Option G: Urban Environments
How did access to resources effect industrialisation?
1. As industrialization occurred, areas with good access to resources developed and became cities. 2. For example, Johannesburg and Bloemfontein grew on account of their mineral resources. 3. Places near great rivers, such as New York, on the mouth of the River Hudson developed, in part, as a result of their excellent ability to trade.
Urban System Growth - Case study: Singapore - Telecommunications Infrastructure Improvements
1. Cell phone coverage and speeds have progressed steadily 2. The latest evolution in 2011 was 4G technology. With people doing more on their devices, higher internet speeds were needed to support the proliferation of video streaming and online mobile gaming. 3. Going forward, 5G technology has a potential speed 10 times that of 4G, and it could support bandwidth intensive applications. It will likely play a key role in Singapore's Smart Nation initiative. 4. Wireless@SGThis is a free public Wi-Fi service across Singapore, with hotspots available at many locations, including malls, museums, public libraries, community centres, subway stations, Changi Airport
How has modern retailing changed?
1. Modern retailing has recently changed rapidly with the growth in the number of superstores and retail parks, built on greenfield suburban sites with good accessibility and plenty of space for future expansion. 2. This retailing revolution has focused on superstores, hypermarkets, and out-of-town retail parks and people shopping less frequently.
What is the range?
1. Range is the maximum distance that people are prepared to travel to obtain a particular service. 2. People are willing travel long distances for some "higher order" services such as a hospital but only short distance for "lower order services" such a hair salon.
2 main causes of urbanisation:
1. Rural to urban migration 2. Natural Increase (CBR-CDR) (Both of these factors can be driven by industrialisation)
Car ownership in Singapore:
1. Singapore 149/1000 people (GNI PPP per capita 51,880) 2. Romania 316/1000 people (GNI PPP per capita 31,800) 3. US 795/1000 people (GNI PPP per capita 56,810) 4. Despite have a similar GNI, Singapore has low car ownership because of the high taxes (Certificate of Entitlement = the very expensive permit you must buy to own a car) on cars and the high quality of the public transport system.
How much of a countries ecological footprint is made up its urban footprint?
1. The per capita footprints of large cities is often higher than the country's per capita footprint. 2. Large cities often use a large percentage of a country's bio-capacity (BC). Biocapacity is the ecosystems' capacity to produce biological materials used by people and to absorb waste material generated by humans. 3. For example, Athens requires 122% of Greeces bio-capacity!
What services may be depleted with a large rural-urban migration?
1. garbage disposal 2. proper sanitation 3. safe water accessibility 4. housing (is a real challenge, which is why you end up with slums, shanty towns & informal settlements in fast-growing cities). 5. health-care services 6. education
There are a number of locations for industrial zones in most cities. These include:
1. inner-city areas close to railways and/or canals, for example dock-related industries such as imports and exports 2. brownfield suburban sites close to airports 3. sites away from residential locations, for polluting industries that may be required to located outside the urban area.
Low-order goods or services:
1. required frequently 2. not specialised (easy to provide) 3. small threshold 4. small range
Higher-order goods or services:
1. required infrequently 2. specialised (rare) 3. large threshold (will go out of business in a small town) 4. large range
What are nodal points?
Highest land values in cities are nodal points, because these are areas where several points (roads, rivers, bridges, transport routes, etc.) intersect for trade.
Gentrification
Improvement of residential areas by immigrants and the residents themselves, with an economic dimension such as the development of retailing and other services.
What did Medellin win in 2013?
In 2013 Medellin won a major urban award as "Innovative City of the Year" as recognition of the transformation the city went through, including greatly reduced crime (5-fold reduced).
When did the communist regime take control of Romania?
Post-world war 2. The Socialist Republic of Romania (Romanian: Republica Socialistă România, RSR) was a Marxist-Leninist one-party communist state that existed officially in Romania from 1947 to 1989.
Detroit =
motor city, automobile industry (Motown)
Exam Practice: Essay Q from Textbook 1)
"Eco-cities and smart cities offer great opportunities for high-income countries." Discuss this statement. (10 marks)
Where are the highest land values & why?
- Highest land values are near the city centre (nodal points) with more accessibility. - City centres have high levels of mobility as they are nodal points, where several routes meet. - Some land uses are willing to pay a lot of money to be in locations with high accessibility.
What is land value?
- Land value is the measure of how much a plot of land is worth, not counting any buildings but including improvements such as better drainage. - Land value varies.
Services vs. Retailing
- Service commercial group = eg. hair salons, dentists, nail salons, travel agencies, restaurants, etc. - Retailing commercial group = eg. electronics, clothing shops, etc.
Why is it hard to determine the size of a city?
- They're boarders are debatable (depends on who defines the area). - It also depends on how reliable the population size is, if it's a rapidly growing population, etc.
In what year did 50% of the world's population live in cities for the first time?
- This is estimated to have happened in 2007. - The term "urban millennium" was coined at the time.
"Urban liveability"
- Urban liveability refers to the set of economic, social and physical attributes or characteristics of a certain urban area, which, impact on residents' quality of life. - The more liveable a city is, the higher urban quality of life.
Wind Canyons
1) Rows of tall buildings can funnel winds together and cause magnified wind conditions. 2) In stormy conditions, winds become even stronger in wind canyons.
Land Use Categories
1. Economic Land Uses: Manufacturing, Warehouses, Offices, Services & Retailing (Commercial land uses) 2. Residential Land Uses: Residential land uses are often categorised (low density, medium density, high density, affordable housing, public housing, detached, semi-detached, row housing) 3. Institutional Land Uses - hospitals, schools, churches, universities, colleges, libraries, government offices, clinics, etc. 4. Open Space - parks, protected lands 5. Vacant - unused land, abandoned. 6. Transport - roads, rail, cycle paths, stations
Using map evidence, state why traffic congestion may occur at De Bataaf. [1 mark]
A brief statement using map evidence is needed for [1]. A response that implies traffic congestion is acceptable. Possibilities include: 1. Major road which attracts heavy traffic. 2. Parking areas which slow traffic flow. 3. Sports facilities which attract visitors 4. Golf and tennis facilities may attract people (implies traffic congestion).
Urban area
A built up area which forms part of a city or town
What is a megacity?
A city with a population over 10 million (inhabitants).
What is the major factor in Natural Increase that contributes to urbanisation?
A falling CDR = people dying less, because the NI is CBR - CDR.
Counter-urbanization
A process involving the movement of population away from larger urban areas to smaller urban areas, new towns, new estates, commuter towns, or villages on the edge or just beyond the city limits or the rural—urban fringe.
Urban circular system
A sustainable city in which there are recycling, reuse and reduction of resources, renewable forms of energy, and measures taken to reduce the ecological footprint.
2b. [1 mark] Estimate the temperature range north of the River Liffey.
Accept either a value in the range 5.5 to 6.5 [1] (or < -1.5 to +4) [1]. Units (°C) not needed for award of mark. Example: -1.5 to +4 = 5.5 degrees is the range.
Acute Shocks
Acute Shocks - sudden events that cause elevated stress for people in cities (ie. earthquake...nat disasters, sinkhole, terrorist attack, pandemic...)
10b. [6 marks] Referring to map evidence, explain three likely types of urban stress in Nazareth.
Award [1] for identifying a valid type of urban stress and [1] for map evidence. The most likely types of stress for which there is map evidence are: 1. pollution (credit different types of pollution, eg noise pollution, air pollution from the quarry in 7312) 2. potential congestion due to grid street pattern in the centre of town 3. depletion of green space due to expansion of quarries/increase of built-up area (eg 7512). There may be other types of urban stress and these should be credited if valid.
Why is residential land use more outside of the cities?
Because it is cheaper, less polluted, and less noisy.
Why do lower income people often live in the east-end of cities in Europe & North America?
Because of the 1800s industrialisation and smog (coal factories) = wind goes from west to east in most parts of the world.
Why is crime associated in cities?
Crime is associated in cities due to the presence of crime targets for an offence to happen (many people are concentrated in cities), easy access and lack of security (in developing cities), high level of residential land use, lack of health centres (or schools and recreational areas in a settlement), lack of a police station, the presence of a higher number of offenders and sufficient incentive and ability to commit crimes, etc.
Central shopping areas or
High streets
Urbanisation is a result of
Industrialisation
State the direction from Vredespaleis (4720) to World Forum (4621). [1 mark]
NW (only acceptable answer)
What is nimbyism?
Not In My Back Yard = the practice of objecting to something that will affect one or take place in one's locality. People like the idea of a service or land use being added to their country, but not next to where they live.
Urban deprivation incides with
Poverty (poor people have less desirable places to live in/choose from given their economic limitations).
Pull factors
Pull factors are the attractions (whether real or imagined) that exist at another place (for example, better wages, more jobs, good schools).
Push factors
Push factors are the negative features that cause a person to move away from a place (eg. unemployment, low wages, natural hazards).
What are conurbations?
Several towns that have merged to form continuous urban areas or form one larger city.
Shopping parades (strip mall)
Shopping parades (strip malls) are clusters of shops (in contrast to high streets) these usually include a small supermarket, an off-licence, a newsagent, and other low-order outlets serving nearby residential areas.
What is meant by the term "urban resilience"?
The ability of a system, entity, community, or person to adapt to a variety of changing conditions and to withstand shocks while still maintaining its essential functions.
Urban ecological footprint
The amount of land required to sustain a population with the resources they need, and to assimilate their waste.
What is a CBD?
The central business district (CBD) is the core of the city that is based on commercial activity where business offices and stores are found, sometimes alongside expensive housing in the nodal point.
Re-urbanization/ urban renewal
The development of activities to increase residential population densities within the existing built-up area of a city
Urbanisation
The growth (increase) of the % of people living in urban areas.
Explain the intra-urban variation in microclimate that exists in some cities.
The intra-urban variation in microclimate that exists in some cities is the small-scale variations within the urban heat island that occur due to the distribution of industries, open spaces, rivers, canals and so on.
Urban Morphology
The layout of a city, its physical form and structure (shape and appearance of urban land use).
Extreme heating of surfaces in cities::
The orientation of buildings and the nature of their surfaces may greatly exaggerate heating in areas of cities.
Industrialisation
The period of social and economic change that transforms a human group from an agrarian society into an industrial one, involving the extensive re-organisation of an economy for the purpose of manufacturing.
What is the peak land value intersection?
The point with the highest land values (in the Nodal Point).
Redevelopment
The renovation and improvement of areas that were previously run down. Where old buildings and land are replaced by new buildings. New urban development on land that has become vacant due to demolition. eg. brownfield sites.
Where were the world's fastest growing cities located in 1800's and early 1900's?
The world's fastest growing cities in the 1800's and early 1900's were mostly concentrated in Europe and North America due to industrialisation.
Where is the CBD in Bucharest?
There is not one CBD in Bucharest, because of the communist regime, which purposefully tried to spread out whatever commerce there was (even if it was only a little) and hence there are a lot of different neighbourhoods of commercial land use in Bucharest.
What are primate cities?
They are the largest settlement in a country, but only if it has more than twice as many people as the second ranking settlement.
How does a typical diagram of land use of LIC's undergoing industrialisation differ from HIC's?
This diagram shows a pattern typical of land use of LIC's undergoing industrialisation. The residential pattern shows lower income, smaller housing towards the edge and better quality housing towards the centre.
What is temperature inversion?
a layer of warm air trapping cool, polluted air near Earth's surface.
Urban deprivation =
a quality of life (standard of living) below the majority of people in a city.
Superstores may cluster to form:
a retail park
Disamenities =
facilities that people do not want to be near (ie. incinerators, large highways).
Urban Sprawl often results in
inefficient use of land and loss of agricultural lands
Ethnic neighbourhoods sometime shift from
inner city locations to suburban locations.
Public services =
schools, hospitals, emergency service, etc.
The point with the highest land values is called
the PEAK LAND VALUE INTERSECTION.
The more unique and specialised an economic function is,
the higher its threshold and range.
Suburbanization
the outward growth of towns and cities to engulf surrounding villages and rural areas
Define "anthropogenic heat sources" in the city.
"Anthropogenic heat sources" are mainly human activities / man-made sources (eg. commuting, using the air conditioning, heating units on buildings, factories, types of materials we use = low in albedo, pollutants are man-made, etc.) which release thermal energy (heat), which causes temperature to rise in the city.
5a. [4 marks] The graph shows rural and urban population as a proportion of total population for different regions from 1950 to 2050. (ii) Identify the region with the lowest rate of urbanization between 1950 and 2050.
(ii) Oceania [1]
5a. [4 marks] The graph shows rural and urban population as a proportion of total population for different regions from 1950 to 2050. (iii) Describe the change in the proportion of people living in urban areas in Latin America and the Caribbean between 1950 and 2050.
(iii) Award [1] for each valid point. Must have some quantification for [2]. The proportion increases rapidly between 1950 and about 2000 [1] (from 40% to around 70%). It increases more slowly between 2000 and 2050 [1] (from about 70% to around 85%). [2 marks] Example: It increased from 40 to 83, there is a more than 100% increase throughout the period. There is a fastest increase from 1950 to 2050. The proportion increases rapidly between 1950 and about 2000 (from 40% to around 70%). It increases more slowly between 2000 and 2050 (from about 70% to around 85%).
Urban Heat Island
1) Urban areas have different climates than surrounding rural areas including higher average temperatures. 2) The phenomenon of higher average atmosphere temperature in cities compared to rural areas is known as the "urban heat island".
More on counter-urbanisation:
1. Counter urban migrants must be able to afford to live away from centres of economic activities in terms of the cost of transport for commuting. 2. The area must have a good transport and communication network so that people can stay linked to economic activities in cities. 3. Counter-urbanisation is predominantly an HIC trend
Causes of reurbanisation
1. Governments may directly invest in gentrification/renewal or redevelopment/regeneration or provide incentives for property developers. This gentrified or redeveloped may attract new businesses and resident to the city. 2. Counter-urbanisation may have led to a decline in the quality of life in rural areas near the city. Resident may decide to return to the city after have left the city years before. 3. City center living may attract people for environmental reasons, trying to escape the negative qualities of "urban sprawl" 4. New developments in the city center may be "high density"(more dwelling per unit of area), thus allow for an increased urban population.
Disadvantages of the informal economic sector
1. Health and safety standards may be lower. Less protection for consumers and workers 2. Loss of intellectual property rights is more common. 3. Grey-markets and black-markets may discourage FDI (foreign direct investment) 4. At times associated with criminal activities such as prostitution, drugs. 5. Lack of tax revenue for government. Less money for developing govt services and infrastructure
Early settlers took into account the advantages and disadvantages of alternative sites for agriculture and housing. Desirable factors included:
1. readily available water 2 freedom from flooding 3. level sites to build on (but less easy to defend) 4. local timber for construction and fuel 5. sunny; south-facing slopes 5. proximity to rich soils for cultivation and lush pasture for grazing 6. the potential for trade and commerce, such as proximity to bridges or weirs, a confluence site. the head of an estuary, a point of navigation and upland gaps.
The very poor transport links from the hillside neighbourhoods in Medellin to the city centre meant:
1. very long travel times: 2. less time working and therefore less income 3. less time studying 4. more time spent to reach public services 5. travel through the neigbourhoods for residents was also very dangerous due to the crime and violence rates 6. Public services such as police, medical, fire services, education had difficulty (and fear) reaching the hillside neighbourhoods 7. Overall, the hillside residents felt excluded and ignored 8. Summary: political instability, cartel activity and deprivation due to isolation led to very high crime rates in the hillside districts of Medellin
Estimate how far (in km) Lagos has grown along the southern part of the lagoon between points X and Y from 1984 to 2013. [1 mark]
25 (allow 21-27)
Satellite town
A satellite town is a concept in urban planning that refers essentially to smaller metropolitan areas which are located somewhat near to, but are mostly independent of larger metropolitan areas.
