Orcher Final Exam

What is the suggested descriptor for an r of -0.45?

Moderately strong (in reference to an inverse relationship)

Research:

systematically collecting and interpreting information

Is the following a description of a purposive sample? Explain.

"From the students who were enrolled in her sociology class, a professor selected the six students with the lowest test scores for a qualitative study on low-achieving undergraduates. The reason for their selection was that they were readily available to be interviewed by the professor." b. Purposive sampling is when individuals are handpicked to be participants because they have certain characteristics that are believed to make them especially good sources of information. A purposive sample has three criteria that include: 1. Establishing a certain criteria for selecting the participants 2. Have a reason for selecting that specific criteria 3. Make planned and systematic effort to contact such individuals. c. Since that particular statement only stated that the reason the participants were chosen was due to their availability, that particular sampling is more in line with convenience sampling. The students she selected may have had the lowest test scores in the class, but there was no specific criteria set as to what is considered low test scores. Therefore, those students she selected could have possibly been achieving higher test scores compared to other students' test scores across campus.

What is "the gold standard" for selecting a sample from a population in quantitative research?

"The gold standard" for quantitative research is using random sampling. Random sampling being that all members of a population must be identified and then must be given an equal chance of being selected. A concept of this is writing down all the names of the participants on individual sheets, mixing them up, and then selecting the number for participants needed.

Google Scholar:

(www.scholar. Google.com) provides convenient means to search scholarly literature across numerous discipline and NOT include popular media sources like newspaper, blogs, and magazines.

What is the value of a correlation coefficient when there is a perfect, inverse relationship?

-1.00 and displays no exception to the trend

In experimental designs, the letter "X" stands for what?

Experimental treatment that is administered; absences of an "X" indicates a control group

What value of a split-half reliability coefficient is generally regarded as the lowest acceptable level?

0.75 is generally the lowest acceptable level

Shriver, Lenka, Nancy M. Betts, and Gina Wollenberg. 2013. "Dietary Intakes and Eating Habits of College Athletes: Are Female College Athletes Following the Current Sports Nutrition Standards?" Journal of American College Health 1(61): 10-16. what are the page numbers?

10-16

According to Table 2 near the end of this book, what is the recommended sample size for a population of 1200?

291 participants are recommended as a sample size with a population of 1200

Suppose you pointed at Table 1 near the end of this book and your finger landed on the first number on line 24. If you were drawing a sample from a population of 80 individuals, what are the numbers of the first three individuals who would be selected?

72, 48, 67

In the consensual qualitative approach, what is the title given to the outside expert who reviews the work of the researchers?

External auditor

How can all threats to internal validity be controlled?

All threats can be controlled to internal validity through random assignments to groups in an experiment

To examine the relationship between two nominal variables, quantitative researchers build a two-way table called what?

A Contingency table; the rows are for one variable and the columns are for another variable

What is the deficiency in the following research question? "Do student nurses have favorable impressions of alternative medicine?"

A research question should not be formed to receive a simple answer of yes or no because the results are usually mixed. Since this question has been posed for a simple yes or no answer, it is not considered an appropriate research question.

According to this chapter, the title of a research proposal should be a brief statement that names what?

A research title proposal should name the major variables that are part of the research hypothesis, question, or purpose.

Inferential statistics should be used by which of the following?

A researcher who has sampled from a population

What is the most popular way of collecting information in a survey?

A survey is a nonexperimental study that allows for a research study that only calls for what currently exists to be conducted. Such examples include a population survey and a sample survey. b. The most popular way to collect information in a survey is by using a questionnaire.

What are the two variables in the following hypothesis? "It is hypothesized that there is a direct relationship between depression and anxiety."

A variable is a trait or characteristic on which individuals differ from each other. And a hypothesis must have at least two variables. b. The variables in the statement are depression and anxiety

Using "member checks" is a technique in qualitative research that helps to establish which one of the following?

A. Credibility of measurers, which is when the researcher shares the interpretation of the results with participants to get their input on their interpretations of the data and whether or not they reflected the meanings the participants meant to portray. 8. Having more than one individual code and interpret the data and noting the extent to which they agree is a technique in qualitative research that helps to establish which one of the following? a. B. Dependability of measures; dependability is used instead of reliability for qualitative research since reliability is strongly associated with objective testing.

Which one of the following in-text citations is consistent with APA style?

APA uses the "author-date" method for in-text citations and can be parenthetical or non-parenthetical. Each in-text citation will have a full bibliographic reference in the references list at the end of the manuscript. b. In a parenthetical in-text citation, the author's last name is listed first followed by a comma, a space, and then the year of the publication. It is important to note that ASA in-text citations do not include a comma after the author's last name in a single author parenthetical in-text citation. c. Therefore the correct answer is A. The field of psychology...dramatic turn (Smith, 2012)

Is it safe to assume that if a researcher does not plan to administer treatments, no ethical considerations need be applied when selecting a research topic? Explain.

All research topics need to prevent the potential for harm, but that can be taken into consideration not only in regards to the physical aspect but the mental/emotional aspect as well. A simple question may trigger a traumatic event from a person's past, which could cause traumatic psychological stress on that individual; as an example, the question could cause a catalyst of events and possibly lead to suicide.

What do all true experiments have that none of the quasi-experiments have?

All true experiments have groups that are randomly assigned and none of the quasi-experiments have that. The three quasi experimental designs listed in this chapter include: i. The nonequivalent control group design; which is expressed as O X O / O O - there is an experiment group and a control group that both receive a pretest and a posttest; however, they are not randomly selected but are considered intact groups ii. The time-series design; which can be expressed as O O O O O X O O O O O - there is only one group of participants and the pretests and posttests are given over a series of time. The term baseline is the technical term for the pretests and the posttest are sometimes called follow-up tests iii. The equivalent time samples design involves only one group of participants and is expressed as X0 O (no treatment was given), X1 O (treatment was given)

A citation index allows researchers to search for what?

An example of a citation index is the "Cited By" feature on Google Scholar. Searching for an article using the "Cited By" feature in Google Scholar indicates the number of times a particular document has been cited and where. i. This is particularly important for several reasons: One reason is that a document cited multiple times has been either influential, controversial, or very useful. Another reason is that knowing where else the articles has been cited can lead to additional literature that may be useful for the researcher.

What is the purpose of an experiment?

An experiment is defined as a study in which treatments are given in order to estimate their effects on some outcome variables. An experiment is conducted to explore a cause-and-effect relationship. The independent variable is the variable that is under control of the experiment. The outcome variable is the dependent variable. All experiments must have at least one independent variable and one dependent variable.

In an uncritical literature review, all studies are treated as though they are what?

An uncritical literature review treats all studies as equal in their quality. Problems with this include: i. It allows the readers to miss contradictions in the literature ii. Does not allow readers to identify weak studies since it is natural to assume all studies are equal unless it is stated in the literature review

The acronym ANOVA stands for what words?

Analysis of Variance

Where do authors of published research often discuss weaknesses in their participant selection?

Authors of published research often discuss weaknesses in their participant selection in the discussion portion located near the end of their research report.

Which of the following values of the Pearson r indicates a stronger relationship

B. -0.75 indicates a stronger relationship since it is furthest away form 0.00 compared to 0.65. It is depicting an inverse relationship while the 0.65 is depicting a direct relationship

According to this chapter, what is one of the most fruitful ways to identify norms for the number of participants used for various types of studies on various topics?

