first person to devise a periodic table of elements arranged in order of their relative atomic weights.[2] Continuing Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner's work with triads and Jean-Baptiste Dumas' families of similar elements, he published in 1865 his 'Law of octaves', which stated that "any given element will exhibit analogous behaviour to the eighth element following it in the table." Newlands' arranged all of the known elements into seven groups, which he likened to the octaves of music.In Newlands' table, the elements were ordered by the atomic weights that were known at the time and were numbered sequentially to show their order. Periods were shown going down the table, with groups going across - the opposite from the modern form of the periodic table.

you can find carbonates in your kitchen in

washing soda.