5c. [10 marks] Evaluate the success of one management strategy to tackle pollution in one named urban area.
Answers should refer to one named strategy. The strategy may have multiple strands, eg integrated transport management, promotion of public transport, renewable forms of energy. The pollution management strategy could be part of a holistic approach to achieve sustainable development (circular systems)/reduce pollution, eg Beijing and the 2008 Olympic games. Good candidates may evaluate by recognizing that the strategy may have benefits as well as costs. Benefits may be environmental and social (such as improvements in health) whereas costs may be economic. They may evaluate using a sustainability framework. The success of the strategy may depend on political will, the ability to afford it/police it/perceived benefits. There may be local benefits (such as reducing traffic/car parking) but wider increases in pollution. Good candidates may also view the strategy from different perspectives, eg businesses may resent costs of tackling pollution. At band D, expect a description of a named management strategy. At band E, expect either more detail or explanation of a named management strategy or an attempt to evaluate its success. At band F, expect both. Marks should be allocated according to the markscheme. [10 marks]
What happens as you move away from the citycentre? What is this called?
As you move away from the city centre, land values decline because accessibility decreases (things reducing as you move away from a point is called DISTANCE DECAY.
What are a few megacities?
Asia is leading the population growth, because they are industrialising and industrialisation is the main driver of urbanisation.
16b. [3 marks] Describe the global distribution of the megacities listed in the table.
Award [1 mark] for each statement made, up to [3 marks]. A listing, with no attempt to identify any pattern or overall distribution, may not be awarded more than [1 mark]. For example: 1. there are many more (more than twice as many) megacities in Asia than in any other continent 2. North America and South America each have three megacities 3. Africa and Europe have fewer megacities than any other continent 4. most megacities are in lower income countries. Other valid distributional statements may be made.
What is the Burgess model?
Burgess model (concentric ring model) is used to explain the layout of earliest cities. This model assumes the city is on a flat featureless plain with equal transport routes in all directions and it shows socio-economic segregations.
Where are CBD's located?
Businesses prefer areas where they are accessible to customers, which is why many businesses are located in the centre, the nodal point (CBD = central business district).
What solutions have you seen being used to reduce traffic in cities?
Case study on Impacts and Management of Traffic Congestion: London --> Central London Congestion Charges: 1. Daily fee charged to drivers wanting to enter the congestion zone (about 11.5 pounds now) 2. Cameras read car license plates. Driver put credit on an account linked to the car. Various method for users to top up accounts. 3. Heavy fines for cars not paying before entering the zones 4. Money must be spent on public transport and transport efficiency schemes 5. Residents pay a much lower rate. 6. Revenue generated for the Congestion Charges = Over 1.2 billion pounds have been collected through the scheme = This money is reserved for use to manage traffic in the city including investment in public transport and cycling and other solutions
Urban System Growth - Case study: Singapore
Case study: Singapore
13a. [4 marks] State four main characteristics of a central business district (CBD).
Characteristics that can be outlined for [1 mark] each include: 1. low residential population 2. economic/tertiary activity (shops, offices, entertainment) found here 3. at the centre of a settlement or at intersection of routes 4. very high buildings especially at PLVI 5. functional zoning of types of service 6. vertical zoning eg offices above shops 7. convenience shops at edges of CBD 8. "Core and frame" structure 9. evidence of zones of discard/assimilation 10. high value pedestrian flows 11. high traffic flows (or low if pedestrianized) 12. there may be other valid points.
What type of land use is most often found at nodal points?
Commercial use is most often found in nodal points, because city centers are trading centers, where commerce and the economy are at the heart, as these are areas where several points (roads, rivers, bridges, transport routes, etc.) intersect for trade.
low albedo
Dark-colored surfaces absorb sunlight (warming) = less reflection, more absorption, more heat produced.
What is distance decay?
Distance decay is a term linked with the Gravity Model. It describes the decline of attractive pull something has with increasing distance from the point of origin. = the value of land decreases as distance from city increases.
Case Study 3): "The Sustainable City Project" in Dubai
Dubai has one the world's highest urban EFP's, so hopefully this project will inspire similar developments in and around Dubai Note: Although the project is generally very highly praised he Sustainable City does have some critics. It was developed on an open site on the edge of the city, 20 km from the centre, contributing to urban sprawl. The average unit costs between 850,000 to 1.3 million euros making it affordable for only higher income families. Migrant construction labour used to build the project would likely have worked under challenging conditions.
The term circular metabolism is often used in placed of circular economy. Circular economic systems allow cities to operate sustainably on 3 levels:
Economic Social Environmental
Gentrification
Gentrification, or urban gentrification, is a phenomenon in which low-cost, physically deteriorated neighborhoods undergo physical renovation and an increase in property values, along with an influx of wealthier residents (Yupies) who may displace the prior residents.
Superstores
Giant retail outlets close to residential areas that carry food and nonfood products found in supermarkets, as well as most routinely purchased consumer products
Explain two reasons why the informal economic sector is important in a megacity such as Lagos. [4 marks]
In each case, award [1] for a reason, and [1] for relevant explanation. For example: The rapid growth of the mega-city/ the scale of the rural-urban migration into Lagos, means that many formal jobs are not available [1] therefore, people must rely on small-scale, labour-intensive activities to survive [1]. Other possibilities include: 1. Informal self-employment, eg new technology industries may offer greater opportunity than low-paid formal work. 2. Important from a consumer point of view to have cheaper alternatives.
Explain one possible physical factor and two possible human factors that can affect the pattern of residential development in a post-industrial city such as Den Haag. [6 marks]
In each case, award [1] for a valid factor linked to residential development and [1] for explanation of how it affects the residential pattern. For example: Human factor - residential housing is absent from large areas of this city where there are parks [1]. This may be due to planning laws limiting development on green spaces [1]. Physical factor - attractive coastal scenery [1] can encourage residential development along the coastline, because of the attractive view [1]. Other possible factors include: Physical 1. restriction in flood risk areas (both rivers and coastline) 2. other physical factors such as relief/flat land. Human 1. land values 2. land use planning/purpose-built estates 3. distance from old industrial areas
Informal/formal activities
Informal activities are untaxed, unregulated jobs whereas the formal economy refers to taxed, regulated activities such as people working in offices and factories
16a. [1 mark] The table shows the 21 megacities in the world in 2010 and their predicted rate of population growth between 2010 and 2025. State which megacity is predicted to grow most rapidly.
Lagos (Nigeria).
Re building of abandoned or decaying areas of cities. Example:
London Docklands
Case Study 1): London's Ecological Footprint and measures to reduce the footprint: Describe the pattern of London's carbon dioxide emissions.
London contains 12% of the UK population and it produces 20% of the nation's GDP, and yet London emits just 8% of the country's carbon dioxide (because in general cities make very efficient use of resources such as energy, water and land because the population is concentrated in higher densities than rural areas). Nonetheless, the UK ranks 8th among nations on the list of world-wide carbon dioxide emissions, so London's contribution of 8% to that total is significant globally. Of London's overall carbon dioxide emissions, 22% comes from ground-based transport, 38% from domestic (or household) uses, while 40% comes from industrial and commercial uses.
Why did London decide to redevelop the docklands?
London decided to redevelop the Docklands to bring life and wealth back into it, afterall urban deprivation indices with poverty and with high unemployment comes more economic stress and things like crime often increase because of this, etc. → Regeneration started in the 1980's when the Docklands was abandoned/vacant, derelict industrial lands aka. "Brownfield sites" = working-class was deprived & experiencing complete deprivation (lower QoL than majority of London inhabitants).
high albedo
More reflection, less absorption, less heat produced
Centrifugal Urban Movements
Movement of people and activities away from cities and city centres
Centripetal Urban Movements
Movements of people and investment and activities towards urban area, and towards the center of urban areas.
10c. [10 marks] Using one or more examples, examine the social and economic impacts of in-migration on cities.
Possible impacts include: 1. social urban problems - a youthful population; potentially high birth rates, poverty, spread of diseases, over-crowded schools, housing, ethnic conflict 2. economic urban problems - unemployment, underemployment, low wages 3. economic benefits - labour supply for employers, larger market 4. social benefits - more schools, more hospitals (than in rural areas), ethnic/cultural diversity 5. management as an impact/response to the issue. Both social and economic must be addressed, but do not expect balance. Good answers may provide a structured examination of the impacts that, in addition to positive and negative impacts, also considers how these may vary according to perspective of different groups of people. Another approach might be to consider the time or spatial scale of any impacts. Another approach might be to provide a structured examination of how impacts might vary for differing places/cities at different stages of development/different approaches to urban governance. For band D, expect some description of some social and/or economic impacts of in-migration for a named urban area. At band E, expect either more detailed explanation of some social and economic impacts (do not expect balance) or a structured examination of some variety of impacts (perspectives/scale/time) for people/places. At band F expect both of these elements. Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
1b. [10 marks] Evaluate the success of one or more strategies to control rapid city growth resulting from in-migration
Rapid urban growth is a phenomenon that is present in many parts of the world, notably NICs and low-income countries. The advantages of city growth for migration include the supply of qualified workers, attractions for investors and the resulting multiplier effect. Rapid population growth may lead to scarcity of housing, employment and access to facilities. Governments may try to limit in-migration through a variety of strategies, including quotas/work permits, the creation of new capital cities/new cities/new towns/expanded towns/greenbelts and rural development schemes. Successful strategies tend to be in cities (such as Mexico City) in which government investment or financial incentives have encouraged people to move to other areas in the country. Others have had less success, eg despite Egypt's new town programme, the growth of Cairo has not been reduced, and despite China's hukou system, rapid city growth has continued. Nevertheless, in many countries, rates of urbanization are tailing off. Good answers may recognize that in-migration is both a cause and an effect of rapid city growth, and may be seen in a positive light. It may also be seen in a negative way, and so controls are needed. Good candidates may recognize that controls can operate at a variety of scales, eg urban (limit cities to a certain size, then have new towns/cities projects), rural (keep people working in the countryside), international (control the number of overseas migrants) and national (redevelop urban areas in other parts of the country). Answers may also discuss attempts to balance/manage city growth. NB. Do not accept responses that look at the effects of rapid city growth or those that look at strategies to deal with rapid city growth. At band D, expect a description of one or more strategies to control growth from rapid in-migration. At band E, expect either a more detailed explanation of strategies to control in-migration, or a structured evaluation of the success of strategies to control rapid city growth. For band F, expect both of these elements. Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
The maps show the growth of Lagos, a megacity in Nigeria, from 1984 to 2013. Using map evidence, identify one factor that has limited the expansion of Lagos towards the west. [1 mark]
River
What were the consequences to Romania's (and other countries with a similar history) idealism of systematisation?
Romania's idealism of a future based on high-rise blocks of flats was widely spread throughout the world and it was partly a result of a world-wide generation of architects and urban planners inspired by the idea of an apartment block where "good life" is enjoyed. That was at the time the international pattern for the "new urban persona". The problem in Romania was, however, the intensity of this model. As it was apparent from other countries that have tried the same, the long-term benefits of these developments to the social life were to say the least questionable in Romania. Many other cities that built similar "ideal" social housing projects ended up tearing them down or even blowing them up in later years: https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/watch-glasgows-red-road-tower-6614277
How do the land use models for HIC and LIC cities differ and how are they similar?
Similarities: 1. Both have a central business district (CBD) in the centre. 2. Land values increase towards the centre, which is why you have the CBD in the center. 3. Both show socio-economic segregation. 4. Higher-class people get more desirable locations. Differences: 5. Pattern of residential use is reversed in LIC's compared to HIC's (The residential pattern shows lower income, smaller housing towards the edge and better quality housing towards the centre, because there are no transition zones = factories/industries that caused them to relocate, instead there are colonial regions in the CBD, which is why the higher-class tend to live there). 6. LIC's are industrialising now, so they don't have transition zones and their industries are on the outside of cities, lower-income groups live near to them as manufacturing is a source of income and they don't have the economic choice to live anywhere else.
Growth Processes in cities:
Spontaneous vs Planned
What is a Hoyt model?
The Hoyt model considers the effect of transport routes, resulting in a non-concentric pattern, with some sectors radiating away from the CBD, because they have a a big impact on land value & uses. Manufacturing is aligned to transport routes and all this also contributes to the socio-economic segregation that is found in cities (lower-class being closer to factories/industries and higher-class furthest away from the nodal CBD, because they have more economic choice).
What is the study of the shape and appearance of urban land use called?
Urban Morphology
What does "urban quality of life" refer to?
Urban Quality of Life is the general well-being of individuals and groups of people living in cities.
2d. [10 marks] Examine recent land use changes in the central and/or inner areas of one or more cities.
Urban land use changes may include changes to the CBD, economic activity changes including central brownfield sites, and housing in inner-city areas. Also, responses may look at transport, retail and entertainment developments and infrastructure changes. Good answers may examine connections between different land use changes, eg new housing supporting workers for revitalised CBD. Another approach might be to examine land use changes on different spatial or temporal scales, or to make a comparative examination of different places. Another approach might be to examine the causes and/or consequences of change, eg government, business or civil society. At band D, expect a description of two appropriate land use changes in one or more named cities. At band E, expect either a more detailed explanation of appropriate urban land use changes in one or more named cities or a structured examination of the topic. At band F, expect both of these elements. Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
15c. [4 marks] Explain how human activity in cities may result in an urban heat island effect.
Urban temperatures are higher than surrounding areas [1 mark]. Further development of this definition, or applied use of an example, could merit another [1 mark], for example, mentions daily or annual variations in strength or has vertical and lateral components. Award up to [3 marks] for explaining how human activities (domestic cooling/heating, construction, transportation, industries, changes to nature of surfaces/albedo) help cause it.
Industrialisation leads to
Urbanisation
What increased in terms of housing in Bucharest and how?
Vacant land, after the fall of the communist regime, as many people did not know what to do with the new changes in ownership, etc.
Case Study 2): BedZED a sustainable housing project in South London: Describe and explain 3 environmentally sustainable features.
a) The 99 homes and 1,405 square meters of workspace have a number of features, including 777m2of solar panels; south-facing houses that are triple-glazed and have high thermal insulation; building materials selected from renewable or resilient materials within 35 miles of the site, to minimize energy required for transportation (their "green transport strategy"); and a location close to a tram line, a train line and bus station. b) In terms of energy-use the BedZED inhabitants have reduced their carbon emissions by about 56% through a lot of insulation. c) Water use has been reduced by about 50% through dual flush-toilets and low-flow taps → greywater system. d) They have great natural lighting, so rarely use electrical lighting. e) Wind power ventilation and plants on the roofs are great for biodiversity, even though it's a really dense development nearly home has a garden.
brownfield site
brownfield site (or simply a brownfield) is land previously used for industrial purposes or some commercial uses. The land may be contaminated by low concentrations of hazardous waste or pollution, and has the potential to be reused once it is cleaned up ("decommissioned").
Amenities =
facilities which improve the quality of the urban environment and quality of life (ie. Parks and playgrounds).
Spontaneous urban growth =
growth which is largely stimulated by land value and other economic forces, with limited regulation or control = goes back to bid-rent theory = more market-driven growth & not governmentally planned.
Informal settlements based on the UN Habitat Programme:
i) residential areas where a group of housing units has been constructed on land to which the occupants have no legal claim, or which they occupy illegally; ii) unplanned settlements and areas where housing is not in compliance with current planning and building regulations (unauthorized housing).