Being able to cite participant number used in previous studies allows for the researcher to justify their use for a certain number of participants. Therefore, examining the literature is a fruitful way to identify the norms for the number of participants used for various types of studies on various topics

Validity coefficients could be rated as follows

Below .2 = poor validity o Between .20-.39 - modest validity o Between .4-.6 - good validity o Above .61 excellent validity

The t test tests the null hypothesis for the difference:

Between two means

Biased sampling is any procedure that does what?

Biased sampling allows for certain individuals to have a greater chance at being selected than others.

Self-disclosure should be followed by bracketing, which refers to what?

Bracketing refers to setting aside an individual's beliefs and concerns to be able to view the phenomena under review from the view point of the participants

Observation:

Broad sense; not only using senses to directly observe overt behaviors but also indirect processes and procedures used to collect data such as multiple choice tests, attitude scales and interviews.

This chapter mentions how many conditions that must be met for cluster sampling to be regarded as excellent?

Cluster sampling can be utilized when the population is already divided into subgroups, and each group is considered a cluster. Also, clusters are selected in cluster sampling and not just individuals. b. For cluster sampling to be regarded as excellent, two conditions must be met: i. Reasonable amount of clusters must be drawn and the number of individuals in each cluster does not need to be taken into consideration ii. The clusters must be drawn at random to avoid bias

The term consistency is synonymous with what more technical term?

Consistency is synonymous with the term reliability, in which quantitative researchers are more favorable to obtain consistent or reliable results

In the grounded theory approach, what is the technical name that refers to constantly comparing each new element of the data with all previous elements that have been coded in order to establish and refine categories?

Constant comparison

A "construct" is a label for what?

Construct is a label for related behaviors in a cohesive set. An example is that depression is seen by identifying the certain behaviors associated with depressions such as crying, sleep disturbance, appetite change, etc...

What type of validity is based on experts' judgments?

Content validity is based on the experts' judgements of the suitability of a scale or test

A correlational study is designed to explore the relationship between what?

Correlations studies examine the relationship between two or more sets of scores. An example of this is exhibited in education research that correlates pairs of achievement test variables with each other. A hypothesis could be that scores on math word problems correlates with scores on reading test scores since the math word problems have a large reading component. b. Another example pertains to inverse correlations. An example is that for people who score high on the number times they have been arrested will score low on their level of respect for authority.

According to this chapter, preparing a table showing the key features of each article helps to overcome what problem?

Creating a table to show the key features of each article helps prevent getting lost in the details of each individual article you read, which can cause you to miss the overall trends and outcomes of the article. b. When preparing a table, there are several steps: i. Assign each article a unique identifier - a good example is the author's last name and the year of publication. Should be done in the first column of the table ii. Remaining columns can vary and possibly include: 1. Type of sample 2. Number of participants in the sample 3. Measurement approach 4. Overall results 5. Notable features iii. Once the table has been completed, further inspection of it can allow for further refinement of the research topic

Qualitative

Credibility and Dependability

What are the names of the two types of criterion-related validity discussed in this chapter?

Criterion-related validity is based on the correlation between the scores on a test or scale and the scores on a criterion (criterion being the standard by which something is judged). The two types of criterion-related validity are: i. Concurrent validity - occurs when the test that is being validated is administered at the same time (or concurrently) while the criterion scores are being collected ii. Predictive validity - this particular validity should be determined for tests and scales that are used to predict future behavior. An example of this is using a readiness test to determine how well a student will perform in a certain course. If a student scores low on the readiness test and low in the course (based on that extent), then the readiness test can said to have predictive validity

Which of the following provides more direct evidence of the validity of a measure?

Criterion-related validity provides more direct evidence of the validity of a measure compared to construct validity since two measures of the same construct are used in criterion-related validity. It is important to note that construct validity studies are desirable because they provide a complex picture of the validity of the measure

The term "empirical research" refers to making systematic observations to collect what?

Empirical research makes systematic observations to collect new information; empirical deriving from empiricism (which refers to acquiring information using observation).

When identifying the range of responses, this chapter suggests considering emotional tone as well as what else?

Emotional tone should be taken into consideration when identifying the range of responses along with the frequency, which is how often the incident happened.

Steps for building new measures in quantitative research:

Develop a plan o Have the plan reviewed o Revise the plan in light of the review o Write items based on the plan o Have the items reviewed o Revise the plan in light of the review o Pilot test the measure o Revise the measure in light of the pilot test

In the consensual qualitative approach, which of the following involves writing summaries (i.e., abstracts)?

Developing core ideas within domains

For improving convenience samples, it is recommended that researchers use

Diverse Sampling

What is an advantage of document/content-analysis research?

Document/content-analysis research is when human behavior is explored by examining the contents of documents. Examples of documents can potentially include mass-market publications, school board records, themes and characterizations in television programs and movies, and popular music. b. An advantage of document/content-analysis research is that typically good samples are able to be obtained. However, it is important to note that a disadvantage of document/content-analysis research is that it makes an assumption that these documents accurately reflect attitudes and beliefs of the people who wrote them and those who read them.

Which of the following is superior in terms of controlling the threat to internal validity called "history"?

Equivalent time samples design

Interaction of the independent variables

Examining two independent variables that work at the same time in the same experiment allows researchers to examine how the variables work together to produce differences on the dependent variable - each independent variables will each have an experimental group and a control group within it. So two independent variables can have 4 groups (see pg 212)

Treatments are given in which type of research?

Experimental Research

Which of the following refers to the appropriateness of generalizing the results of an experiment to a population

External validity

What is the name of the threat to external validity that results from nonrandom selection of individuals to participate in an experiment?

External validity occurs when results of an experiment can be generalized to a population outside the setting of the experiment. The name of the threat that results from nonrandom selection of individuals to participate in an experiment is called selection bias

"According to this chapter, because it is impossible to know how many of the individuals contacted will actually participate in a study, a proposal should not name a specific number." Is the preceding statement True or False?

False; even if a specific number can't be named, a range of numbers should at least be used. Doing so allows for feedback on the adequacy of the size.

If a sample has been drawn at random, it is safe to assume that it is free of errors." Is the preceding statement true or false?

False; though a sample can be unbiased, it is actually safe to assume that all samples are influenced by random errors. It is important to note that the larger the sample, the smaller the chance of large misinterpretation

A researcher obtained a mean of 100.0 and a standard deviation of 20.0 for a normal distribution. What percentage of these cases lies between the score of 80 and 120?

For a normal distribution, the percentage of cases that lie tween 80 and 120 is 68% as the inclusion of 68% within standard deviation of a unit of the mean is allows true for normal distribution

Which of the following in-text citations is consistent with APA style?

For two authors, an ampersand is included between the two authors' last names. Therefore the correct answer is: C. The results of recent research on the...consistent (Jones & Solis, 2012).

According to this chapter, what is "perhaps the most frequently used" approach to analysis of data in qualitative research?

Grounded theory, which actually does not refer to an actual theory pertaining to human behavior. It actually leads to theories of human behavior through an inductive method (inductive approach is considered a characteristic in all qualitative research). Ultimately, the researchers develop theories based on their data.