Informal residential areas are usually located in areas of
low land value next to areas of disamenity and often dangerous and unregulated living conditions eg. along busy transport lines, next to polluted bodies of water, on rooftops, etc.
Informal economy
non registered, non-regulated activities within an economy, non-taxed
Sphere of influence can also be applied to
shops, hospitals, etc.
Urban Sprawl
the unplanned and uncontrolled spreading of cities (urban areas) into surrounding regions outwards, usually in the form of suburbs, and developing over fertile agricultural land.
vertical zoning
vertical zoning is the name given to a building that is use for one function on one floor and another function on another floor, which is very common in urban areas. For example, there may be retailing on the ground floor and offices or flats/apartments on the upper floors.
8a. [4 marks] The photograph shows part of the informal sector of the economy in King William's Town, South Africa. Using photographic evidence, outline two characteristics of the informal sector of the economy in King William's Town.
For each case, award [1] for identifying a characteristic and [1] for development of the point. For example: 1. it is located on the side of a road/close to a bus park [1] - the best locations to locate are close to highly accessible areas such as bus parks/stations [1] 2. the people are selling goods on the side of the road [1] because they cannot afford to own/rent a shop/premises [1] 3. it is small-scale [1] - they can only bring what they can carry so the amount of goods is limited [1] 4. they appear to be mainly selling food/fruit/vegetables [1] - they can only afford to buy and re-sell cheap goods/some may grow the food on their own land-holdings [1]. Example: It is located on the side of a road/close to a bus park - the best locations to locate are close to highly accessible areas such as bus parks/stations. The people are selling goods on the side of the road because they cannot afford to own/rent a shop/premises. It is small-scale - they can only bring what they can carry so the amount of goods is limited. They appear to be mainly selling food/fruit/vegetables - they can only afford to buy and re-sell cheap goods/some may grow the food on their own land-holdings.
3d. [10 marks] To what extent has one named housing management strategy been successful in creating a more sustainable city?
Housing management strategies include the provision of affordable and acceptable housing to all population groups, especially poorer ones. It includes shanty towns, apartments, private and public rented accommodation, as well assustainable schemes such as Masdar City, BedZed, Curitiba. Features of housing management strategies include provision of loans, mortgages, self-help schemes, recycling, energy reduction, re-use of resources, etc. Sustainable cities are those that encourage reduction in energy use, reduction in inputs, recycling and re-use of waste products, as well as pollution management strategies and traffic management strategies. Other strategies may include sustainable economic and social strategies. Good answers are likely to consider the advantages of housing management strategies that address affordability, quality (acceptability), and sustainability (water and energy recycling and re-use, for example). They may also consider the disadvantages (cost to residents and governments). They may also consider the spatial limitations (the strategy may be in one neighbourhood only, not the whole city), or other elements of sustainability eg, issues with pollution, in-migration and employment. Answers may use a single case study or a range of strategies in one city. Good answers may recognize the limitations of achieving a sustainable city. At band D, candidates should describe the characteristics of one housing management strategy. At band E, expect either a more detailed explanation of one housing management strategy or an evaluation linked to sustainability. At band F, expect both. Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
Planned urban growth =
an integrated approach to urban growth that considers the environmental, social and economic consequences of urban growth. Directed by governments = Deliberate in nature (eg. communist redevelopment projects in Bucharest, garden cities).
Over time neighbourhoods may change from a concentration of one migrant population to
another.
What is Ceaușima?
Ceaușima is a vernacular word construction in Romanian sarcastically comparing the policies of former Communist leader Nicolae Ceaușescu to the nuclear attack on Hiroshima. - This portmanteau term was coined in the 1980s to describe the huge urban areas of Bucharest that Ceaușescu ordered torn down during the final few years of his tenure. A terrible earthquake in 1977 was used as an excuse for Ceaușescu's big project in Piata Unirii & further redevelopment. - Significant portions of the historic center of Bucharest were demolished to accommodate standardized apartment blocks and government buildings, including the grandiose Centrul Civic and the House of the Republic palace. Ceaușescu's vision was to transform villages into cities, so his government started demolishing the traditional houses. - The figures vary, but during the communist regime it is believed that 10,000 buildings were destroyed in Bucharest. And 50,000 people were moved into communist buildings. - The People's Palace is the 2nd largest administrative building in the world and it alone caused the removal of an entire neighbourhood. - People lost their homes, had very little notice, and moved into crammed (informal) housing. Families were evacuated from their homes with only one or two days notice.
Functions of Urban Areas (cities):
Cities have a wide range of functions. Some functions are more dominant than others some cities. 1. Administrative & Political (government) Eg. Putrajaya (Malaysia), Canberra (Australia), Brasilia (Brazil) are all administrative, as they are purpose-built capital cities (specifically built to be capital cities, especially Brasilia to create new business districts and move urbanisation inland, as historically most of the country's activity was restricted to the coastlines during colonisation (exploitation of raw materials). 2. Services - education (universities), medical services (hospitals), etc. 3. Commercial - finance, retailing, tourism, etc. Eg. London and NY, as they are homes to major stock markets and banks (financial). 4. Manufacturing Industry - Eg. Detroit (historically - cars), Osaka (cars and electronics), Dhaka in Bangladesh (a lot of industrial growth in textiles). 5. Residential - Eg. Las Vegas tourism is dominant, but there is also a large of residential function of the city.
What is the bid-rent theory?
The bid rent theory is a geographical economic theory that refers to how the price and demand for real estate changes as the distance from the central business district (CBD) increases. It states that different land users will compete with one another for land close to the city centre.
What flows west to east through London?
The Thames (ends up in the North Sea = strip of water between England & France)>
Urban stress refers to
negative characteristics that may be found in cities and contribute to physical and social stress which diminish quality of life.
Chronic Stresses
ongoing situations which causing ongoing stress for people living in cities (ie traffic congestion, photochemical smog)
Low-income housing is often next to old industrial zones, aka.
transition zones.
Urban sprawl is often characterised as
unplanned but it usually just poorly planned and driven by profits from property development
Redevelopment may take place on:
"brownfield sites".
11a. [4 marks] With reference to urban environments, describe: (i) one type of centrifugal movement;
(i) Centrifugal movements include suburbanization, counter-urbanization and urban sprawl [1] and the description should convey that this is an outward movement of people [1].
5a. [4 marks] The graph shows rural and urban population as a proportion of total population for different regions from 1950 to 2050. (i) Identify the region with the highest proportion of people living in urban areas in 2014.
(i) North America [1]
9a. [4 marks] (i) Define the term suburbanization. (ii) Briefly outline two possible population changes in an urban area where suburbanization is occurring.
(i) Suburbanization is the outward growth of towns or cities [1] that leads to former villages or rural areas becoming urban [1], or the movement of people to the rural-urban fringe [1]. (ii) Award [1] for each outlined population change (either to suburban or other affected area): 1. more people arrive in suburbs (newer housing) 2. fewer people might be left in city centre 3. lower density left in city centre 4. older people in particular may move to (quieter) suburbs 5. families in particular may move to (spacious) suburbs. There are many other possibilities that can be credited.
15b. [4 marks] (i) Define the term urban ecological footprint. (ii) Explain how one of the benefits named on the diagram (excluding "Other") would reduce the city's ecological footprint.
(i) The theoretical measurement of the amount of land and water [1 mark] a population requires to produce the resources it consumes and to absorb its waste [1 mark] (under prevailing technology). (ii) For example, energy savings: award [1 mark] for explaining how trees might lead to energy savings (due to reduced need for air conditioning in summer) and [1 mark] for relating this to a reduction in the resources/land area required to meet the lower energy needs.
14a. [4 marks] The two maps show millionaire cities (cities with at least 1 million inhabitants) in 1950 and 2010. (i) Define the term urbanization. (ii) Describe the changes in the distribution of millionaire cities as shown on the maps.
(i) Urbanization is the increasing percentage/proportion of a country's population living in towns and cities. Accept alternative phrasing. Do not accept rural-urban migration. (ii) Award [1 mark] each for: 1. there are more millionaire cities in all continents 2. major growth along coasts 3. may identify regional clusters, eg, India, Japan 4. makes a valid north-south contrast 5. credit other valid points or attempt at quantification, eg, has risen from two to five in Australia, or uses phrasing to show very significant growth/more than doubled.
10a. [4 marks] The map shows Nazareth, an urban area in Pennsylvania, USA. The scale of the map is 1:24 000. (i) Identify the economic activities located at 760122 and 736133. (ii) State two reasons for the location of the sports stadium (Nazareth Speedway) in 7211.
(i) Water treatment plant Post office (ii) Award [1] for each of the following, up to a maximum of [2]: 1. more space available 2. cheaper land values 3. away from residential areas so less of a problem from noise 4. relatively flat land 5. access by highway.
11a. [4 marks] With reference to urban environments, describe: (ii) one type of centripetal movement.
(ii) Centripetal movements include rural-urban migration, gentrification, re-urbanization/urban renewal [1] and the description should convey that this is an inward movement of people [1].
What are urban microclimates?
1) A microclimate is defined as any area where the climate differs from the surrounding area. 2) Microclimates occur naturally and can be quite small. They can also be quite large. 3) For instance, a city creates its own climatic patterns, and the larger the urban area, the more significant these will be. 4) The climate of a city is different than the climate of the surrounding rural area. A microclimate can be at the scale of a city. 5) Within a city's overall microclimate there will be many smaller microclimate climates. For instance a grassy park has a different climate than a district full of concrete and large buildings.
Albedo?
1) Different materials and colour reflect sunlight (shortwave radiation) better than others. 2) If a surface reflects most of the sunlight that strikes it, the surface does not heat up very much. 3) If a surface absorbs most of the sunlight that strikes it, the surface heats up. The heated surface, will radiate the heat back into the atmosphere (heat is long wave radiation). 4) Albedo refers to the relative reflectivity of surface to light. A surface with a high albedo reflects more sunlight than a surface with a low albedo. 5) Urban surfaces vary greatly in terms of albedo. These variations in albedo mean that some urban surface absorb much of the sun's light (short wave radiation), making these surfaces heat up. 6) The surfaces then radiate this heat (long wave radiation) back into the surrounding urban atmosphere. The yellow arrows indicate light in the diagram below:
Factors to contributing to high levels of photochemical smog Mexico City:
1) Mexico city is surrounded by mountain which reduce air circulation, holding the smog over the city 2) Mexico is one the world's largest cities and one of the most densely populated. The mountains limit the spread of the city and push the population density higher. 3) Mexico is an industrialising country and Mexico City is a magnet for rural to urban migration, pushing up population and density. 4) Industrialisation also means increasing wealth, resulting in increased car ownership. Public transport included many older diesel buses until recently. Many cars are Mexico City are older (more affordable) with poorer emission controls. 5) Like most industrialising countries, Mexico has been very dependent on fossil fuels to drive its economic growth 6) The climate is clear and dry in Mexico City for most of the year. This means plenty of sunlight to acts as a catalyst in the formation of photochemical smog. 7) Dry clear weather is a result of high air pressure over the city. This cool sinking air over the city, traps warm air for emissions creating an inversion holding the slog over the city (look at the picture).
Causes of the Urban Heat Island
1) Surfaces in urban areas tend to have lower albedos than surfaces in rural areas. 2) Surfaces in central urban areas also tend to have lower albedo than surfaces in suburban areas. 3) This means that not only are cities warmer than surrounding rural areas, the center of cities are also warmer than areas further from the center of the city 4) Vehicles motors, furnaces, air conditioning units, refrigeration compressors, generators... all release heat into the environment 5) Inefficient building leak heat 6) Buildings block air flow and reduce average wind speeds so the heat is not dispersed as quickly. 7) The gases produced by burning fossils creates smog which acts to trap heat, similar to the greenhouse effect. 8) Lack of water on surfaces means less energy is absorb in evaporation 9) All of the causes of the urban heat island are greater in intensity towards the center of the city, resulting in heat gradient shown in the diagram on the previous page.
Evaluation of Solutions to Urban Air Pollution in Mexico City:
1) Switch to unleaded gas, even though Mexico was rather late in implementing this measure of cleaner fuel, it also generally requires more processing & is more expensive. However, also benefits human health since the lead compounds are taken out of the fuel (can not damage lungs = cause respiratory problems). 2) Depending on the last digit of your license plate there were certain days where you're not allowed to be driving = knocks down the number of cars on the street by 1/2. However, rich people were able to avoid the fines by buying a second cheaper car. = Because it turned out to be a preverse incentive it caused the government to modify the rule (if you bought a new/modern, more efficient car in burning fuel) you were allowed to drive it in the city. Initially, this new measure caused people to buy older, inefficient vehicles and now it was an incentive for buying modern, efficient cars. 3) Mandatory emissions testing in Mexico = x2 a year. Expensive for ppl to get testing done. If you don't pass you have to get it again, which faces out older, more polluting cars on the road. However, buying new cars burn fuel more efficiently, but on another note (resource nexus) it takes a lot of energy to build a car and buying more new cars = more energy = more production = more resource extraction, etc. = inefficient in other ways. 4) UNAM Botanica Gardens in Mexico City plants rooftop gardens as a pilot-scheme way to tackle urban air pollution, however it is only small-scale still. Nevertheless, plants capture CO2 & release O via photosynthesis, which is an effective, natural way to filter the air, cool the city, control temp. Succulent plants are used most commonly for this, because they need less water & maintenance = very efficient.
How are urban microclimates a form of urban stress:
1) Urban heat islands exaggerate the health effects of heat waves. 2) Many many people die during heat waves globally every year and most of the world's population live in cities. 3) Urban heat islands create a great need for air conditioning which is expensive for urban dwellers 4) Outdoor recreational activities can be restricted with greater heat 5) Extreme winds can be dangerous 6) Reduced air circulation may trap polluted air in pockets around the city, impacting health.
What are the challenges and opportunities of the world's population becoming more urban than rural over time?
1. + growing middle-class 2. + higher QoL 3. + More trade on coastal regions = linking the country's economy to the global economy 4. + Lower fertility rate 5. + Development of infrastructure 6. + Shorter supply chains = better for circular economy 7. - housing scarcity = some megacities such as Mumbai have faced challenges of housing and hence the creation of many Shanty towns due to around 1000 migrants moving to the cities a day. 8. - increase of homelessness, poverty, spread of diseases, etc. 9. - increase in conflicts, because cities are melting pots of concentrated populations and this can be beneficial, but also harmful. 10. - industrialisation = consumption per person goes up 11. - food shortages = countries have a problem with maintaining the agricultural sector and food supply. 12. - rural depopulation = brain drain (losing most able people).
SMART CITY?
1. A "Smart City" is one where people are empowered by technology to lead meaningful and fulfilled lives. Using the power of networks, data and technology, to improve living, create economic opportunity and build a closer community. 2. Smart Cities aim to maximize the benefit of the city's infrastructure
Peak Land Value Intersection (PLVI)
1. A peak land value intersection is the region within a settlement with the greatest land value and commerce. 2. As such, it is usually located in the central business district (CBD) of a town or city, and has the greatest density of transport links such as roads and rail, making it a nodal point with high accessibility and allowing second PLVI's to arise in more developed countries, where dominant land use outside of the city center is residential use, but not only and some commerce is needed.
Where are future projections of emerging economic regions suggested to go?
1. Africa, as that shift of rapid population and economic growth will move to other countries with more potential. 2. In the long-run as Asia becomes more industrialized and as it will soon shift to post-industrialisation the industrialisation will move to Africa, and we can already see that countries, such as China are creating development projects in regions in Africa to use as an area for resources and labour as the QoL is and wage in China is increasing.
What is an eco city?