What is the name of the threat to internal validity that refers to any event external to the experiment that might have caused the change in participants' behavior?

History

Homogenous sampling is the opposite of what other type of sampling?

Homogeneous is the opposite of maximum variation sampling; This is true since maximum variation sampling allows for a full range of characteristics of interest while homogeneous purposively selects only individuals who are similar in specific and important ways

If there is a complete absence of a relationship, what value will the Pearson r have?

If there is a complete absence of a relationship, the value displayed for the Pearson r will be 0.00

When there is not an obvious skew, what two descriptive statistics should be used to describe interval and ratio data?

If there is not an obvious skew, the two descriptive statistics that should be used are the mean and standard deviation. However, when there is an obvious skew, median and interquartile range are the descriptive statistics that should be used

Broader term (BT) can be found in the ERIC thesaurus. This chapter mentions what other two types of terms that can be found there?

In addition to Broader terms, the other two terms that can be found in the ERIC thesaurus are narrower terms and related terms. i. Also found in the ERIC thesaurus is the definition of the term and the date the term was incorporated into the database.

In addition to questions about feelings, questions on attitude scales usually also ask about what?

In addition to feelings, attitude scales also ask about actions or potential actions since an attitude is considered to consist of feelings that lead to action or potential action.

In addition to providing a brief explanation of the reasons for asking sensitive demographic questions, what else can a researcher do to soften the impact of such questions?

In addition to providing the reasons to ask these questions, a range of choices can be offered, which allows the participants to answer honestly but without specifics

In addition to plan to have attitude items about specific components, it is often a good idea to plan to have an item or two that ask for what?

In addition to specific components, it is encouraged to include items that ask about overall attitudes

According to this chapter, an important consideration in establishing rapport is the match of what?

In order to collect credible data, rapport should be built between the participants and the interviewers. An important consideration is matching the background characteristics between the participants and interviewers

Is it necessary to have a pretest in order to have a true experiment?

In order to have a true experiment, random assignment is the requirement. Therefore, it is not necessarily required to have a pretest in order to be considered a true experiment. Not conducting a pretest allows the prevention of the external validity threat knows as reactive effects of testing as well as the internal threat known as testing. A benefit from a pretest can be the ability to document growth or change in a participant before and after an experiment.

Which type of research is more standardized?

In quantitative research, the results are reflected in numbers, such as scores or frequency counts that are able to be analyzed through statistical methods. In order to allow for meaningful analysis, the procedures used to obtain the information must be standardized so that they are the same for every participant. This particular research has a rigid, distant, and impersonal characterization. b. Qualitative research does not need to standardize the data collection to obtain scores. Therefore it does not need to be planned in advance and deviations are allowed and possibly even welcomed. This is quite the opposite compared to quantitative research. c. Therefore the answer to the question is that B. quantitative research is more standardized.

What is the name of the threat to internal validity that refers to possible changes in the measure?

Instrumentation; instrumentation can also refer to not only possible changes in the measure itself but the measurement process as well

What are the two reasons why interobserver reliability might be low?

Interobserver reliability refers to the same scores of two or more observers that are reached when they observe the same behavior of participants and is important when the observation process is not solely objective. There are two reasons why interobserver reliability may be low: i. The characteristic that is being judged may be inherently difficult to judge ii. One or both of the observers were not properly trained on how they should make the observations

For which of the following is it appropriate to calculate means and standard deviations?

Interval data

Subheadings for participants, measure, and procedures appear under what major heading in a research report?

It appears under the major heading, Method

According to this chapter, if only a sample of convenience can be obtained for a qualitative study on a given research topic, should a beginning researcher abandon the topic? Explain

It can be beneficial for a beginning researcher to use convenience sampling for a qualitative study because not only will it allow for the researcher to gain experience for future study; it can also determine whether additional research with better samples could be more fruitful.

Is it customary in an abstract to mention that a study is "qualitative" or to mention that a study is "quantitative"?

It is customary to mention that a study is qualitative in the abstract.

Name several phrases that might be used when citing the results of studies in which you have a high degree of confidence.

It is important to note that no measure is perfect in validity and reliability since perfect samples of participants are rarely available; therefore empirical research is subject to error. It is important to note that using wording to state that research has revealed a universal fact should not be done; instead, using certain phrases that incite confidence should be done. These phrases could possibly include: i. Overwhelming evidence ii. Strong evidence iii. Results of a definitive study iv. Seldom disputed v. Seems very likely that b. It is also important to not certain phrases that portray a weak degree of confidence. These could possibly include: i. Preliminary findings suggest ii. Based on a pilot study iii. Weak evidence hints at iv. It appears that v. Suggests the possibility that c. It is also important to note that when the degree of confidence is not established, then readers assume that the evidence is strong. Other important aspects of literature reviews are: - Pointing out consistent findings in literature, which allows for the author of the review to have a great deal of support for a particular topic; this in turns allows for more confidence in the literature review - In addition to identifying what has been studied, literature reviews should also point out the gaps in literature and what is not known about a topic. - Relevant theories should be discussed and its relationship to the topic (research that pertains to theory is generally held in higher regard). Doing so will ensure the reader is aware and understand the theory and how it relates to the topic. Also pointing out additional theories that support (and possibly contradict) the topic can be useful as well.

According to this chapter, is it ever appropriate to use the word "Prove" in the discussion of the results of empirical research? Explain.

It is not appropriate to use the word prove due to the fact that the trends in the data area going to be subject to error; therefore empirical research can only provide a certain level of evidence and not proof.

Is it possible for an experiment to have high external validity but low internal validity?

It is possible since external validity and internal validity have different definitions and requirements

Is it possible for an experiment to have low external validity but high internal validity?

It is possible since external validity and internal validity have different definitions and requirements

Would a probability of p less than 1 in 100 usually be regarded as statistically significant?

It is usually regarded as statistically significant because the null hypothesis can be rejected

In experimental designs, what does the dashed line stand for?

It represents that the two groups in the experiment are intact (they are groups that existed before the experiment and were not created specifically for the experiment)

What does the null hypothesis say about a correlation coefficient based on a sample from a population?

It states that there is no true correlation

Why might a researcher want to research for articles by restricting the search to only the title and/or abstract fields when using a database such as PsycARTICLES?

Limiting the search to terms that are listed only in the title of the article and/or the abstract allow for a more specific search to be conducted and not as many articles to be provided. If a term is just simply searched, then the term may be mentioned just one time in the article and not have a significant impact for that particular article. However, if that term is listed in the title or the abstract, then it is more likely to be more significant to that article (the core of the article) and could be more beneficial to the researcher conducting the literature review.

Which average is obtained by summing all the scores and dividing by the number of scores?

Mean

Which of the following always has 50% of the cases above it and 50% below?

Median

In "member checks", the term "member" refers to whom?

Members are referring to the participants in the study. A member check occurs when the participant meets with the researcher to review the data and results.

What is the name of the test used to compare pairs of means after a statistically significant F test?

Multiple comparisons test (which is based on the t-test)

Quantitative researchers use objective measures to collect data relating to their research hypotheses, purposes, or question. Their proposals should:

Names the measures that will be used o Briefly describe what they will measure o Describe the possible range of scores o Provide references where more information can be obtained o Provide samples if their reproduction in a proposal will not violate test security or copyright law o Summarize validity and reliability information

Can the t test be used to test for the overall significance of a set of three means?

No, it is only used to calculate the probability the sampling error created the between two means

The term nominal data refers to data that consists of what?

Nominal data consists of names or labels that contain actual words and no numbers

Data that have words instead of numbers to describe their categories are called what type of data?

Nominal data, which uses words that do not have a natural order they can follow

What type of nonexperimental research can be used to explore causality?

Nonexperimental research can be used to explore causality but is typically only used for that purpose when they are unable to conduct an experiment that administers treatments. For a quantitative nonexperimental research that explores causality is known as a causal-comparative research (also known as ex post facto research). In this type of research, existing groups are compared to identify a causal sequence in their histories. b. Three conditions must be met to use the causal comparative method: i. The goal is to investigate a cause-and-effect relationship ii. Treatments cannot be given iii. Two similar groups that differ in some outcome

Do all the pre-experimental designs have only one group of participants?

Not all pre-experimental designs have only one group of participants as the final pre-experimental design described in this chapter refers to the static group comparison design, which has an experimental group and a control group.

According to this chapter, is it acceptable to quote definitions from the literature?

Not only is it acceptable to quote definitions from the literature it is preferred. It is important to note that using previously published definitions aids in building consistent research on that particular topic.

In experimental designs, the letter "O" stands for what?

Observations; which is any type of measurement

How can a researcher's description of limitations in a published research report assist in the selection of a research topic?

Often listed in the "Discussion" portion of a research report, you can typically find the limitations of the study as well as future directions for research in light of the insights they have gained from the study. These particular limitations listed in the discussion portion can possibly be addressed by future researchers by conducting a replication of the research study in modified form to address the limitations. They then can see if in doing so, the data collected is affected.

What two reasons are given for why random sampling is sometimes not used?

One reason is that it is frequently difficult to identify all members of a population. b. Another reason is that potential participants whose names are randomly selected refuse to participate.

Do online surveys have an obvious bias? Explain

Online surveys do have an obvious bias specifically against individuals who do not have access to a computer or internet, which could include older individuals of minority groups as well as people with modest incomes or education.

Suppose you conducted an experiment in which both the experimental and control groups were given a pretest and a posttest in order to measure the amount of change for each group. How many t-tests should be conducted? Explain.

Only one t-test will need to be conducted on the amount of change (calculated for each participant by calculating the difference in each individual's posttest and pretest score) in each of the groups (which is two means).

When using grounded theory, which comes first?

Open coding, which is when specific ideas or experiences of the participants are identified and assigned a code, such as a specific color. Subcategories should also be assigned as needed.

Which type of definition is stated in terms of physical operations that will be taken to "see" the variables?

Operational variables; it is important to note that readers won't be able to fully understand the operationalization if no detailed descriptions of the measure are given

APA: American Psychological Association

Parenthetical in-text citations: o ONE Source § Two authors: (Edwards & Jones, 2012). § Three to Five authors: (Washington, Yu, & Gulvan, 2013). for the 1st citation only · Additional in-text citations for three to five authors will be the first author's name only (Washington et al., 2013). § Six or more authors: First and all times the course is cited is (Adams et al., 2012). o Two or more sources: § (Black, 2012; Brown et al., 2011; White & Bright, 2010). o Group is a course: § (Association for Hypothetical Studies, 2010). o Page numbers indicated: § (Lincoln & White, 2012, pp. 6-9). o For non-parenthetical in-text citations, the word "and" is used instead of "&" and is not included in the parentheses. The authors are also the subject of the sentence. An example is: In a newly published book, Bush and Clinton (2013) stress the importance of reducing tensions.

ASA: American Sociological Association

Parenthetical in-text citations: o One author: (Doe 2013). o Two authors: (Edwards and Jones 2012). o Three authors: (Washington, Yu and Galvan 2013). o Four or more authors: (Adams et al. 2012). o Two or more sources: (Black 2012; Brown et al. 2011; White and Bright 2010). o Group as a source: (Association for Hypothetical Studies 2010). o Page numbers indicated: (Lincoln and White 2012:6-9). Page numbers immediately appear right after the colon with no space o For non-parenthetical in-text citations, the word "and" is used instead of "&" and is not included in the parentheses. The authors are also the subject of the sentence. An example is: In a newly published book, Bush and Clinton (2013) stress the importance of reducing tensions. This is the same as APA

Which is the following subheadings usually appears first under the major heading of "Method"

Participants

"Peer debriefing" consists of what?

Peer debriefing is when a qualified researcher who is not directly involved with the data collection and analysis consult with the researcher who is. This qualified researcher assesses the theories and hypotheses that are merging from the data to determine their reasonability based on how the data was actually collected. It can be a committee member if a thesis is being completed. Or, it could possibly even be a peer should a qualified researcher not be available

Plausible incorrect choices in a multiple-choice item are ones that have what characteristic?

Plausible incorrect choices (known as distractors) should appeal to unskilled or unknowledgeable participants

According to the Campbell and Stanley (1966), which of the following are so weak that they are of almost no value in exploring cause-and-effect relationships?

Pre-experiments; specifically identified are three pre-experiments. They are: i. O X O (A pretest, followed by an experiment and then a posttest. However, there is only one group) ii. X O (There is no pretest administered and is known as the one shot case study) iii. X O / O (known as the static group comparison design and has an experimental and control group with a posttest but neither group receives a pretest. The dash also represents intact groups)

What are the two names given in this chapter for the possibility that the pretest in an experiment might sensitize participants to a treatment?

Pretest sensitization and reactive effects of experimental arrangements

What do probes request?

Probes are typically requested in semi-structured, open ended interviews and request additional information that pertain to the question that was originally asked. They can be helpful if the interviewee provides only vague information when answering a question or does not provide enough information

According to this chapter, which type of research has more potential for depth in understanding a problem?

Qualitative research has more potential for depth in understanding compared to quantitative research. A reason for this is that qualitative researchers are allowed deviations that enable them to be able to pursue a line of questioning that can be adjusted to allow for a more in depth understanding of the problem

For which type of research is it usually more appropriate for the writer to describe personal perspectives and experiences that relate to the research topic?

Qualitative research since that particular research is more subjective; therefore their personal perspectives may influence their methods of data collection and its interpretation

Do qualitative studies or quantitative studies tend to have larger samples?

Quantitative studies tend to have larger samples compared to qualitative studies. This is due to two factors: 1. Participants in qualitative studies are selected due to being considered rich with the needed information 2. Qualitative methods tend to take a lot of time to complete

What is described in this chapter as being a "neutral, nonjudgmental process"?

Random sampling

Null hypothesis occurs when:

Random sampling has created a difference between the samples that does not exist between the populations o There is no true difference between populations.

Rejecting the null hypothesis indicates that a result is

Statistically significant, which means that the relationship is reliable and was not likely created by random sampling errors.

Suppose an experiment was conducted in a psychology lab and the participant reacted differently to the treatments than they otherwise would have reacted in a natural setting. This illustrates what threat to external validity?

Reactive effects of experimental arrangements

Statistical regression (regression towards the mean)

Refers to the tendency of participants who are extremely high or extremely low to score closer to the mean upon retesting

When a difference is declared to be statistically significant, what decision has been made about the null hypothesis?