1. An eco-city design is based on the principles of living within the means of the environment, an ecologically healthy city. 2. The term sustainable city design is often also used to describe cities designed to live with the means of the environment. 3. It is important to note that both of these these concept also consider how economically and socially sustainable any designs or management programs are.
What is the difference between an urban ecological footprint and a normal ecological footprint?
1. An urban "ecological footprint" is simply the total amount of the earth's surface needed to support a given city's level of consumption and absorb its waste products. 2. A normal ecological footprint, as explained earlier compares the total resources people consume with the land and water area that is needed to replace those resources.
What is the Urban Heat Island Effect and what causes it?
1. An urban heat island (UHI) is a metropolitan area which is significantly warmer than its surroundings (rural areas). 2. The main causes are changes in the land surface by urban development along with waste heat generated by energy use. 3. As population centers grow, they tend to change greater areas of land (urbanisation) which then undergo a corresponding increase in average temperature. 4. Heat islands form as natural habitats (lands) are replaced by asphalt and concrete for roads, buildings, and other structures necessary to accommodate growing populations (due to urbanisation). These surfaces absorb—rather than reflect the sun's heat (which means they have a low albedo), causing temperatures to rise. 5. Displacing trees and vegetation minimizes the natural cooling effects of shading and evaporation of water from soil and leaves (evapotranspiration). Tall buildings and narrow streets can heat air trapped between them and reduce air flow. 6. Waste heat from vehicles, factories, and air conditioners may add warmth to their surroundings, further causing the heat island effect. 7. Urban-rural temperature differences are often largest during calm, clear evenings. This is because rural areas cool off faster at night than cities, which store much of the heat absorbed in roads, buildings, and other structures (due to these surfaces having a high albedo).
Case Study on Resilience: Q's about Medellin - What other benefits did these innovations bring to Medellin?
1. Cable cars were built to carry commuters to and from the hillsides, greatly reducing travel times and increasing personal safety, income & QoL. 2. Police security is focused along the gondola lines. 3. Escalators systems were built through the hillside. Greatly reducing travels times. 4. Security cameras and police along the escalators systems. 5. Public services and recreation spaces were added in the neighbourhood, especially along the cable car and elevator routes.
Transport innovations in Medellin's outlying districts:
1. Cable cars were built to carry commuters to and from the hillsides, greatly reducing travel times and increasing personal safety. 2. Police security is focused along the gondola lines. 3. Escalators systems were built through the hillside. Greatly reducing travels times. 4. Security cameras and police along the escalators systems. 5. Public services and recreation spaces were added in the neighbourhood, especially along the cable car and elevator routes.
Case Study 3): "The Sustainable City Project" in Dubai: Describe and explain 5 environmentally sustainable features (pick 5 that you found really interesting or unique that do not overlap with BedZED).
1. Dubai has a high-pressure system, as it is closer to the equator and hence hotter (makes it ideal for solar energy). The villas benefit from the shade, all of them are north-orienting, otherwise the air-conditioning would increase endlessly (would be an extreme economic burden). This in turn reduces the need for cooling houses & the paint includes UV reflective paint (high albedo reduces microclimate), which reflects a lot of heat and does not absorb it (reducing greenhouse gas emissions & microclimate). 2. The water-features include water-parks that come from greywater (water from showers, etc.), the water-parks help separate black water from greywater. The greywater is stored in the compound and used to irrigate farms and fill cooling pads, to provide fresh air in the farms inside the compound. Additionally, pyrus plants along the greywater river-schemes (water-park / filtering system) bifilter the water (uptake a lot of nutrients) and hence help in the filtering process while contributing to the greenspace. Not to mention, the trees are only 2 years old and provide a balanced amenity, where inhabitants of the compound can harvest the fruits from the trees that are planted and irrigated by treated sewage effluent. 3. Greywater treatment plant is underground = not a disamenity (no odours). 4. Nine Recycling stations for every villa → encourage circular economy. 5. The Sustainable City provides two parking spaces shaded by solar panels plus additional spaces for communal electric buggies for each villa. The maximum distance from the Solar Car Parks to the villas is 85 meters.
What problems does the urban heat island effect create?
1. Elevated temperatures from heat islands can affect a community's environment and quality of life in multiple ways. 2. For example: Increased Energy Consumption: Heat islands increase demand for air conditioning to cool buildings = increase in electricity demand & production. 3. For countries where most buildings have air conditioning, such as the United States, had the highest increase in electricity demand, which had knock-on cost impacts (as increased demand contributes to higher electricity expenses). 4. During extreme heat events, which are exacerbated by heat islands, the increased demand for air conditioning can overload systems and require a utility to institute controlled, rolling brownouts or blackouts to avoid power outages. 5. Elevated Emissions of Air Pollutants and Greenhouse Gases: As described above, heat islands raise demand for electricity in summer. 6. Companies that supply electricity typically rely on fossil fuel power plants to meet much of this demand, which in turn leads to an increase in air pollutant and greenhouse gas emissions. 7. These pollutants are harmful to human health and also contribute to complex air quality problems such as the formation of ground-level ozone (smog), fine particulate matter, and acid rain. 8. Increased use of fossil-fuel-powered plants also increases emissions of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, which contribute to global climate change. Compromised Human Health and Comfort 9. Heat islands contribute to higher daytime temperatures, reduced nighttime cooling, and higher air-pollution levels. These, in turn, contribute to heat-related deaths and heat-related illnesses such as general discomfort, respiratory difficulties, heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and non-fatal heat stroke. 10. Sensitive (vulnerable) populations, such as children, older adults, and those with existing health conditions, are particularly at risk during heat waves caused by urban heat islands (abnormally hot & humid weather conditions).
GEOPOLITICAL RISK:
1. Geopolitical risk is commonly defined as the risk of one country's foreign policy influencing or upsetting domestic political and social policy in another country or region, but its scope is much wider. 2. Geopolitical concerns include military conflicts, civil wars, terrorist's attacks, riots, sanctions etc. (some also mention epidemics, cyber attacks, country defaults etc.)
How do the pattern of residential land use generally compare between HIC's & LIC's (give reasons):
1. HIC cities grew up around factories built on the edges of towns (mostly in the 18800's). 2. Low quality housing was built to house the migrants from the rural areas. 3. As the city grew outwards the low quality housing ended up becoming quite central - "inner city housing" 4. Many cities in LIC's are going through rapid urbanization due to industrialization today. 5. Rapid urbanization due to industrialization (in the post WW2 era). 6. Rural to urban migrants are often located in squatter settlements (informal housing) on the edges of cities. 7. Factories (disamenities) are often found on the edges of these cities. 8. Lower land value on the edge of cities means less chance of squatters being relocated. 9. The central parts of LEDC cities tend to have higher quality housing, often near old colonial districts. 10. Limited transport infrastructure may make the central areas more attractive for higher quality housing. 11. Central locations are also more distant from the factories.
Hierarchy of settlements
1. Hierarchy of Settlements is a way of arranging settlements into a hierarchy based upon their population, size & number of settlements and services. 2. Settlements with larger populations that provide more and diverse services are higher up the urban hierarchy. 3. Settlements with smaller populations and a limited number and type of services are further down the urban hierarchy. 4. Primate city, megacity or capital (top of the pyramid). 5. large cities or conurbations 6. large towns 7. small towns 8. villages 9. hamlets 10. isolated houses or farms (bottom of the pyramid).
What are higher order goods and services?
1. Higher order goods and services are not needed so often and are relatively expensive. 2. The high cost makes it worth for people to travel to obtain the service or good, so these good and services have a higher range. 2. People will want to comparison shop before buying higher order goods (comparison goods) in order to save money. 3. Higher order goods and services need a larger threshold population to support them.
Case Study 1): London's Ecological Footprint and measures to reduce the footprint: If you were in charge of London over the next twenty years, what three things would you set as your key priorities? Give reasons for your choices.
1. If I were in charge of London over the next twenty years my first key priority would be to show people that if London's ecology is to be sustainable, it must change from a linear (waste-producing) use of resources to a circular (recycling) pattern, as well as a circular economy. This is because London's population is growing and with it is the demand for raw materials, however the supply of these is limited and finite, which has a major impact on the environment and increases CO2 emissions further, when it is already at such a crucial height. → improving the QoL and reducing money in the long-run. 2. I would also like to expand the green-spaces as recreational spaces for inhabitants, as these have proven to be a successful strategy in combating air pollution, as well as protecting watersheds and absorbing carbon dioxide. 3. I would also like to increase the greywater scheme, as for example sewage works could become fertiliser factories to enrich farmland. Toxic liquid wastes could then be kept separate from valuable household garbage, but the non-toxic effluent could be used to irrigate farmland or rooftop gardens (to encourage gardening in high-density building and increase albedo to reduce microclimate effects in the city).
Advantages of the informal economic sector
1. In LIC cities it provides it is more likely to provide opportunities to new and unskilled workers who have migrated from rural areas 2. People with some income are less of a burden to the government 3. Provide cheaper goods and services. Important in cities with high levels of poverty. 4. May allows entrepreneurs to develop faster than a regulated system 5. An important transitional stage in the development of cities. 6. Smaller scale and of less value in HIC cities. 7. Governments in HIC are less tolerant of informal sector activities 8. May effective use waste material (circular economy).
What are some ways to reduce the urban heat island?
1. Increase shade around buildings: Planting trees and other vegetation lowers surface and air temperatures by providing shade and cooling through evapotranspiration. (They also directly shade houses and can decrease the need for air conditioning, making homes/buildings more comfortable and reducing energy costs + protect human health by improving air quality, by providing cooling shade for outdoor activities, and reducing exposure to harmful UV radiation). 2. Install green roofs: A green roof, or rooftop garden, is a garden grown on a rooftop. 3. Green roofs provide shade and remove heat from the air through evapotranspiration, reducing temperatures of the roof surface and the surrounding air. 4. Green roofs absorb heat and act as insulators for buildings, reducing energy needed to provide cooling and heating (which decreases energy costs), improving indoor comfort, and lowering heat stress associated with heat waves. 5. Install cool roofs: Cool (or reflective) roofs help to reflect sunlight and heat away from buildings, reducing roof temperatures. This allows for buildings to stay cooler, reducing the amount of air conditioning needed during hot days. (According to a study conducted in California, cool roofs can provide annual energy savings of almost 50 cents per square foot. Such energy savings can also result in better air quality in your community and fewer greenhouse gases emitted to the atmosphere.)
Some causes of traffic congestion:
1. Rapid urbanization 2. Inefficient road network in terms vertices and nodes and connectivity 3. Lack of Funding available to traffic management 4. Rapid growth of car ownership.....coupled with inadequate expansion of road networks 5. Lack of control of access points to road, cars entering road slow down the traffic already on the road 6. Lack of driver education and / or lack road rules 7. Poor signage / traffic lights 8. Lack of traffic enforcement 9. Lack of investment in public transport, cycling, pedestrian, routes
What are some characteristics of the Hierarchy of Settlements?
1. Larger settlements are at the top of the hierarchy and these have a greater sphere of influence than settlements at the bottom of the hierarchy. 2. This means that the influence of larger settlements extends further out into surrounding areas. 3. The settlement is more urban than rural, has a larger population, a greater sphere of influence and is less frequent in a country compared to the types of settlements found at the bottom of this pyramid.
Urban System Growth - Case study: Singapore - Water Infrastructure Improvements - Singapore's Four National Taps
1. Local Catchment has increased from 3 to 17 reservoirs Imported Water accounts for more about ½ of Singapore's water supply 2. NEWater involves recycling waste water directly back to drinking water and this started about 15 years ago. A second NEWater plant was recently completed 3. Desalinated Water is the most recent addition as when added when efficiency and fuel prices mad it affordable about 9 years ago. 4. Singapore aims to meet 85% of its need from NEWater and Desalinisation by 2060. They also aim to reduce per capita usage in order to reduce pressure on water infrastructure.
Impacts of traffic congestion:
1. Loss of productivity, because a labour force sitting in traffic is not contributing to the economy and sitting in traffic drains physical and mental energy before working, which is also a public health impact. 2. Public health impacts also amplify from air pollution - ozone, particulates, etc. = inactivity because of heart disease, circulation, muscular, skeletal. 3. Road accidents 4. Cost to government to treat related health issues 5. Road maintenance cost. 6. Policing and emergency services 7. Inefficient use of fuel 8. Makes the city unattractive to outside investment 9. Companies may decide to relocate to other cities
What are lower order goods and services?
1. Low order goods and services are those that are used often, for example a small general store which sells convenience goods or a barber shop or a pharmacy. 2. The good/services are less expensive and therefore people are less less likely spend time and money to travel to consume these goods and services, have a smaller range.
How was Medellin a city full of violence?
1. Medellin is the second largest city in Colombia and was had the highest violent crime rate in the world, with murder reaching 370/100,000 people per year in 1990. 2. The highest crime rates were found in deprived neighbourhoods that grew informally on the hillsides of the valley that contains Medellin. 3. The neighbourhoods were quite isolated from the rest of the city due to poor transport. 4. As a result of the districts growing informally on step hillside, an effective road system was never developed and people lived in very high densities and in relative isolation from the rest of city. 5. An ongoing civil war and very powerful drug cartels contributed to high levels of crime in these very poor neighbourhoods. Pablo Escobar is from one of these neighbourhoods.
What is an example of a membership in an organisation for cities to try to increase its resiliency?
1. Membership in organisations like the Global Parliament of Mayors is an example of a city working to increase its resiliency. 2. By sharing experiences and strategies, cities can help each other become more resilient in the face of the common challenges faced by cities around the world.... like covid-19.
What might explain racial segregation by neighbourhoods in major cities like London? Possible Reasons for Racial / Ethnic Segregation in Cities:
1. Migrants population may be able to assimilate at an easier rate in neighbourhoods where language and culture is familiar 2. Second and subsequent generation migrants are often less segregated in ethnic neighbourhoods 3. First generation migrants may have limited wealth and be drawn to areas with lower land values 4. Racism 5. Segregated neighborhoods may be reinforced by the practice of "steering" by real estate agents. This occurs when a real estate agent makes assumptions about where their client might like to live based on the color of their skin 6. Housing discrimination may occur when landlords lie about the availability of housing based on the race of the applicant, or give different terms and conditions to the housing based on race
Major effects of counter-urbanization include:
1. Most notably, there is a change in land use associated with counter-urbanization. 2. Migration of wealthy people can lead to renewal of declining villages 3. Increase in housing prices 4. High population density 5. Population density increases with the construction of houses 6. High land values (hard to find affordable housing) 7. Public transport such as trains become more crowded 8. Localized businesses such as small shops will experience an increase in sales to stay profitable 9. Increase in traffic leads to air pollution and congestion 10. Services such as schools can be maintained with an increase in children 11. Housing and health services become difficult to supply to an increasing population
Counter-urbanisation
1. Movement of people and activities (eg. businesses) from the city to rural areas and smaller settlements beyond the city 2. Often led to the creation of satellite towns
Case Study 3): "The Sustainable City Project" in Dubai: Describe and explain 2 economically sustainable features.
1. Rental revenue outside the city, promised all residents of the city that they will pay zero service fees or maintenance fees (try to pay for these costs through rental revenues from the public plaza) = encourages economic and social sustainability. 2. Provided charging stations and subsidy to villa owners who live in the SC to buy an electric vehicle, part of the sales contract (the subsidy to buy an electrical car).
Case Study 3): "The Sustainable City Project" in Dubai: Evaluate the overall sustainability of the project.