Reject the null hypothesis

When is deciding to replicate a published study especially recommended?

Replication is especially recommended for studies that had unexpected findings. An example is that a study produced results that are inconsistent with a well-known theory. Replicating the study can help establish whether the results are reliable. b. There are other replications of a study. One is called a modified replication that entails conducting the same study that is slightly altered such as using a different population, using different measuring tools, or using modified treatments.

Resending a questionnaire to nonrespondents usually increases response rates?" Is the preceding statement true or false?

Resending a questionnaire may increase a response rate in case the original questionnaire that was received was misplaced

"Reverse scoring" should be used for what?

Reverse scoring is used for an attitude scale and is specifically used for the items that express unfavorable attitudes. For example, if "Strongly Agree" is scored with five points on the favorable attitudes, then "Strongly Disagree" should be scored with five points on the unfavorable attitudes.

What type of sampling is especially recommended for identifying hard-to-find individuals?

Sampling that is recommended for identifying hard-to-find individuals is called snowball sampling. This particular sampling is sometimes called chain sampling or network sampling and occurs when the initial participants selected for the study identify additional participants to include in the study

The point of saturation (also known as the point of redundancy) is the point at which a researcher makes what judgment?

Saturation occurs when new participants fail to provide new and additional insights and information. If the point of saturation is reached, then the researcher must judge that adding new participants will not be beneficial by adding any further insights on the topic of interest. Though it is important for qualitative researchers to begin the study with a target number of individuals. Doing so will allow feedback on the suitability and feasibility pertaining to that number; even though there will be a possibility the number will change

What is the threat to internal validity that is created by comparing nonequivalent groups?

Selection; it is important to note that groups are presumed nonequivalent when nonrandom assignment is used to create both the experimental and control groups

In the grounded theory approach, what is the name of the type of coding on which a core category is developed?

Selective coding is when a core category is developed

What is the name of the technical term that refers to consciously thinking about traits and beliefs that might affect interviewers' decisions, both while conducting the interviews and analyzing the data?

Self-disclosure; this should occur before any interviews are conducted and the results should be noted in the research report

When using entire populations in a study, is it necessary to test the null hypothesis?

Since a null hypothesis is considered a sampling error, using an entire population is not considered sampling; therefore it is not necessary to test a null hypothesis

Which type of research is more likely to be based on research hypotheses?

Since hypotheses require structured studies in order to test very specific predictions, they are almost always used in B. quantitative research

Which one of the following is usually more important?

Since it is a general rule to select a smaller sample that reflects more diversity of the population of interest compared to a large population with a small range of diversity, the best answer would be B. Selecting a sample that reflects the diversity of the population

The term social desirability refers to the tendency of participants to do what?

Social desirability occurs when participants report answers they believe are desired, specifically from a social standpoint. This can be limited by ensuring participants that this is for research purposes only and that only statistics and percentage will be reported, and that responses will be recorded anonymously

According to this chapter, is there any circumstance under which beginning researchers should derive new measures? Explain.

Sometimes new measures need to be derived and can possibly be done in the event that the measures and research goal can be greatly improved if a new measure is derived. It is important to note that for beginner researcher that they may be required to defend their new measure's validity and reliability in their thesis or dissertation. Chapters 14 and 16 will have more details

According to this chapter, what does a hypothesis predict?

Specifically, a research hypothesis predicts the outcome of a study. The predication can be based on a theory, results of previous research, or both. The research hypothesis is typically stated at the end of a literature review.

Which of the following is used to describe variability?

Standard deviation; it is important to note a more common way to describe the variability is by using standard deviation (which indicates the variability of the middle two-thirds of a group).

What is the name of the type of sampling in which a population is first divided into subgroups and then individuals are drawn at random from each subgroup?

Stratified random sampling

What is the suggested descriptor for an r of -0.66?

Strong (in reference to an inverse relationship)

According to this chapter, suggestions for further research should be made in which section of a research report?

Suggestions for further research should be included in the discussion section. Other aspects of the discussion section include: i. Should begin with a brief summary of the material included in the research report, and it should state the purpose of the survey and the major results. It is also encouraged to inform the reader whether or not the results were consistent with the results discussed in the literature review ii. Following the summary, limitations should be discussed iii. If applicable, special strengths of the study should be identified iv. Implications should be addressed, which should refer to specific actions that would be beneficial v. If the discussion section is appearing to be too long, subheadings can be included: Summary; Limitations and Strengths; Implications; Suggestions for Future Research

Are surveys a form of experimental research? Explain

Surveys are considered nonexperimental because their purpose is to describe the characteristics of a population (or populations) as they currently exist without experimental treatment.

Library Research:

Systematic collection and interpretation of materials written by others

Selecting every third name from a list is an example of what type of sampling?

Systematic sampling, which can be stated as drawing every nth individual from a list, where n is the interval size, which can be large or small. It is important to note that a possible weakness is that the order which the participants are listed may be biased. Therefore other options could be using a list based on alphabetical order and be made all the way through the list (not stopping at a certain point)

Three factors that reduce test-retest reliability are listed in this chapter. What is the first one?

Test-retest reliability is determined by administering the test twice (a certain time apart from each other) to the same sample of participants. If the test is reliable then the results should be similar for each test administration. b. The three factors that reduce test-retest reliability are: i. Guessing on a test or making random marks (Which is the first one listed in this chapter) ii. Changes in physical and mental status of the examinees iii. Changes in how the test was administered and testing conditions

What is the name of the threat to internal validity that is also called the "practice effect"?

Testing; which is a threat to internal validity that is the result of learning how to take a specific test. This is done by the participant learning from the pretest, which in turn causes increased performance on the posttest

The term opportunistic sampling is synonymous with the term convenience sampling." Is the preceding statement true or false?

That statement is false because sometimes opportunistic sampling may not be convenient at all, which is the guideline for convenient sampling. Opportunistic sampling occurs as the opportunity arises

When searching a database for literature using two terms, use of which one of the following Boolean operators will identify the largest number of journal articles?

The Boolean operator that will identify the largest number of journal articles is "OR" as it increases the number of articles while the "NOT' and "AND" operators decreases them.

What is the name of the significance test discussed in this chapter that tests the null hypothesis involving percentages?

The Chi-Square test

To control for the Hawthorne Effect, what type of control group should be used?

The Hawthorne Effect is when participants tend to improve because they know they are being studied. To control for that, an attention control group could possibly be used. An example of that would be that the control group would receive special attention by being given a treatment that should not affect the outcome of the experiment.

Which statistic is an alternative to the mean when a distribution is highly skewed?

The Median because it is unaffected by small amounts of extreme scores

According to this chapter, except for theses and dissertations, an abstract of about how many words is appropriate in most cases?

The abstract, which is a brief summary found below the title of a research report, are about one hundred fifty words or less. However, the abstract may be longer than that for theses and dissertations.

Suppose someone was writing a review on physical barriers faced in elementary schools by students with impaired vision. According to this chapter, which of the following would be a good approach for beginning the written literature review? Explain your answer.

The best answer would be B that states: Begin by citing government estimates of the number of elementary school students who have impaired vision. Describe the types of physical barriers such students often face in schools, as well as recent attempts to remove or mitigate the effects of these barriers. Also, cite laws that relate to the removal of physical barriers for students with impaired vision and the effectiveness of these laws. i. B was a better answer compared to A for several reasons. Particularly A was entirely too broad. In order to determine why A was too broad and why B is the better option, it is necessary to identify certain components of a good beginning for a literature review. These include: 1. Naming a specific topic (and not starting with a broad statement) 2. Utilizing statistics to establish importance of the topic 3. Providing conceptual definitions to avoid confusion on the topic 4. Provide a brief history of the topic b. The answer B encompassed several of these components. When stating "Begin by citing government estimates of the number of elementary school students who have impaired vision", they are using statistics; more specifically government statistics to ensure accuracy. They are also portraying a specific topic, which is elementary students who have impaired vision. When stating "Describe the types of physical barriers such students often face in schools, as well as recent attempts to remove or mitigate the effects of these barriers", they are can provide the definitions of the actual barriers that students with impaired vision are facing as well as providing a brief (yet recent) history on attempts to remove or mitigate the effects of these barriers. Combine that statement with "cite laws that relate to the removal of physical barriers for students with impaired vision and the effectiveness of these laws", then those combined even further narrow the topic to focus on not only elementary school students with impaired vision but removal of physical barriers for these specific students

The way to avoid both subtle and obvious biases is to remove what from the selection process?

The best way to avoid subtle and obvious biases is to remove human judgment from the selection process, which can be done by implementing a nonjudgmental and neutral process known as random sampling. There are two types of random sampling: i. Simple random sampling give each individual an equal and independent chance of being selected ii. Stratified random sampling divides the population into subgroups that each have a common characteristic

Which one of the following in-text citations for a source with seven co-authors is consistent with ASA style?

The correct answer is B. Teachers in the survey were the most...involvement (Chin et al. 2010). This is due to the fact that there are no commas to separate the authors' last names and the date of the publication.

Which of the following in-text citations is consistent with ASA style?

The correct answer is B. The results of the recent research on the...consistent (Jones and Solis 2012). This is due to the fact that the word "and" is used instead of the ampersand and there is no comma.

Which statistic mentioned in this chapter is designed to describe the relationship between two interval variables?

The correlation coefficient (Pearson r), which describes the direction of a relationship. The relationship can be direct (positive) or inverse (negative).

What is the deficiency in the following hypothesis? "It is hypothesized that nurses will report 25% more occupational stress that physicians will report."

The deficiency in this hypothesis is that it refers to a specific statistical outcome, which is not recommended since it will not confirm the hypothesis if the exact statistic is not produced. Instead of a specific statistic, a researcher should point out the direction of the predicted outcome.

What is the deficiency in the following research purpose? "The research purpose is to explore the effectiveness of therapy."

The deficiency in this research purpose is that it lacks specificity. It wants to explore the effectiveness of therapy but does not state what type of therapy as well as what specifically the therapy is addressing.

What is the definition of the interquartile range?

The definition is stated as the range of the middle 50% of the scores

A control group received ordinary teacher-led instruction with a textbook in solving math word problems. At the same time, an experimental group received the same instruction as the control group except that they also practiced numerous word problems presented in a new workbook. The hypothesis was that using the new workbook would increase the number of correct answers on a test of the ability to solve math word problems. In this example, what is the dependent variable?

The dependent variable is the outcome; therefore for this example, the dependent variable would be the amount of correct answers on a test of the ability to solve math word problems

A student formatted the following reference to a journal article using APA style. There is one error in the reference. What is the error?

The error for that particular reference is that it used the word "and" instead of the ampersand when listing the authors of the article. It should have read: Kirk, D. S., & Sampson, R. J. (2013). Juvenile arrests and collateral educational damage in the transition to adulthood. Sociology of Education, 86, 36-62. doi: 10.1177/0038040712448862

A student formatted the following reference to a journal article using ASA style. There is one error in the reference. What is the error?

The error is that the volume is listed in parentheses and not the issue number, and it should read as follows: i. Shriver, Lenka, Nancy M. Betts, and Gina Wollenberg. 2013. "Dietary Intakes and Eating Habits of College Athletes: Are Female College Athletes Following the Current Sports Nutrition Standards?" Journal of American College Health 1(61): 10-16.

Three considerations for determining practical significance are discussed in this chapter. What is the first one that is discussed?

The first one discussed is cost in relation to benefit and determining whether the benefit justifies the cost. The other two mentioned are: i. Considering whether or not the statistically significant results suggest actions that are questionable from an ethical or legal standpoint ii. Acceptability

When pilot testing an attitude scale, two techniques are recommended. What is the name of the first one mentioned in this chapter?

The first technique mentioned is the "think aloud" technique, which consists of participants in the pilot study reading the questions aloud and stating their thoughts when answering b. The second technique listed has the participants in the pilot study list notes in the margins pertaining to anything they may have questions about or anything that disturbs them

In the grounded theory approach, what is the name of the first type of coding?

The first type of coding is open coding, which is when distinct, separate segments of participant responses of the participants are identified and then given a name

What is a disadvantage of using a measure widely used in previous studies on a topic?

The flaws that the measure contains will affect results of all the studies. Therefore, a justification may be needed when conducting another study on the same topic that utilizes the same measure.

A set of treatments in an experiment is called what?

The independent variable

Shriver, Lenka, Nancy M. Betts, and Gina Wollenberg. 2013. "Dietary Intakes and Eating Habits of College Athletes: Are Female College Athletes Following the Current Sports Nutrition Standards?" Journal of American College Health 1(61): 10-16. what is the issue number?

The issue number is 61

Suppose you were using the information in the formatted reference in Question 5 to write a reference formatted in ASA style. What information is missing that you would have to look up elsewhere in order to complete the reformatting?

The issue number would need to be located as that is a requirement for all ASA references to journal articles

What is the flaw in the following observation checklist item? "______ Sits quietly in class, but answers questions when requested."

The item is flawed because it lists two separate behaviors, and an item on a checklist should only contain a single, distinguishable behavior

What is the key to successful planning of an achievement test?

The key is to base the achievement test on the objectives. Also while planning, it needs to be determined whether or not all objectives will be addressed or just a select number.

What is a key problem with the time-series design?

The key problem for the time series design is that an internal threat known as history may pose an issue as there may be outside factors that take place when the experiment is taking place

In the formatted reference in Question 5, what is the name of the journal?

The name of the journal is Sociology of Education

The social welfare clients in one city were given an experimental counseling on job placement. The clients in another city served as the control group. There was a pretest and a posttest for each group. What is the name of this design?

The name of this design is the Non-Equivalent Control group and is considered a quasi-experimental design.

Suppose a group of participants was first given Treatment X in an experiment and then was given Treatment Y. What is the name of the threat to external validity that warns that what was learned about the effectiveness of Treatment Y might not apply in a population without first administering Treatment X?

The name of this particular threat is multiple-treatment interference

According to this chapter, which one of the following types of research would typically be expected to have a larger number of participants?

The need for a specific number of participants for a study depends on the study. For term projects, a small number of participants may be allowed. For a thesis or dissertation, a larger number than what is required for a term project may be required. Well designed and executed experiments can also allow for a small number of participants. Since qualitative research focuses on in-depth research, then it typically has a smaller number of participants. However, a large, readily accessible, population with hundreds of participants may be needed for a survey to determine its reliability Therefore, the correct answer is that C. Survey research would typically be expected to have a large number of participants. c. However, it is important to note that HOW participants are selected is typically more important than how many are selected.