1. Not only is the Sustainable City one of the few "green" spots in Dubai, the planning that has made the community "sustainable" is also what has engendered a way of life not often seen in Dubai. Solar panels cover the community's parking lots and sit atop each of the villas and a lake of recycled water irrigates the SC's 10,000 trees and urban farming projects. These innovations drastically reduce the SC's energy consumption by 40-50 percent and water consumption by 40 percent compared to conventional villas. 2. Residents living in the SC have an ecological footprint of 3.1 metric tons vs. global average of 7 metric tons per person per year. 3. Apart from the issues of exclusivity and sprawl, the nature of gated communities, especially in the context of Dubai, is to create a space of like-minded lifestyle and consumption. For example, the Sustainable City hosts a farmers market, as well as an "Origin" market, "a bi-monthly, al fresco, artisanal experience at The Sustainable City plaza which brings together a community of extraordinary designers, entrepreneurs and artisans." So through the Origin market, and the other consumption opportunities, the SC becomes an island of "green" consumption. However, green is put in quotes, considering that any food produced in Dubai is dependent on one of the most polluting water extraction projects in the world, desalination. The Sustainable City of Dubai is a paradox in itself, dependent as it is on desalinated water, it could never be sustainable. Ultimately, the Sustainable City fits too neatly into the general pattern of island making in Dubai to represent anything more than an isolated community of experience, consumption, and lifestyle. An island of recycled desalinated water does not pose a challenge to the broader issues of consumption in resource deprived Dubai, which depends on the continuous construction of mega-developments and luxury branding to survive. 4. It's an example of urban sprawl. = creates more urban stresses.
Location of the informal economic sector in cities:
1. Often impermanent locations that are set up and removed regularly. 2. Avoid authorities 3. Locations with high volumes of people (busy sidewalks, transport hubs) 4. Often in locations where land values are low and occupying the space may even be at no cost (next to industrial sites, transport lines) 5. Often in people's homes (cottage industries) 6. More concentrated in poorer neighbourhoods as informal goods and services are often cheaper
Factors Affecting Urban Poverty and location of areas of deprivation:
1. Physical characteristics of the site and immediate environments: High status housing tend to evolve at environmentally favourable locations, e.g. waterfront, appealing view. Near areas of amenities. Shanties found near less desirable areas, polluted river banks, marshes, etc. near areas of disamenities. Also found in more challenging physical locations such as steep or unstable slopes, flood plains... 2. Competition for location and space: Housing market situation, accessibility (transport, public services) and pattern of land value. Levels of income: determines ability to bid for choice locations. (bid-rent theory) 3. Historical factors: Historical process of growth (usually outwards) and decay (inner) in the city structure. Especially applicable to cities with long history of urbanisation. 4. Institutional factors: Policies and legislation which determines access to affordable housing, subsidy, mortgage etc. Local government can influence the quality of existing housing through renewal and upgrading plans.
What would characteristics of land use model for post colonial cities be?
1. Ports at their centre, because they weren't built for manufacturing but for exploiting raw material and shipping it off. 2. Very little old industrial land and the newer industrial areas are on the "outside" of the city, as the centres are at the ports and the country wants to develop by connecting transport routes within the country for example. 3. An old government zone near the port area 4. Older "high class" near the centre 5. Peripheral squatter zones 6. "Western" commercial zones
Case Study on Resilience: Q's about Medellin - How do the transport innovations lead to increased resilience by encouraging social cohesion?
1. Problem: Medellín had recorded thousands of homicides per year and was known as one of the most dangerous cities in the world. 2. Many of these deaths occurred in the disconnected favelas, or slums, where the drug cartels made their presence most felt. 3. Inclusion & Social Cohesion: Creating infrastructure that supports and includes all citizens—whether in regard to financing, housing, education, public space, or otherwise. 4. Approach: Over the last 25 years, Medellín has blossomed into a model of inclusion by establishing an extensive public transportation system. 5. That system includes a gondola network connecting the city center to outlying, and less affluent, areas in the hillsides. These gondolas, along with an escalator system, have dramatically reduced the travel burden for the city's poorer and more mountainous areas.
Traffic congestion is an example of urban stress. Other examples of urban stresses include:
1. overcrowding and noise, 2. depletion of greenspace, 3. waste overburden, 4. poor quality housing, 5. social deprivation, 6. crime, 7. inequality.
How does the layout of residential areas such as Bucharest differ from North American and Western European cities?
1. Residential areas in cities built under centrally planned economies tend to be more homogenous in terms of socio-economic groups. This is a major difference from earlier models we looked at in relation to North American and Western European cities. 2. Dense apartment blocks were located in proximity of industrial districts. These districts (sectors) would also have services (education, health etc) located centrally.
Case Study 3): "The Sustainable City Project" in Dubai: Describe and explain 3 socially sustainable features.
1. Residents living in The Sustainable City also report high levels of community interaction and closeness. In 2018, the Sustainable City received the "Happiest Community" award by the Gulf Real Estate Awards. 2. The car parks are completely separated from compound = leaves a recreational space for inhabitants of the city and safety / eliminates the disamenity from a carpark.
Urban Resistance Project in Malaysia:
1. Resiliency response to increasing flood risk due to climate change 2. SMART Tunnels in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 3. Double purpose tunnel system to urban stress in the form of traffic congestions but also to deal with climatic shocks such as increasing flood risk.
What are resilient cities?
1. Resilient cities are cities that have the ability to absorb, recover and prepare for future shocks (economic, environmental, social & institutional). 2. Resilient cities promote sustainable development, well-being and inclusive growth. (OECD - Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development).
Explain the differences between land uses in terms of the bid-rent theory:
1. Retailers are willing pay the highest rent because they get the most benefit from busy and central locations. 2. Manufacturing set up in locations that were originally quite accessible. 3. Residential land uses prefer quieter locations where land is cheaper, and residential housing density generally decreases with distance from the centre of the city (Peak Land Value Intersection).
What is reurbanisation?
1. Reurbanisation refers to the movement of people back into an area that has been previously abandoned. 2. Reurbanisation is usually a government's initiative to counter the problem of inner city decline. 3. Inner-city decline usually occurs when problems such as pollution, overpopulation, inadequate housing, etc. arise.
Explain 3 strategies Rotterdam is employing to make itself more resilient to climate change:
1. Rotterdam Climate Initiative - making Rotterdam resilient to climate change and reducing the cities contribution to climate change. 2. Water plaza Benthemplein Rotterdam is an additional space for water storage, in case of floods = dual purpose. 3. Rotterdam Climate initiative aspires to reduce CO2 emissions by 50%, be a 100% climate proof by 2025 and sustainable. = address causes to mitigate risks. 4. Rotterdam has the largest port in Europe. Rotterdam is the best protected low-situated Delta city (by a number of water barriers, dunes along the coast, etc.) the world, due to the past severe floods. Most importantly, there is a vast, new resiliency project called the Maeslant Storm surge barrier, which acts as a flexible barrier to stop floods. 5. Green rooftops to store water, capture CO2 and reduce runoff water. Also act as good insulation.
How does industrialization cause rural-urban migration?
1. Rural to urban migration is caused by people moving to cities for economic opportunities and a better quality of life. 2. Economic opportunities become much more available when a country starts to industrialise.
Urban System Growth - Case study: Singapore - Sanitation Infrastructure Improvements
1. Sanitation refers to public health conditions related to clean drinking water and adequate treatment and disposal of human excreta and sewage. 2. With the advancements of the Deep Tunnel Sewerage System to optimise land space and Housing Development Board to provide improved public housing, Singaporeans had moved into their new flats with a flush toilet, which was considered a luxury. 3. One of the fundamental factors contributing to Singapore's progression is the focus on public health based on a "clean and green" strategy. 4. It took 10 years to clean up the Singapore River that was polluted from heavy boat traffic, untreated animal and human waste. 5. By the 2000s, Singapore progressed steadily with the completion of the NEWater plant. Singapore's advancement in water treatment technologies and innovative water management has turned their rivers into reservoirs for sustainable water supply. 6. By focusing on the prevention of diseases and providing clean water and sanitation, Singapore created a healthy, productive workforce ready for international business and commerce. For example, Singapore also carefully manages "standing water" to prevent mosquito borne diseases such as dengue.
Urban System Growth - Case study: Singapore - Water Infrastructure Improvements
1. Singapore has a limited amount area from which it can collect water. 2. They try to capture as much rainwater as they can and put it in reservoir. In 1965 there were 3 and today there are 17. 3. More than 2/3 of the surface in Singapore is engineered to collect rainwater and send it to reservoirs. 4. Singapore has been buying water from Malaysia for many decades. The pipes run beside the one of the two bridges that connect the countries. 5. Over time Singapore has been reducing it's dependence on Malaysian by developing the "4 National Taps"
Urban System Growth - Case study: Singapore - Waste Disposal Infrastructure Improvements
1. Singapore incinerates most solid waste that is not recycled. This reduction the volume of waste by 90% by reducing the material to ash. In land scarce Singapore this reduction of the volume of waste is of huge benefit. 2. The ash from the incinerators is being used to create a man made island, for future recreational use. Singapore produces about 2% of its electricity from the heat produced by the incinerators
What is a sphere of influence?
1. Sphere of influence is the area served by a particular settlement, where people travel to reach "higher order" settlements. 2. Bigger settlements offer a great variety or functions and services and more "higher order" services, resulting in a greater sphere of influence.
Explain 3 strategies that NYC is employing to make itself more resilient to terrorism (an example of geopolitical risk):
1. Terrorism resilience in New York City - Terrorist acts are an example of "geopolitical risks" that cities must prepare for. 3. NYPD Counterterrorism Unit - units from other cities share techniques between each other to prepare themselves for a similar shock. 4. Groups of NYPD analysts learn & research to find patterns in other cities to see how it can be adapted to NYC. 5. Use CCTV to identify high risk locations in the city. 6. The NYPD Counterterrorism Unit gives advice and hands out detailed plans to the general public in case of attacks. For instance, to have a "Go-Bag" ready at all times (includes keys, documents, bottled water, ATM cards, radio, energy bars, etc.)
Case Study on Resilience: Q's about Medellin - How did transport innovations in Medellin contribute to a lower crime rate in Medellin? How will they make the city more resilient to crime over the long run?
1. The crime rate has fallen more than 80% since the MetroCable system was built in 2004 to integrate the poorest and most violent hillside neighbourhoods into the city centre in the valley below. 2. There is a constant police presence and residents feel proud of their neighbourhood. 3. The cable car system, linked to the modern and spotless metro, moves tens of thousands of hillside residents each day, dramatically cutting commuting times to the city centre. 4. It's not just transport: education, social programmes and participatory budgets have all been improved to transform the lives of the most underprivileged residents in this city of 2.2 million. 5. The transport system has encouraged a greater police force presence, increased surveillance and being able to commute more effectively, which in turn has increased productivity and people receiving better jobs, which increases their potential income and reduces crime as finding alternative ways of income. 6. Social cohesions has also been strengthened, as even the previously most isolated people may now feel a part of society as they are more connected to their surroundings. Furthermore, they will fall less into traps and if there is a crisis people will be more likely to jump in to help each other to be resilient in face of acute shocks (to overcome them together).
Suburbanisation
1. The movement of people away from central areas in cities towards the edge of the city to the "suburbs" 2. This trend developed as cities in MIC and HIC's began to age and became crowded. People sought a quieter, less crowded life where the could afford a bigger house and a yard or garden area (the suburban dream). 3. This trend was largely made possible by the increase in car ownership allowing people to commute from the suburbs where they lived to the more central areas of cities where they may work.
Explain the regional variation in the "urban heat island effect".
1. The regional variation in the "urban heat island effect" is a contrast in temperature and general climate between urban and rural areas. 2. The heat island effect is caused by a number of factors which can influence regional variation, including: 3. Heat produced by human activities 4. Changes of energy balance: buildings have a high thermal capacity in comparison to rural areas - up to 6 times greater than agricultural land. 5. The effect on air flow: turbulence of air may be reduced overall (hinders air flow due to tall buildings blocking), although building may cause funneling effects. 6. The reduced number of open water bodies: this means less evaporation and fewer plants, therefore less transpiration. 7. The composition of atmosphere: the blanketing effect of smog, smoke or haze. The reduction in thermal energy required for evaporation and evapotranspiration: this is due to the surface characteristics of the urban buildings, rapid drainage and generally lower wind speeds. 8. The reduction of heat diffusion: this is due to changes in airflow patterns as a result of urban surface roughness.
Explain how urban structures modify radiation activity.
1. The structure of urban structures modify radiation activity because more heat-absorbing materials are used, with a lower albedo. 2. There are rougher surfaces with a great contrast, for example, tall buildings can be very exposed, while the deep streets are sheltered and shaded. → Tar on top of buildings to make them water-proof, but has a lower albedo.
What is the zone of transition in cities?
1. The zone of transition is an area of the city, which borders the central business district (CBD). 2. Although its socio-economic make up is constantly changing due to the processes of urban growth and relocation, it is characterized by high levels of migration (as poorer people move into the area and higher-class people move away to the suburbs). 3. Back in industrial economy this was located in the center but in post-industrial times the industrial activity decreased, because the service sector increased and these old locations for factories are no longer as attractive.
What is an example of attempts taken to reduce the importance of very large cities in a country?
1. There have been many attempts to reduce the importance of very large cities, including London, Rio de Janeiro and Seoul. 2. New, planned capital cities include Brasilia, Canberra and, in Korea, Gongju-Yongi. Originally it was planned to replace Seoul as Korea's capital. 3. However, Seoul will remain the capital although relocation of many people to Gongju-Yongi is still necessary to ease chronic overcrowding in Seoul, to redistribute the state's wealth, and to reduce the impact of a military attack from North Korea.
Case Study 2): BedZED a sustainable housing project in South London: Describe and explain 2 economically sustainable features.
1. They also have a car club for residents, where every car-club car takes five privately owned cars off the road and it is also economically advantageous, as the people in this scheme are only renting the carse and do not have to buy one for themselves. 2. The secure bike storage makes commuting by bike convenient and reduces bike-theft, which makes it economically advantageous, as people may not have to buy multiple bikes in their lifetime if it does not get stolen.
What does urban deprivation result from?
1. This may result from inadequate access to amenities and public services. 2. Undesirable proximity to disamenities (perhaps undesirable proximity to amenities also, eg. busy highway, garbage dumps, etc.).
What is the threshold population?
1. Threshold population is the minimum number of people in a local area needed to support the provision (cost) of a service. 2. A large city would have enough population to justify the cost (provision) of a large hospital. A small town would not.
This led to the creation of the London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC). Aims of the LDDC:
1. To economically regenerate the area by primarily attracting private investment & supporting businesses that were already there (controversial, because the people may not have been able to afford keeping up with the economic shift = demographic changes = more richer people). 2. To physically regenerate the environment of the Docklands to aid the above (create a more attractive environment for office space = financial core & use, as well as renew & upgrade existing residential areas. → Bring land & buildings back into use. 3. To improve the living conditions and prospects of the community of the Docklands → Ensure housing is available to all (rich & poor = not really successful).
Urban System Growth - Case study: Singapore - Transportation Infrastructure improvements
1. Today Singapore has a very developed road and motorway system. 2. The original motorways form a loop in the centre of the island connecting many of the "new towns". 3. The new towns included many government housing projects (90% over Singaporeans live in government housing). 4. Over the years the motorway network has increased with many new linking motorways and tunnels. 5. Singapore makes a considerable effort to keep its road infrastructure attractive and garden like. Singapore calls itself a Garden City and it is surprising green in colour for such a densely populated city. 6. Singaporeans pay very high taxes on cars (Certificate of Entitlement = the very expensive permit you must buy to own a car) which has helped pay for a very dense and efficient public transport, including an expensive subway network. 7. Singapore's Mass Rapid Transit (MRT - subway) and Light Rail Transport (LRT) consists of below and above ground rail lines with a total distance of about 230 km with 119 stations and over 3 million rides per day. 8. Singapore's investment in public transport has meant they have avoided the air pollution and traffic issues of many other cities in the same region (eg. Bangkok & Jakarta).