Which hypothesis attributes to differences to random error?

The null hypothesis as it specifically states that a difference could have possibly been created due to errors caused by random sampling, also known as sampling errors.

For the relationship between two nominal variables, the null hypothesis can be tested using what test?

The null hypothesis is the possibility that random samples differ from each other only because of random sampling. The null hypothesis for the relationship between two nominal variables can be tested using the chi-square test. In doing so, the probability of the null hypothesis being true can be identified.

For a pilot test of an achievement test, what two types of examinees should be included, if possible?

The pilot test should be conducted on participants who will not participate in the main study. It should also include two types of examinees: ones who are typically of low achievement and those who are typically of high achievement.

"According to this chapter, researchers prefer to collect ordinal data when possible." Is the preceding statement true or false?

The preceding statement is false as ordinal data provides limited information. However, if it must be used, it can be summarized with the median and interquartile range

"Pilot studies with small samples are almost always never published in academic journals." Is the preceding statement true or false?

The preceding statement is false as pilot studies can contribute more knowledge on a topic, especially if they have promising results and there is high need for the research. It is important to note that publication of pilot studies can encourage other researchers to conduct further research.

The terms in an email survey and an Internet survey are synonymous." Is the preceding statement true or false?

The preceding statement is false because an email survey typically contains just a few simple questions while an internet survey can contain more, though not too many as that could limit the response rate.

This chapter strongly encourages beginning researchers to build new measures." Is the preceding statement true or false?

The preceding statement is false. The chapter does not encourage beginning researchers to build new measures. It actually provides some insight on how to access established measure. However, the chapter does note that some studies requires new measures to be created and provides information on how to build three commonly created by beginning researchers

"A limitation of the Educational Testing Services ETS Test Collection Database is that it is restricted to educational tests." Is the preceding statement true or false?

The preceding statement is false; this particular database, which contains descriptions for over 25,000 measures (including research and unpublished measures), is not restricted to just educational tests. It is also useful for locating measures on specialized topics

The results section tends to be longer for which type of report?

The reports for qualitative studies are typically much longer compared to the reports for quantitative studies because the results for quantitative studies area mainly expressed in precise numbers while the results for qualitative studies are expressed through words that portray justifications. Specifically in qualitative studies, the results section typically contain quotes from participants as it helps provide raw data and give the reader an insight to better understand the results. It is important to note that quotations included in the results section be introduced by stating the principle, theme, or outcome it will portray.

This chapter mentions two potential advantages of using measures employed in previous research. What is the second one that is mentioned?

The second potential advantage of using measures employed in previous research listed in this chapter is that it helps building a consistent body of research. An example of this is that using the same measurements to compare two groups (one from each different study) will allow the researcher to determine that the results do not vary because of the differences in measurements since they are the same.

What is the name of the statistic that is almost always used to describe a distribution that is not skewed?

The standard deviation describes the variation when the mean has been used as the average; and the mean is typically used when there is not an obvious skew

"Because the purpose of consensual qualitative research is to reach unanimous agreement (i.e., consensus), it is never appropriate for researchers to work independently at any point when using this approach." Is the preceding statement true or false?

The statement is false as it is encouraged for the researchers to work independently at first to develop the domains and then meet to refine the domains. It is the same process for developing the core ideas as well; it is actually highly recommended to work independently when developing core ideas

In the three examples of response rates to Internet surveys, all examples have response rates of 90% or more." Is the preceding statement true or false?

The statement is false as the highest response rate from the three examples listed in the internet survey was only 46.1%

In a pilot study, individuals who will participate in the main study should be used." Is the preceding statement true or false?

The statement is false as the pilot study should NOT include individuals who will participate in the study.

In open coding, categories and subcategories should be developed before beginning to analyze data." Is the preceding statement true or false?

The statement is false because the data has to be analyzed to determine what the actual categories and subcategories will be. This is done by examining the data for distinct and separate segments.

Because the response rate to online surveys is almost always less than 100%, such surveys are presumed to have biased samples." Is the preceding statement true or false?

The statement is true as both online and direct mail surveys typically have a substantially low response rate, and they are presumed to be biased in favor of more educated individuals who have higher literacy skills and/or frequent access to the internet.

A given experiment can have more than one dependent variable." Is the preceding statement true or false

The statement is true, however it is important to note that the number of dependent variables that can be measured is limited to a reasonable amount of outcomes that could possibly be affected by the independent variable(s) as well as the participants' willingness to actually complete the entire assessment for each dependent variable

What is the primary disadvantage of tape recording responses?

The tape recorder may inhibit participants, so an alternative may be for the interviewer to take notes. Though taking notes has two major disadvantages: 1. They will not provide complete record of the responses 2. Complicates the work for the interviewer

In the consensual qualitative approach, the "general" category refers to what percentage of cases?

The term general applies to all cases. The term typical applies to at least half (but not all) cases. The term variant applies to fewer than half of the cases

The pilot study should not be done on participants who will be included in the main study. There are two techniques to get information on the quality of the items in a pilot study:

The think aloud technique can be employed by asking each respondent in the pilot study to read each statement aloud and state what they are thinking as they answer each one o The second technique is to ask respondent in the pilot study to write notes in the margins on anything that bothers them, is unclear, etc...

Three criteria are mentioned in this chapter for selecting quotations to use in a report of the results. What is the second one that is mentioned?

The three criteria that were mentioned are: i. Selecting quotations that are representative (which is most common) ii. The second criteria mentioned is the degree in which a participant articulates the main idea iii. The third criteria is the intensity, such as using strong words to indicate the intensity of the concept

What are the three variables in the following hypothesis? "It is hypothesized that the quality-of-life ratings will be directly related to income and will be inversely related to social isolation."

The three variables are quality-of-life ratings, income, and social isolation

The title of a research project should be a brief statement that names what?

The title should be a brief statement that includes the names of the major variables in the research hypothesis, question, or purpose for proposals and research reports.

Should the availability of participants be considered only after a research topic has been refined into research purposes/hypotheses? Explain.

The topic needs to be refined to a certain point to determine the actual participants that are needed to complete the study. Once you have determined that early in the topic identification process, it is important to ensure participants are available as some may be too difficult to reach to conduct the study or may not be able to at all depending on each unique situation and research project. Examples of this may be that there are not enough participants to participate in the study to ensure accurate data; or the participants may be minors that are required to have parent consent before they are able to participate, but the parents refuse to approve. If the researcher finds that the participants needed for the study are not available early in the process, they can either reassess the topic to determine if there are other options for participants or they can abandon the study altogether. Either way, selecting participants early in the process will prevent time and effort wasted.

Independent variables

The treatment variable

In research, a treatment variable is known as:

The treatment variable is known as the Independent variable (B)

In the formatted reference in Question 5, what is the volume number?

The volume number is 86

Which of the following is generally held in higher regard?

Theoretical research is held in higher regard i. Theories are statements of principles that help explain why a wide array of behaviors is exhibited and how certain types of behaviors are associated with other types. ii. Suitable research can be found be considering predictions based on a theory. iii. Testing a prediction based on a theory is similar to a test of the theory. iv. Research contributing to theory building is held in higher regard compared to non-theoretical research due to the fact that theories have many applications; and research that tests theories typically has more implications than research that does not explore issues from a theoretical perspective.

How many elements should be covered in the section of the proposal on participants?

There are 5 elements that should be covered in the participant section of the proposal i. It should start with the population description or pool from the population from which the participants will be selected. ii. The second section should determine how many names will be selected iii. Provide the best estimate regarding the rate of participation iv. Describe the procedures for collecting the informed consent v. Discuss any possible limitations to participant selection and they could possibly affect the results

Are qualitative researchers especially concerned with drawing samples from which they can generalize populations?

They are not as they are more concerned with collecting information from purposeful samples, which refers to purposive sampling

In the equivalent time samples design, how should the days for treatment be selected?

They should be selected at random

Why is program evaluation called a "hybrid" in this chapter?

This chapter refers to program evaluation as a "hybrid" since some evaluation efforts have similarities to experimental research while others have similarities to nonexperimental research. b. Program that are administered can be viewed as a treatment to participants (which pertains to experimental research). However, some elements of program evaluation do not deal with the effects or outcomes of the program. It can focus instead on factors affecting their implementation (which pertains to nonexperimental research).

Extreme or deviant sampling is sometimes used to select participants from both ends of a continuum." Is the preceding statement true or false?

This is true as doing so can allow the researcher to contrast both extremes to provide insight of the dynamics of these specific attitudes

According to this chapter, everyday observations can be a source of ideas for research topics. This is especially true when what is observed?

This is true when something unexpected is observed.

Supposed that 10% of the names of students were drawn separately at random from each grade level in a high school. What is the name of this type of sampling?

This particular sampling is known as stratified random sampling since the same percentage of individuals is drawn from each subgroup at random

In qualitative research, preliminary, informal data analysis is usually performed when?

This typically occurs during the data collection process, which is in contrast to quantitative research.

In an inverse relationship, which of the following is true?

Those individuals who score with high scores on one variable tend to have low scores on the other variable

Are there times when it might be appropriate to use a previously developed interview protocol?

Though it is much more common with quantitative research, using previously developed interview protocol can be possible in qualitative research.

According to this chapter, it is best to reserve the term criterion sampling for use when what is done?

Though some researchers use purposively sampling and criterion sampling interchangeably, it is best to use criterion sampling for establishing clear-cut, specific criteria when identifying potential participants

To determine alpha, a test must be administered how many times to a group of examinees?

To determine alpha, the test needs to only be administered one to the groups of examines, but their results are split as many ways as possible. Once their results have been split as many ways as possible, the results of each split has a coefficient computed for it and then all of the coefficients that have been computer for each split are averaged together.

For observation checklists

To evaluate a construct such as sociability, specific behaviors should be identified that are indicators of the trait. The context within which the observations will be made should also be put in writing in the plan

"When qualitative researchers plan to interview participants using open ended questions, they should indicate in the proposal the types of information that will be collected." Is the preceding statement True or False?

True

Having experts make judgments regarding the contents of a measure is an approach to studying which of the following?

Validity

Quantitative

Validity and reliability

Which of the following deals with the extent to which the results are consistent?

Validity is of great concern in quantitative research and refers to the extent to which measures are measuring what they are supposed to be measuring. Reliability refers to consistency, which is desirable for measuring a stable trait. b. Therefore the correct answer is B. Reliability

What is the technical term for the "amount of spread" in a set of scores?

Variability

What is the suggested descriptor for an r of 0.88?

Very strong (in reference to a direct relationship)

What is the suggested descriptor for an r of 0.22?

Weak (in reference to a direct relationship)

In some experiments, a series of pretests are given before a treatment is given. What is the technical name for these pretests?

When there are a series of pretests given (technically called a baseline), the specific quasi-experimental design referring to this is known as the time-series design.

What is the first step in writing an essay that synthesizes what studies report about a topic?

When writing an essay that synthesizes what studies report, a topic outline should be written. In that outline, you should include certain topics such as: i. Article identifiers at appropriate points (authors' last names and year of publication) ii. It is important to note that an article may be cited more than one time in the topic outline and that more than one article may be cited for a specific topic

Many researchers provide demographic information in the subsection on participants. Other researchers present this information in what other section of their research reports?

While many researchers provide the demographic information on the participants in the participants subsection, some researchers choose to provide it at the beginning of the results section

Is auditing used in consensual qualitative research?

Yes, auditing is used in consensual data research to ensure the data is represented accurately. It is important to note that the auditor is not involved in the initial process of collecting and analyzing the data.

Discrepant cases

an example is that if most participants had negative feelings towards their distant and abusive father but only a few have a positive feeling towards their father, then the ones with the positive attitude should be considered discrepant

Demographics:

background characteristics of the individuals being studied.

Social Work Abstracts

covers child and family welfare, drug and alcohol addiction, civil rights, family welfare, and various human services

Direct mail surveys are presumed to be unbiased." Is the preceding statement true or false?

false

The "key to a useful pilot test of a checklist" is to do what?

he key to a useful pilot test of a checklist is to have two or more observers observe the same participants and utilize the checklist while doing so. It is preferred that the observers be the same ones who will be participating in the main study, and it is also preferred that the observers to do not communicate with each other while conducting the pilot study of the checklist. Once they have completed the pilot study of the checklist, they can then communicate with each other to determine the extent to which they agree or disagree with their results. If there are any disagreements over certain items, they can be reassessed and determine if the statements can be written in a more concrete manner. Definitions can also be written into the checklist items if necessary

"A limitation of the Education Resources Information Center's (i.e., ERIC's) database is that it only indexes literature on classroom and curriculum issues." Is this preceding statement true or false?

he preceding statement is false since the term education in "ERIC" refers to education in a broad sense. ERIC contains references to more than a million records that provide citations to journal articles, books, conference papers, and more. These records pertain to more than just classroom education and its curriculum; such examples include sociology and business to name a couple. i. ERIC is a free system for all internet users and its homepage provides information about its services, history, and how to conduct effective searches for relevant literature.

PsycARTICLES and PsycINFO:

maintained by American Psychological Association (APA).

Obtrusiveness of measurement -

occurs when measurement at any point in an experiment might obtrude on participants and cause them to react differently than they would if there was no measurement. Unobtrusive measures can be taken to avoid this threat; they can also be done in natural settings (called filed experiments) through observation from a distance or indirect observation

Diagramming

places the core concept in a top box and the categories and subcategories below. Can also include: 1. Intervening conditions 2. Associational 3. Implications

CSA Sociological Abstracts

published by Cambridge Scientific Abstracts. Covers fields including sociology, anthropology, criminology, social psychology, and urban studies.

Dependent variables

the outcome variable

Contingency table

two way table helps determine if a relationship exists between two nominal variables

Intercoder agreement

when two researchers code the data and are in agreement

What is the name of the website that allows a researcher to access statistics from more than 100 federal agencies?

www.FedStats.gov is the web address, and researchers can search by agency as well as by topic. Searching by topic automatically searches all agencies for relevant links to federal statistics. This is useful as it allows the researcher to not be required to search each agency separately, and may provide statistics on a topic from an agency the researcher may not be familiar with at first.