Describe the features of urban climate.
1. Urban climate is not uniform, there are many different microclimates. 2. Radiation & Sunshine = more diffuse sky radiation with considerable local contrasts owing to variable screening by tall buildings in shaded narrow streets. → reduced visibility arising from industrial haze. 3. Clouds & fogs = higher incidence of thicker cloud cover in summer and radiation fogs or smogs in winter because of increased convection and air pollution. 4. Temperatures = Stronger heat energy energy retention and release, including fuel combustion, giving significant temperature increase from the suburbs into the centre of built-up areas, creating urban heat islands (uhi). → warmer temperatures during winters due to snow increasing their albedo and thereby increasing the differences. + big local climate differences between sunny & shaded regions/surfaces, especially during spring. 5. Humidity = decreases in humidity due to lack of available moisture & higher temperatures. 6. Pressure & winds = Wind canyons may form around tall buildings causing strong local pressure gradients from the way their walls align & form funnels. → Rows of tall buildings can funnel winds together and cause magnified wind conditions. In stormy conditions, winds become even stronger in "canyon effects". 7. Precipitation = higher incidence of intense storms, thunder, ets. particularly during hot summer evenings and nights due to greater instability (temp. difference) and stronger convection above built-up areas.
Case Study 1): London's Ecological Footprint and measures to reduce the footprint: Suggest realistic ways of making London a more ecologically sustainable city in the future.
1. Water pollution: a) Even today, some seven million tonnes of sewage sludge are pumped into the Thames each year. This sludge could be used as organic fertiliser on farms, saving large quantities of chemical fertilisers. However, although other areas in Britain are converting human sewage into pellets for farm fertilisers, this has not occurred in London. b) Although many of London's factories have closed down or relocated to outer areas, quite a number of older factories are still located beside the Thames, and they continue to use the river as a dumping ground for wastes. Meanwhile, the Thames supplies 70% of London's water, although this water is taken from further upstream than industrial areas. 2. Although recycling is becoming more common, less than 5% of London's rubbish is currently recycled, although the government has set a target of 25%. Meanwhile, large amounts of rubbish are simply dumped on vacant land or left in the streets. a) Companies could routinely invest in recycling technology and non-toxic production processes. b) Liquid chemical wastes from factories could be recycled within factories and not discharged into sewerage systems (The residents who live nearby sewage treatment works and experience the odours would no doubt welcome a more productive way of recycling sewage, because of this disamenity that it is). 3. Sewage works could become fertiliser factories to enrich farmland. Toxic liquid wastes could then be kept separate from valuable household garbage. 4. Forests would not be replanted only for timber but also for protecting watersheds and absorbing carbon dioxide.
High streets
1. busy retail thoroughfares where many retailers locate in large cities of the United Kingdom and other countries. 2. These are characterised by department stores, chain stores, specialist shops, and increasingly pedestrialinized malled. 3. Outlets sell mainly high-order goods with a large range and threshold. 4. The sphere of influence of central shopping areas is generally large.
2a. [3 marks] The map shows temperatures for Dublin, Ireland, at 22:00 during a winter evening.Describe the pattern of temperatures shown south of the River Liffey.
1. decreases steadily southwards [1] 2. some quantification, eg falls from 1.5 to -2.5 [1] 3. the decline in temperatures is much more gradual towards the south of the city [1] 4. or other clarification [1]. Example: The temperature decreases gradually towards the south of the River Liffey. It falls from 1.5 to -2.5. The temperatures closer to the river in the south are a lot warmer compared to the temperatures measured further away. As you move away from the river life, to the rural edges the temperature falls as you move south.
A number of factors explain this change in shopping habits:
1. demographic change, such as falling population growth, smaller households, and more elderly people. 2. technological change as more families own deep freezers and do not need to shop daily. 3. economic change, with increased QoL, especially car ownership. 4. congestion and inflated land prices in city centres. 5. the increased accessibility of suburban sites, especially those close to ring-road intersections. 6. social changes, such as more women in paid work.
15a. [2 marks] The diagram shows the ways in which urban trees help to reduce environmental and social stress for the inhabitants of a major city. The numbers are the estimated annual value of the benefits, in US dollars (US$). Identify what Benefit A (environmental) and Benefit B (socio-economic) might be.
A could be: improved wildlife/bird habitat; microclimate modification; increased biodiversity; reduced noise pollution. B could be: recreational space; increased land/property values; increased community pride; less crime. Accept other valid suggestions (for example, aesthetics, feelings, improved health, firewood/fuel).
12b. [6 marks] Explain three factors that influence the location of squatter settlements in urban areas.
Award [1 mark] for each factor and a further [1 mark] for the development or exemplification. Possible factors include: unoccupied land (at the city edge); transport routes such as roads, transport hubs such as bus stations/railway stations/airports; poor quality marginal land; proximity to work opportunities, (such as factories or higher classresidential areas), refuse/waste tips, derelict sites, cheap land value. Accept other valid factors. For example: 1. "Location near transport routes [1 mark] allows access to job opportunities in city centre [1 mark]." 2. "Land at the edges of the city has nothing there so people build their own homes there [1 mark]. There may be less risk of clearances by bulldozers if no-one else wants to use the land [1 mark]."
Outline one possible recent change in urban function in box A. [2 marks]
Award [1] for a valid change for a post-industrial city and [1] for further development (outline). For example: Urban industries have probably been replaced by services [1] such as waterfront restaurants around what are probably old docks [1]. Other possible ways/changes include: 1. conversion of waterside warehouses into offices 2. conversion of waterside warehouses into hotels or houses / gentrification 3. old docks have been replaced by marina. Award a maximum of [1] if no clear reference is made to box A.
Suggest two social reasons for the rapid growth of a megacity such as Lagos. [4 marks]
Award [1] for a valid social reason and [1] for further development. Do not credit economic reasons. For example: A high rate of natural increase [1] as fertility rates are high in countries such as Nigeria [1]. Other possible reasons include: 1. Migration - as pull factors such as education, universities, hospitals (do not double credit two urban social pull factors). 2. Push factors in rural areas, such as militia groups/civil war or land reforms. Must be distinctly different from the pull factor. 3. Accept suburbanization/migration to periphery as a valid reason.
11b. [6 marks] Explain two features of the internal structure of the central business district (CBD).
Award [1] for each feature identified, and up to [2] for extended description and explanation (but must have some explanation for full marks). For example: The centre/core of the CBD tends to have the tallest building/skyscrapers [1] in a city. This is because land prices are highest in the city centre [1] due to shortage of space/high demand for more central location/developers build upwards to create more retail/service space [1]. Other possibilities include: 1. internal zoning [1]: clustering of certain facilities and services in particular areas [1] eg high order retailing in the centre (core), services towards the edge (frame) [1] 2. certain types of shops/services may cluster (clothing/jewellery/electronics) [1] due to the reputation that an area develops [1] and to allow consumers to comparative-shop [1].
7a. [4 marks] The graph shows population change in Detroit, a city in the USA. Describe the changes in the size of Detroit's population between 1900 and 2015.
Award [1] for each of four valid statements, for example: 1. Detroit's population increases between 1900 and 1950 2. the most rapid growth was between 1910 and 1930 3. the city's population has declined from its peak in 1950 until 2015 4. in 2015 its population was the lowest it has been since about 1915. There may be other valid descriptive statements. Maximum [3] if no quantification (must quote some data from y axis). Example: Detroit's population increased between 1900 and 1950. The most rapid growth was between 1910 and 1930. The city's population has declined from its peak in 1950 until 2015. In 2015 its population was the lowest it has been since about 1915, with around 0.5 million.
5b. [6 marks] Suggest three reasons why different ethnic groups are often concentrated in different parts of cities.
Award [1] for each reason identified and [1] for development/exemplification. For example: Due to greater availability of affordable/cheaper housing [1], less affluent groups may become concentrated in poorer parts of the inner city (eg Bangladeshi in East End of London) [1]. Other possibilities include: 1. positive segregation - choosing to live in areas with an existing population due to more facilities, eg places of worship or family/community support, or speaking the same language 2. negative segregation - avoiding areas where there may be potential conflict 3. policies to segregate different ethnic groups 4. work - employees grouped around work areas/industries 5. historic factors 6. relative wealth of migrants - rich and poor areas attract migrants of similar wealth. [6 marks] Example: Due to greater availability of affordable/cheaper housing, less affluent groups may become concentrated in poorer parts of the inner city (eg Bangladeshi in East End of London). Due to positive segregation, migrants choose to live in areas with an existing population due to more facilities, e.g. places of worship or family/community support, or speaking the same language (may not have the same level of educational background to participate in the economy fully). Migrants population may be able to assimilate at an easier rate in neighbourhoods where language and culture is familiar, hence they choose to do so. First generation migrants may have limited wealth and be drawn to areas with lower land values, and hence relative wealth of migrants causes them to move to different locations (richer or poorer areas), which is why different ethnic groups move to different locations. This can also be linked to historic factors, as second generation migrants to the UK for example, may have assimilated now and live in areas that provide a higher standard of living to them, whereas first generation migrants may not have the means to do this. Housing discrimination may occur when landlords lie about the availability of housing based on the race (or ethnic group) of the applicant, or give different terms and conditions to the housing based on race (ethnicity). There is also real estate steering, making the fastest sale possible to steer immigrants to areas where they can most easily assimilate, for instance Indian neighborhoods, where there are many people speaking the same language.
4a. [6 marks] Explain two strengths and one weakness of one named city's attempt to reduce urban pollution.
Award [1] for each strength/weakness and a [1] for further development/exemplification of each. Responses may focus on air pollution but could also focus on water, soil, noise pollution, or waste and litter problems in urban areas. In awarding marks - there is no mark for the strategy (eg planting trees), but [1] for each strength/weakness and [1] for development. For example: Strength: In Beijing the planting of trees has reduced pollution by intercepting dust [1] and provided shade for cyclists [1]. Weakness: Replacing buses and old taxis was expensive [1] and there were economic losses when factories were closed [1]. Other strategies may include: 1. public transport 2. bus lanes 3. cycle lanes 4. subsidies for public transport 5. mass transport schemes. Award maximum [4] if no city named. Example: Mexico, Mexico City: Strengths: In Mexico switching to unleaded gas was a measure that has reduced pollution by burning fuel more efficiently and beneficial for the environment, as well as human health since the lead compounds area taken out of the fuel (can not damage the lungs, nor cause respiratory problems). Weakness: Switching to unleaded gas was expensive, because the cleaner fuel required more processing.
6a. [4 marks] The graph shows the total population living in urban areas of different sizes, between 1970 and 2011 (i) Estimate the number of people worldwide living in megacities (10 000 000 people and over) in 1990. (ii) Describe changes in the total number of people living in small cities of less than 500 000 people.
Award [1] for each valid change and reserve [1] for quantification. For example: 1. increased rapidly between 1970 and 1990 [1] by approximately 50 % [1]. 2. increased very slowly from 1990 to 2011 [1], to about 135 million [1]. Example: (i) 170 million. (ii) The overall trend is an increase of people living worldwide. Increased rapidly between 1970 and 1990 by approximately 50%. Biggest change occurred between 1970 and 1980. Increased at a slower rate from 1990 to 2011, to about 10 million.
3a. [3 marks] The map shows the distribution of the neighbourhoods in an African city with low incomes and high population density. With reference to the map, describe the distribution of neighbourhoods with low incomes and high population density.
Award [1] for each valid description point, up to a maximum of [3], which include the following: 1. the main location is to the south-west of the city centre [1] 2. many of the remaining sites are towards the periphery of the city [1] 3. there are many scattered small areas/pockets located in western/ south-western/eastern suburbs [1] 4. some of the areas are more than 20 km from the city centre [1]. Example: The main location of neighbourhoods with low incomes and high population density is to the south-west of the city centre. Some of the areas are even more than 20 km from the city centre. There are many scattered small areas in the western and eastern suburbs. The clusters of low income and high population density are widely dispersed.
3c. [4 marks] Analyse the contribution of natural change to population density patterns in urban areas.
Award [1] for each valid point, up to a maximum of [4], which could include the following: 1. positive natural change occurs when the birth rate is higher than the death rate [1] 2. this leads to an increase in population density [1] 3. areas of youthful populations (including areas of in-migration) tend to experience positive natural change [1] 4. negative natural change leads to a decrease in population density [1] 5. areas of ageing populations tend to have lower population densities [1]. Other contributing factors may be considered. Example: Positive natural change occurs when the birth rate is higher than the death rate, which leads to an increase in population density (natural change / natural increase = the difference between CBR and CDR - crude birth rate). Areas of youthful populations (including areas of in-migration) tend to experience positive natural change. Negative natural change leads to a decrease in population density; areas of ageing populations tend to have lower population densities.
2c. [6 marks] Using examples, explain two reasons for the growth of suburbs.
Award [1] for each valid reason and a further [2] for further development/exemplification. Possibilities include: 1. development of new transport infrastructure / increase in private car ownerships 2. availability of cheaper land near the edge of urban settlements 3. increased demand for housing due to in-migration, allows areas further from the city to be developed for housing 4. push factors from city due to crime rates etc and perceived better lifestyle. For example: Development of new transport infrastructure [1] allows people to live further from their place of work and to commute daily [1], for example London, UK, doubled in size when the underground system was extended in the 1930s [1]. Example: 1. Cities HIC's began to age and became crowded, hence push factors caused people to perceive a better lifestyle outside the city as the middle-class grew to get away from urban stresses, such as a lower crime rate, noise levels, less crowded life where they could afford a bigger house and garden (the suburban dream), people may perceive that there are more services available on the outskirts of cities (eg. better schools, etc.) 2. Development of new transport infrastructure allows people to live further from their place of work and to commute daily, for example London, UK, doubled in size when the underground system was extended in the 1930s. Hence, this trend was largely made possible by the increase in car ownership, as the growth of the middle-class is allowing people to commute from the suburbs where they lived to the more central areas of cities where they may work.
8b. [6 marks] Referring to examples, explain two factors that influence the location of megacities.
Award [1] for identifying a factor and [2] for further exemplification/explanation. Factors may be physical (eg coastal location/river valleys) and/or socio-economic (eg tax-free zones/free-trade areas/areas of rapid industrialization). For example: Many of the world's megacities, such as Shanghai and Mumbai, are located in coastal areas/large river valleys [1] as this increases the potential for trade and commerce [1]. Coastal areas are also more favourable for industrial development as they are able to import raw materials and finished products more competitively than inland areas/landlocked countries [1]. Award up to a maximum of [4] if no or only inappropriate examples are given. Example: Many of the world's megacities, such as Shanghai and Mumbai, are located along the coast/large river valleys as this increases the potential for trade and commerce. Coastal areas are also more favourable for industrial development as they are able to import raw materials and finished products more competitively than inland areas/landlocked countries. Most of the world's megacities are located near nodal points, because these are areas where several points (roads, rivers, bridges, transport routes, etc.) intersect for trade.
3b. [3 marks] Outline three possible economic reasons for the location of neighbourhoods with low incomes and high population density in the urban area shown on the map.
Award [1] up to a maximum of [3] for the identification of each factor: 1. many of the areas are located close to where jobs are found [1] 2. there are more informal jobs located in the city centre [1] 3. the land is relatively cheap on the outskirts [1] 4. many of the areas are close to important routeways [1]. Example: Many of the neighbourhoods with low incomes and high population density are located close to where jobs are found. Also, there are more informal jobs located in the city centre. Similarly, some of the neighbourhoods with low incomes and high population density are located on the outskirts, which is where land is relatively cheap. Many of the areas are also along transport routes, which makes use of important trade routes, the railway may be a disamenity given the noise levels, so higher income groups may be able to avoid it by moving away from these.
12a. [4 marks] The figure shows information about urban deprivation for selected low income regions of the world. Outline the pattern and trend shown in the figure.
Award up to [2 marks] for pattern, and up to [2 marks] for trend. 1. all regions show moderate to very high proportions in the slums (pattern) 2. with Sub-Saharan Africa worst affected (pattern) 3. most areas show improvements taking place (trend) 4. only Western Asia shows deterioration over time (trend). Credit other significant points not covered by the markscheme. The actual words "pattern" and "trend" do not need to be used.
7b. [6 marks] Using examples, explain two push factors and one pull factor that help explain counter-urbanization movements.
Counter-urbanization is the movement of population away from inner urban areas to a new town, a new estate, a commuter town or a village on the edge of just beyond the city limits/rural-urban fringe. Counter-urbanization is influenced by many push and pull factors. Award [1] for the identification of a factor affecting counter-urbanization, and a further [1] for development, up to a maximum of [5], reserving the final [1] for an example. Push factors include: 1. the high price of urban living 2. congestion in urban areas 3. pollution 4. lack of services 5. declining employment opportunities 6. social problems such as high crime rates. Pull factors include: 1. the perceived improved community relations 2. better schools 3. bigger houses 4. cleaner environments space. Accept other valid suggestions eg improvements in transport, improved ICT links enabling teleworking. For example: High crime rates in Johannesburg [1] have led to many people leaving the inner urban areas for smaller areas/relocating [1]. For example: Perceived high quality selective educational establishments in Tonbridge, Kent [1] have resulted in increased population in-migration [1]. Do not credit both mirror statements eg poor housing/good housing used as two factors. Example: Push factor: High crime rates in Johannesburg have led to many people leaving the inner urban areas for smaller areas/relocating. The declining employment opportunities in Detroit have led to many people leaving the city for economic opportunities in rural areas or smaller settlements and the creation of satellite towns. Pull factor: Perceived high quality selective educational establishments in Tonbridge, Kent have resulted in increased population in-migration.
12c. [10 marks] "The rapid city growth caused by in-migration can never be controlled." Discuss this statement, referring to one or more examples.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant. Answers can discuss city-wide policies (such as migration restrictions through permits eg China's migrant labour system, or policy refusal to expand the city eg green belt legislation, or tougher controls on squatter settlements at edges). This can be linked with the continuing challenge of in-migration/pressures on rural dwellers to leave their land and move to a city. A discussion might compare the effectiveness of different controls in a single city, or controls adopted by two different cities. Either approach is fine when considering the veracity of the statement. A distinction might also be made between spatial growth (urban sprawl) and population growth (numbers). This could be the basis for a more thoughtful discussion. Examples could include Shanghai, Mumbai, Mexico City, Cairo - most cities experiencing rapid in-migration are in NICs and LEDCs. Inappropriate examples (such as London) will need to be marked on their individual merit (an inappropriate case study may still be the basis for a creditable evaluation, perhaps band D). For band D, candidates must describe in-migration/city growth and an attempt at migration control with some reference to one or more examples (balance between these elements is not expected at this level). Band E should either provide greater exemplified detail of city growth/in-migration and the effectiveness of control measures or offer a more thoughtful discussion of the veracity of the statement (but with less factual support). At band F, expect both elements.
13c. [10 marks] Contrast the causes and effects of air pollution for two named urban areas.
Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant. The most effective answers will be those that use properly contrasting examples such as two cities at contrasting levels of development (this approach is recommended in the guide, page 38). Depending on the exact examples chosen, causes may include human factors (transport, industry, and domestic burning of coal, gas, paraffin) and physical factors (eg anti-cyclonic weather conditions). The effects are likely to include impacts on health (impact of traffic in Mexico City), microclimate (lack of "blue sky days" in Beijing), biodiversity (decline of sensitive species eg lichen), weathering (especially of limestone buildings) and the costs for tourism (clean-up of polluted buildings, or the cost of lost tourism eg Chinese cities in 2012-13). Good opportunities for making a contrast may be found by highlighting the different roles played by physical factors, governance, stages of economic development etc that pertain to the two chosen studies. For band D, candidates must describe some causes and effects of air pollution and make some reference to two examples (balance between all of these elements is not expected at this level). Band E should either provide greater exemplified detail of both causes and effects in both cities (with greater balance) or offer a more sustained and explicit contrast (but across a narrower range of ideas). At band F, expect both elements.
Explain why industrial and port activities declined (deindustrialisation) over time in the docklands area.
During the 19th century and up to the 1950s London's port was the busiest in the world, however even before the 1950s, the area was starting to lose trade (source): It was losing trade to other ports with lower warehousing charges and faster handling time. This meant business was increasing at a much faster rate than London's → manufacturing went to other countries (due to globalisation) that were industrialising = cheaper labour. → A general decline in manufacturing meant that portside industries, such as food refining, closed down, due to a shift in the UK from an Industrial to a post-industrial economy. The size of ships had increased → The main river channel was not deep enough and large ships had great difficulty in moving down the river. → The River Thames became increasingly silted and as the boats became progressively larger they found it difficult to come this far downstream. Therefore the docks moved downstream to places such as Tilbury = relocated (20,000 people lost their jobs). Containerization meant fewer dockers were needed as they got replaced by cranes & trucks. Severe bombing during WW2 left the area completely destroyed and with little money or hopes to rebuild. 60% of the land was left derelict (unused). All of these factors would impact migration away from the London Docklands, as better opportunities could be found elsewhere if the people could afford it (moving).
What changed housing in Bucharest and how?
During the Communist regime, housing became more uniform & high-density = apartments buildings & blocks.
When did Europe go through urbanisation?
During the industrial revolution in the 18th century, as this is the main factor contributing to urbanisation.
6b. [6 marks] Explain two characteristics of the distribution of one named economic activity within one named urban area.
Economic activity can include manufacturing industries, retail and service industries. In some urban areas there are primary industries (mining towns). Examples must be developed. For example, would need to identify locational features of the industry eg transport corridors, edge of town, close to the CBD, rather than a generic example such as the motor industry in Detroit. Award [1] for each characteristic identified, and a further [2] for an explanation of the features of the spatial distribution, up to a maximum of [5]; reserve the final [1] for the example of the urban area. For example, retailing in Cardiff is concentrated in the CBD [1] due to accessibility [1] (transport), leading to a higher pedestrian flow [1]. Example: The manufacturing industries in Pitesti, Romania are located near the highway due to accessibility (transport), leading to an increase in resources being transported to the factories. Not to mention, it is on the outskirts of the city, which makes it ideal for future expansion programmes (to enlarge the factory) as the land is cheaper further away from the CBD.
4b. [10 marks] Examine the effects of the movement of economic activity to derelict land such as brownfield sites.
Economic activity includes retailing, services and manufacturing. This includes new economic activity and relocated economic activity. Derelict sites and brownfield sites include abandoned and under-used industrial buildings and land that may be contaminated but has potential for redevelopment. The movement of economic activity to derelict land may have many positive effects, such as job creation, investment in infrastructure, new buildings and services, increased tax base and spending in the local area (positive multipliereffect), in-migration of wealthy, young people (gentrification), etc. Negative impacts include an increase in congestion and pollution related to construction (short-term), increasing land prices, increasing social inequalities, cost of cleaning contaminated land/making it safe for use for economic activity. Good answers will show an understanding that there are positive and negative impacts occurring. Some developments may be large-scale (eg London 2012 Olympic Site) while others are small-scale (gentrification in Woodstock, Cape Town). Some impacts may be short-term, others long-term. The overall effects may depend on the city involved, the amount of government investment, the amount of private investment, its accessibility, the type of economic activity. At band D, expect a description of some effects of the movement of economic activity to derelict land/ brownfield sites. At band E, expect either a detailed explanation of the movement of economic activity to derelict land/ brownfield sites or a structured examination of different kinds of impact (may include different perspectives) and any interrelations between them. At band F, expect both of these elements. Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
Exam Practice: Essay Q from Textbook 2)
Examine the view that urban growth is having an ever-increasing impact on the natural environment. (10 marks)
13b. [6 marks] Explain the processes of gentrification and counter-urbanization.
Gentrification Explanatory points for [1 mark] each, to a maximum of [3 marks] include: 1. usually seen as a centripetal/inwards movement 2. more affluent people move in, displacing less affluent people 3. house prices rise/there are home improvements 4. incomers are looking for cheap properties for renovation (and profit) 5. other pull factors include: vibrancy/authentic city life/proximity to CBD/work (do not over-credit multiple pull factors, as this is only one aspect of the process of change) 6. broader neighbourhood changes as affluence rises eg restaurants 7. credit other valid aspects of the process of change. Counter-urbanization Explanatory points for [1 mark] each, to a maximum of [3 marks] include: 1. a centrifugal/outwards movement 2. moving to new town/out-of-town village/commuter town near edge of town (but do not credit suburbs/suburbanization) 3. can also be beyond the commuting zone eg remote rural areas 4. age-selective process associated with retired migrants 5. also may involve young families with children 6. migrants are drawn by "quality of life"/environment, etc or pushed by high prices, crime etc (do not over-credit multiple push-pull factors, as this is only one aspect of the process of change) 7. credit other valid aspects of the process of change.
Case Study 1): London's Ecological Footprint and measures to reduce the footprint: What steps are being taken to reduce London's urban ecological footprint?
London's planners have set a target to reduce the CO2 emissions in 2025 to 70% of this amount (i.e. a 30% reduction). 1. Planners believe that about 30% of this reduction can come through public action in response to public education. 2. However, it is expected that the remaining reduction will need government intervention, such as imposing carbon taxes, investing in research, funding low-carbon initiatives and removing regulations that make decentralising energy production difficult. 3. In an effort to reduce both inner city congestion and carbon emissions, London introduced a congestion charge in 2003. The congestion charge was applied to motorists who drove into an inner city area designated as the Congestion Charge Zone (CCZ). The aims of the charge were to reduce congestion, reduce CO2 emissions, and raise money to invest in London's public transport. 4. Managing waste outputs → Shifting from a linear to a circular economy. 5. Innovative housing projects such as BedZED. 6. London's Dockland - utilizing the area that was once just old factories, for commercial use and living = doesn't cause the city to sprawl out further - prevent urban stresses = more eco-friendly. 7. Reducing micro-climate effect and hence the urban heat island effect by adding a green belt.
11c. [10 marks] Evaluate the success of two different urban management strategies.
Management strategies can relate to: 1. housing issues (quantity, quality - self-help, site and service, redevelopment, renewal, gentrification) 2. population issues - migration control, population growth 3. transport issues - congestion, air quality, greenhouse gas emissions, improvements to public transport 4. employment - number and types of jobs 5. service provision - access to education and health care 6. environmental issues - air pollution, water pollution. The successful funding and provision of measures can be credited as a self-evident sign of success. A more detailed evaluation of success might additionally provide actual data/evidence of any urban changes associated with the strategies (such as population, economic, pollution data). Good answers may provide a structured examination of success that, in addition to the strengths and weaknesses of strategies, also considers how these may vary according to perspective of different groups of people (a sustainability approach might be adopted). Another approach might be to consider the time or spatial scale of any success (in some cases it may be too soon to judge what the legacy will be realistically). Another approach might be to provide a structured examination of how success varies for the two chosen places (which may well be cities in countries/contexts at different stages of development). For band D, expect some description of two urban management strategies (do not expect balance). At band E, expect either more detailed explanation of the strategies (do not expect balance) or a structured examination of their level of success (goes beyond simple success/failure and examines different perspectives/timescales/developmentalcontexts/etc). At band F expect both of these elements. Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
What design changes could have been made to improve the docklands project?
Other designs that could have been made to improve the docklands project would be additional institutional land uses, such as hospitals and recreational services for the elderly, because this is something that residents still complain about. → Not to mention, it should have included more job opportunities for the local (low-skilled) residents that had to migrate to other cities, due to their lack of money to uphold a living given this economic shift in the Docklands (that used to be their home).
16c. [6 marks] Using examples, explain why some large urban areas have much higher population growth rates than others.
Population growth in large urban areas is a result of (a) net migration and (b) natural population change. As a guideline, award up to [2 marks] for comments about in-migration, [2 marks] for comments about natural increase and [2 marks] for using valid examples. This balance may be adjusted for responses which are stronger on one component than the other. For the full [6 marks] both components of population growth should be included alongside valid examples of urban areas with different rates of population growth.
14b. [6 marks] Explain three reasons for the movement of named economic activities within urban areas.
Possible economic activities include retail, services, manufacturing, leisure. There are many possibilities: 1. land values too high in CBD so shops/offices move to edge of town 2. new attractions of new road/rail links attract a range of businesses 3. business parks established in new areas with good accessibility 4. brownfield site redevelopment for offices/shops may have advantages eg, cost 5. enterprise zones/export processing zones have cost/benefits for light industries. Award [1 mark] for each basic reason for movement (advantage should be clear) and [1 mark] for further explanation/exemplification. For example, services in Cardiff have relocated to the accessible Cardiff Gate business park [1 mark] which has much lower costs per square metre than the CBD [1 mark]. Award a maximum of [4 marks] if no economic activities are named.
9b. [6 marks] Referring to one or more named cities, explain two ways in which humans affect urban air pollution.
Possible ways humans affect air pollution in urban areas include through transport emissions, burning of fossil fuels for energy production/domestic heating/commercial enterprises. Equally, it is possible that human activities may reduce air pollution in urban areas, eg Beijing's relocation of iron and steel plants before the 2008 Olympics, the use of park and rides, Clean Air Acts, etc. In each case, award [1] either for the identification of a specific source of urban pollution in a named city or for a located pollution reduction strategy. In each case award up to [2] for the description and explanation of what the effect (positive or negative) has been. Only award [2] in each case if no city named. For example: In Los Angeles, vehicles release nitrogen oxides [1]. NOx react in sunlight to form ground level ozone [1]. High levels of ground-level ozone form photochemical smog pollution [1]. For example: In Paris 2014 the authorities introduced a policy to reduce the number of cars in the central area [1]. Cars with an odd-numbered number plate were allowed in certain days of the week whereas those with an even numbered-number plate were allowed in on the other days of the week [1]. This has reduced emissions of NOx, improving air quality [1]. (Vehicle pollution includes NOx, CO, particulates and hydrocarbons; NOT carbon dioxide.)
1a. [6 marks] Suggest two reasons for the occurrence of low-cost housing areas within cities.
Reasons could include: 1. migrants are often unemployed with little disposable income 2. some areas suffer deprivation and are avoided by wealthy people 3. authorities may build/provide social housing 4. areas of older housing may be in poor condition and used as low-cost housing. Award [1] for the identification of a valid factor that influences and [2] for further development/exemplification. For example: In Rio de Janeiro [1], there is a large influx of migrants from smaller cities and rural areas [1] and it is impossible to provide adequate housing for all the population [1]. 1. In megacities such as Mumbai, there is an influx of migrants from rural areas that are searching for a better quality of life in the city, however migration is occurring at such a high rate that it is impossible to provide housing for the entire population, which results in low-cost housing areas, including shanty towns. 2. Migrants would have more language barriers, which make it difficult for them to assimilate into the society and rise their QoL and improve their job prospects and opportunities to a afford a higher standard housing, not next to disamenities (give examples). = High levels of rural to urban migration during industrialization may build informal settlements (eg. slums, because ______). 3. Migrants are often unemployed with little disposable income, which is why you end up with slums, shanty towns and informal settlements in fast-growing cities. 4. Living close to disamenities, which would tend to have low-cost housing, some examples would be open dumps, 5. Government projects, where they provide low-cost housing for poorer social classes.
How do the pattern of residential land use generally compare in cities in Lower Income countries compared to Higher Income countries?
Remember: Most Higher Income countries tended to industrialise during the 1800's and most Lower income countries tended to industrialise in the post war era. Industrialisation leads to Urbanisation.
Suburbs
Residential areas surrounding a city (a lot of middle-class people).
What was systematisation in Bucharest?
Residential redevelopment during the socialist era (Systematisation) was the creation of "ideal" living for the masses (attempting to give everyone the same standard of living) resulting in the demolition of many older buildings and replaced by standardised buildings (often built form mass produced components). The districts contained services for the local population.
9c. [10 marks] Examine the effects of the movement of services and manufacturing activities to new locations in cities.
Responses could consider the movement of economic activities into cities in developing/emerging economies; or the relocation movement from central areas to out of town/edge of town locations for well-established cities. There are also redevelopments in inner urban areas and some central areas of older cities, as a result of regeneration schemes. The movement of services (accept retailing) and manufacturing to new locations can have many effects: environmental, economic and social. Socio-economic effects could be discussed, for instance changes in employment and social class structure, and associated neighbourhood changes. Negative environmental effects may include increase in impermeable surface, poorer air quality due to the volume of people traveling to the new location. Effects may be highly damaging in newly-industrializing areas eg Pearl River Delta. On the other hand, new business developments in post-industrial cities increasingly include landscaping, creation of new environments and a more varied habitat. There may also be environmental impacts in the post-industrial area which industry has left - at first dereliction and visual pollution of the environment; then urban succession; but longer-term improvements/landscaping may also occur. Good answers may do more than explain/list different, unconnected effects. They may additionally examine the interrelations or the timescale of different effects, for instance by showing how economic impacts and social effects are linked. Another approach might be to examine what the effects are for cities at different stages of development, or for areas gaining/losing activity. At band D, expect a description of some effects of relocations, or new economic activities, within one or more recognizable cities/types of city. At band E, there should be either an explanation of a wider range of effects/movements or some critical examination of how cities/places/people are affected. At band F, expect both. Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
Underground infrastructure saves space
Singapore has developed a dense network for tunnels under the city in order to minimize the use of land needed for: 1. Public transport (subways) 2. Road tunnels 3. Sewage 5. Electricity transmission
Site vs. Situation of urban places (cities):
Site = the characteristics of the land an urban area sits on. ie) Bucharest = flat alluvial (surface formed of sediments laid down by streams, generally during flooding) plain, Dambovita (lake) passing through the city, arable land, size of the land under the city. Situation = the characteristics of the land surrounding the urban area. ie) Bucharest = surrounded by the fertile Romanian plain, surrounded by farming land (gives remote food supply & room for urbanisation), connected to the Danube by the Dambovita (important for trade in the past), many highways and rail connections to other regions of Romania.
Government response to informal housing:
Slum clearance, relocating residents and rebuilding OR Upgrading informal residential areas over time
Case Study on Resilience: Q's about Medellin - Why is social cohesion so important for urban resilience? (Covid19?)
Social cohesion makes societies work, and once squandered, it's difficult to rebuild. Most well run countries (ones with low wealth inequality, low corruption, and high life satisfaction) have social cohesion born of a sense of trust that society works for the well-being of all its members.
Case Study 1): London's Ecological Footprint and measures to reduce the footprint: Give three examples which suggest that London may not be ecologically sustainable unless significant changes are made.
Some measures suggest that inefficient and wasteful use of resources in London is making the city unsustainable. For example: 1. London uses 45,000 tonnes of fuel to power its homes, factories, transport, offices and communications systems every day. This energy is the equivalent to a supertanker of oil every two days. Using this fuel produces about 160,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere every day. 2. Another sign of extravagant energy use is transport. In spite of London's almost constant traffic congestion, almost 70% of all journeys within London are made by car. The increase in car use means that the average speed of car journeys in London is now only 15 kilometres per hour, which means that people are less likely to be productive at work, being able to commute, go to school (economic & social consequences as well as negative environmental impacts). 3. Furthermore, most of the 6,800 tonnes of food consumed in London each day is brought by road transport. However, large quantities of fruit and vegetables are now flown into London from tropical areas. For example, it is now common to fly beans from Kenya, vegetables from California and mangoes from West Africa. It has been estimated that the energy required to fly each mango from Gambia to London is 600 times greater than the food value (kilojoules) in the mango!
14c. [10 marks] Examine the reasons why it is difficult to manage urban areas sustainably.
Sustainability should be defined - good answers will acknowledge environmental/economic/social dimensions. Candidates may discuss aspects such as housing, population growth, pollution, transport, housing and employment. Contrasting case studies of sustainable urban management might be used. These may be drawn from high-income countries and low-income countries. Examples may include Curitiba, the London Olympics, Masdar City. Credit any valid example at any urban scale. Reasons are likely to include: 1. cost - eg, the cost of developing a new sustainable transport system, housing etc 2. availability of money - this can operate at a household level/city government level eg, being able to afford solar panelling 3. political will - corruption may be a problem in some locations/vote-catching/NIMBYism (people not wanting new developments such as a recycling scheme in their locality ("back-yard")) 4. available technology - some debt-ridden cities may not be able to afford new forms of renewable energy, for example 5. rapid population growth and rate of consumption of resources - over-consumption of resources as standards of living rise 6. high population densities 7. legislation - introduction of Agenda 21 statements 8. waste output - encouraging people to re-use, recycle, reduce. To access band D at least two reasons should be described. At band E expect either a greater range or depth of reasons for management challenges (may offer contrasting examples) or some explicit examination of what sustainable management actually involves, and the challenge it brings. At band F expect both. Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
6c. [10 marks] "Managing a city sustainably requires a wider range of strategies than those that only limit its ecological footprint." Discuss this statement.
Sustainable cities are those that seek to maintain and improve the quality of life for current and future urban dwellers. Ecological footprints are the theoretical measurement of the amount of land and water a population requires to produce the resources it consumes and to absorb its waste under prevailing technology. There are many factors used in an ecological footprint calculation, which is ameasure of the environmental impact/requirements of people: 1. bioproductive (currently used) land such as farmland, gardens, pasture and managed forest 2. bioproductive sea used for human consumption 3. energy land - the amount of land that would be required to support renewable energy instead of non-renewable energy 4. built land - land used for development such as roads and buildings 5. biodiversity land - land required to support all of the non-human species 6. non-productive land such as deserts is subtracted from the total land available. Other aspects of sustainability may be social (housing quality, social equality, crime), economic (type of employment, employment, unemployment) and/or environmental (air, water, land resources). Good responses are likely to discuss the definition of urban sustainability. They may refer to social indicators (the percentage of people in over-crowded conditions, crime rates, educational achievement/literacy levels, etc) or economic indicators (Gini coefficient and unemployment rates). Candidates may question whether all of the data can be collected or even whether it is possible to accurately measure ecological footprints. Ecological footprints are therefore only one part (albeit important) of the sustainable city. Answers may draw from a number of examples - Curitiba, Masdar City, andBedzed and/or from sustainable strategies for transport, housing management,in-migration. At band D, responses are likely to describe urban ecological footprint management or another urban sustainability strategy. At band E expect either a more detailed explanation of how ecological footprints and other strategies (at least one) are used to manage urban sustainability or a discussion of urban sustainability/issues in a more varied way. At band F expect both. Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
8c. [10 marks] "Sustainable urban management is desirable but impossible to achieve." Discuss this statement, using examples.
Sustainable urban management can have an economic, social or environmental focus, and ideally all three. Good answers may comment on this or discuss the interrelationships that exist. Alternatively, candidates may approach the question using linear and circular urban systems. There are a number of sustainable urban strategies eg recycling, re-use, reduce, sustainable forms of transport, urban agriculture, sustainable forms of energy etc. Some of these may be small-scale eg Bedzed in south-west London, whereas others are much larger in scale eg Curitiba, Brazil or Masdar City, UAE. Good answers are likely to present the achievements and limitations of two strategies. Good answers may discuss external/long-term issues affecting the sustainable management of urban areas eg the context of continuing population growth/rural-urban movement. Another approach might be to discuss the veracity of the statement for different place contexts (cities in countries at different stages of development). Another approach might be to discuss how some strands of sustainability (social/housing) could be easier to achieve than others (ecological footprint minimization). At band D, expect some description of a limited range of urban problems, or sustainable strategies, or the drawbacks to sustainability schemes. At band E, expect either greater explanation of the strengths and weaknesses of at least one sustainable strategy (and a second strategy outlined), or some critical discussion of why sustainable urban management is hard to achieve. At band F, expect both. Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
Case Study 2): BedZED a sustainable housing project in South London: Evaluate the overall effectiveness of BedZED.
The BedZED development has achieved a number of successes compared to UK averages, which I think prove their overall effectiveness: a) Space-heating requirements are 88% less than average. b) Hot-water consumption is 57% less than average. c) The electric power used is 25% less than the UK average, 11% of it is produced by solar panels. d) The water consumption has been reduced by ½ compared to the UK average. e) The residents' car use is 65% less than the UK average. However, the project is just a pilot-scheme, costing around £15 million, which equates to approximately £150,000 per home = very expensive. It needs like-minded people to follow through.
How do the Urban Land Use Models differ?
The Burgess model, Hoyt model and Harris & Ullman Model applied to cities in HIC's, that industrialised before WW2. The typical pattern of land use for more recently industrialised or industrialising cities follows a different model which is almost reversing some of the earlier characteristics. For instance, as housing quality decreases as you move outside of the city center, the richer people are in the city center and there are no industrial areas, etc.
Explain why the docklands area was once a thriving economic area.
The Docklands area was once a thriving economic sector of London, because in the past it was a vital source for trade, shipping goods and off-loading products (eg. tobacco, grain, fruit, meat and vegetables) coming from the North Sea and British Empire during the Industrialisation period (starting with the 1800s = Victorian era). Furthermore, it provided jobs for thousands of dock workers and the area was rich because of all this.
What is the pattern of land use common to cities in socialist/communist/centrally planned economies?
The Eastern European City 1. Eastern European & Russian cities were turned into microdistricts by communist planning. They do not have a clear (weak) central business district (CBD) as there are no free markets and the commerce is spread out into neighbourhoods the state created. 2. Old primate and historical cities were ignored 3. Huge dominant square & wide radiating avenues fronted by huge apartment complexes with factories, schools, shops & so on. 4. No need for CBD, mass commuting or suburbs 5. In theory, there is also meant to be no form of socio-economic segregation in Communism, as there is only one class, but as once can see with Bucharest, Dorobanti was very different to other areas within Bucharest.
What is an ecological footprint?
The Ecological Footprint is defined as "the area of productive land and water ecosystems required to produce the resources that the population consumes and assimilate the wastes that the population produces."
What is the Harris & Ullman Model?
The Harris and Ullman Model is suitable for large, expanding cities. Shapes of areas are random, in response to transport, shape of the land, etc. This is a more recent model and includes land use types not included in the earlier models such as: outlying or secondary business district (Group 7 is a good example of this, because it's between the medium- and high- residential classes, as well as on a transport route to the main nodal point it is a secondary land value peak which offers trade & commerce/economical opportunities), manufacturing / industrial areas near the edge of the city (as group 6 migrated from where group 2 is now), etc.
7c. [10 marks] Using examples, discuss the varied effects of human activity on urban microclimates.
The effects of human activity on urban climates is varied eg urban heat islands, increased cloud cover and incidence of smog, increased instability, reduced snow cover, lower air pressure, increased tunnelling of winds, ie "the canyon effect", decreased relative humidity and so on. The impacts depend on a number of factors: size of city, the function of the city (industrial versus post-industrial), land-use in the city (open spaces versus industrial/retail zones), population density, vehicle density. In some cities, negative impacts of earlier urban development have been reversed by recent developments eg the Olympic Park in London, slum clearance in Barcelona to create La Rambla or the reintroduction of the Cheong-Gye-Cheon river in Seoul. These have led to reduced temperatures, reduced wind speeds, and increased humidity. Sustainable transport strategies may reduce the numberof vehicles in city centres. Good candidates may examine the scale of the city, improvements to a city's climate and the nature of the settlement. Good candidates should be able to explain specific aspects of the microclimate and relate it to named human activities (building, transport systems, power generation). Responses at band D are likely to describe a limited range (at least two) of effects of human activity on microclimates. At band E candidates will either discuss the effects in greater range/depth/types or provide some discussion of what "varied" might mean (eg negative/positive, planned/unplanned, varied locations). At band F expect both. Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.
Describe the land use and design of the redeveloped docklands area.
The land-uses & designs of the redeveloped docklands area ended up being economic land uses, such as offices, Services & Retailing (Commercial land uses), opens space eg, parks, protected lands and transport eg. roads, rail, cycle paths, stations, etc. → The London Docklands project is an example of regeneration involving mostly redevelopment and some gentrification. Redevelopment = demolishing buildings and constructing something new. Gentrification = taking old buildings and renewing them and often altering their function. Making old look new again. → The effects of de-industrialisation and the growth of service industries, such as finance and tourism, will have major impacts on London's future. As industry and population have moved from inner to outer areas of London, space has been made available for inner urban renewal.
Explain how urban atmosphere differs from that in surrounding areas:
Urban areas are generally warmer than those of the surrounding countryside; temperatures are on average 2-4℃ higher. This creates an Urban Heat Island (UHI). It can be explained by heat & pollution release: 1. Wind speeds are lower due to the height of buildings and urban surface roughness. 2. Urban pollution & photochemical smog trap outgoing radiant smog. 3. Burning of fossil fuels for domestic & commercial purposes can exceed energy inputs from the sun. 4. Buildings have a higher capacity to retain & conduct heat = a lower albedo. 5. The reduction in thermal energy required for evaporation & evapotranspiration is due to the surface character, rapid drainage & generally lower wind speeds. 6. The reduction of heat diffusion is due to changes in airflow patterns as the result of urban roughness.
It isn't only heat that varies from one part of the city to another:
Wind patterns are greatly affected by the structures in cities, as shown by the diagram to the right.
Case Study 1): London's Ecological Footprint and measures to reduce the footprint: Outline the measures that have been taken to improve the quality of (a) air and (b) water in London.
a) Air: 1. In 1956, strict air pollution control laws in london were enforced, as 84% of the smog was caused by burning coal in domestic houses for heating, new forms of heating were introduced and the laws were very effective in reducing air pollution. 2. As a result of the smog in the 50s - 60s, planners increased the amount of parkland in London, encouraging tree and flower planting along railway embankments and other areas of open space. 3. Furthermore, planners surrounded London's urban area with a 'green belt' that had to be protected as open space. 4. Urban planners began constructing tall buildings with white or off-white facades to replace the old, dark, soot-stained buildings (high albedo and less absorption of heat to reduce greenhouse gases). b) Water: Measurements have shown that new housing construction and industrial estates in north London have caused flood peaks three times higher than they were before building in the area. In order to overcome the threat of flooding in London, the embankment beside the Thames River has been raised and a costly flood control barrier with opening and closing gates has been built.
Case Study 2): BedZED a sustainable housing project in South London: Describe and explain 2 socially sustainable features.
a) BedZED provides a community where people can live to meet 1-planet target for a sustainable world (eg. encourage inhabitants to practice solidarity together → recycling, etc.) b) Mixed-use development with homes, work-space and community services / facilities, which makes it socially sustainable as well. c) The most important thing is that BedZED is a community where people from all different backgrounds enjoy living and working together.