Organization Psychology
Spector's 5 Categories
1) Production deviance 2) sabotage 3) theft 4) withdrawal 5) abuse towards others
Guys and Sackett CWB
1) Theft and related constructs 2) destruction of property 3) misuse of information 4) misuse of time and resources 5) unsafe behavior 6) poor attendance 7) poor quality 8) alcohol use 9) drug use 10) inappropriate verbal action 11) inappropriate physical action
Work-to-family conflict percentage
25% to 50% of working adults 25-54 years of age, working 20 or more hours a week experience work-to-family conflict.
Americans receiving benefits 1935 and present
6% in 1935 2014 - 15%, estimated to be 20% by 2050 Life expectancy 78 into late 80s
Common Forms of CWB Abuse of Other
A range of behaviors from rudeness to violence Incivility Abusive supervision Social undermining
Types of workplace harassment
Abuse of others Absenteeism (withdrawal)
Models of Job Performance
Aimed at identifying performance dimensions common to all jobs Several dimensional models: In- versus extra-role performance Campbell's eight-dimensional framework (Table 5.1) Murphy's four-dimensional model (Table 5.2)
OCB (organizational citizenship behavior)
An employee behavior that is not required under a formal job description (i.e. Altruism general courtesy) is known in organization psychology as ________________.
Time-Based in a sentence
An employee has to stay late to finish up a work project and can't make it to her child's soccer game. This is an example of _____________work family conflict.
Effectiveness
An evaluation of the results of an employee's actual performance on the job evaluation of the employee's ____________________.
Feldman's model of organizational socialization
Anticipatory Socialization Encounter Change and Acquisition Behaviorial Outcomes Affective Outcomes
Defining counterproductive behavior
Any behavior that goes against an organization's goals Many behaviors can fit in this category Few specific counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs) have been studied in organizations
Determinates of Job Performance
At a general level, a person's performance on the job is due to a combination of: Ability Motivation Situation Several other models have expanded upon this general idea Figure 5.1 provides a summary
Work and Nonwork Interface
Basic assumptions Work is separate and distinct Boundaries between work and other parts are permeable Work and other parts are important to one's self-concept
Adaptive Performance
Behaviors employees perform in challenging and changing work contexts Eight types of adaptive performance Examples: Handling emergencies or crisis situations Handling work stress Solving problems creatively Dealing with uncertain and unpredictable situations
Organization Citizenship Behaviors
Behaviors that go beyond those required for (or rewarded in) the job Organ's classification: Altruism Courtesy Sportsmanship Conscientiousness Civic virtue Main reasons for OCB: Positive affect, equity, and disposition/personality
Structure of CWB
Bennett and Robinson's Two-Factor Model Organizational and individual CWB Spector's Five-Factor Model Production deviance Sabotage Theft Withdrawal Abuse toward others Gruys and Sackett's 11-Factor Model Comment 6.1: Edward Snowden
Personality predictor of Job Performance
Big Five dimensions of personality (conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness to experience, extraversion, and neuroticism) as predictors of performance. Combine different traits into "super trait" Emerging trait of proactive personality examined-consistently found to predict job performance. Person conscientious described as dependable, goal-oriented, planful, and achievement-oriented. 37% correlation between conscientiousness and job performance.
Counterproductive Workplace Behavior and deviance
CWP Behaviors must be volitional in order to be considered CWP. Person must consciously decide to engage in the behavior. *People may fail to get work done on certain day because they made a conscious decision to waste time; on other hand, people failed to get work done because they attend a family matter is not engaging in CWB. They would get work done if the family matter had not come up.
recruitment process
Can be viewed from organization or applicant perspective For an organization it: Involves careful planning Requires appropriate choice of methods
The Socialization Process
Can view in terms of stages (Figure 3.1): Anticipatory socialization Encounter Change and acquisition Can also consider by reviewing new hires' behaviors and affects
Instability of Job Performance over time
Challenge of assessing employee performance when it changes over time (i.e., when it is not stable) Comment 5.4 Possible reasons for instability: Changes in employee's knowledge Changes in the job's characteristics
Types of Retirement Plans
Complete Withdrawal - Full retirement w/no workforce involvement Partial Withdrawal - Bridge employment in one's profession - Bridge employment outside of one's profession. Phased Retirement - Gradual reduction in one's workforce involvement over time.
Campbell's Model of Job Performance
Complex interaction of: Declarative knowledge Procedural knowledge/skill Motivation Many other individual characteristics are also likely to play a role
Personality Traits that surface as CWB
Conscientiousness, trait anger, self-control and narcissism Person based "bad apple"
Common Forms of CWB Predictors of Absenteeism
Consistent but weak link between affect and absenteeism Other predictors include: Ability and desire to attend Gender Organization's absence control policies and absence culture Some evidence that cultural differences may be seen in terms of reasons for absence and the power of absence culture or norms within an organization (Comment 6.2)
Behavioral Indexes of Socialization
Custodianship Content innovation Role innovation Turnover may indicate failed socialization Comment 3.3: Socialization and conformity Comment 3.4: Socialization into academia
Consequences of work-family conflict
Decreased physical and psychological well-being Decreased job and career satisfaction Work-family enrichment/facilitation
Transition out of work: Retirement
Defining retirement: Retirement is a withdrawal from work for a significant period of time with a plan to reduce the amount of work afterward Various forms: Table 4.2 Complete withdrawal Bridge employment Phased retirement
Low Base Rate CWB: Production Deviance/Sabotage
Deliberate wasting of time or poor job performance Opportunity for CWB (Comment 6.4) Impression management
Diversity and Organizational Socialization
Demographic characteristics can influence and challenge the socialization process In versus out group issues Experienced versus newcomer mentalities Need for valid selection procedures to ensure no adverse impact Need fair reward systems that do not discriminate, but that do encourage
Information Seeking
Dynamic over time, as information needs change Good sources for one type of information at one point in time may not be consistent over time Changes in a role will especially require additional information seeking
Defining productive behavior
Employee behavior that contributes to the goals of the organization Three common forms: Job performance Organizational citizenship behaviors Innovation
Productive Behavior
Employee behavior that contributes to the goals of the organization Three common forms: Job performance Organizational citizenship behaviors Innovation
FLSA
Fair Labor Standards Act. Sets a minimum wage, maximum number of hours and minimum age 14 restricts number of hours for those 16 and under
FSOP
Family Supportive Organization Perceptions
Behavior-based FIW
Family interfering w/work. A person is too forgiving with a customer on his or her payments due to the following nature of being a parent.
Strain-Based FIW Conflict
Family interfering w/work. A person is unable to focus on the meeting at work due to a lack of sleep from staying up with a sick child.
Time-based FIW
Family interfering w/work. A person must leave work unexpectedly to pick up sick child from school.
Teenagers reason for working
Fill up idle-time, gain experience, some financial independence, parents believe it's a positive developmental experience, helps with future career plans, to help support family income or save money for college
Factors influencing type of retirement
Financial planning Age of individual Health Organizational commitment
Recruitment Planning
Four main issues to consider during planning: Organization's strategy Succession needs Required skills Current labor supply
Socialization Tactics Table 3.3
From Van Maanen and Schein (1979): Collective versus individual Formal versus informal Sequential versus random Fixed versus variable Serial versus disjunctive Investiture versus divestiture
GMA
General Mental Ability Strongest predictor of job performance results of more than 40 different studies showed that GMA accounted for between 11% and 29% of the variance in the performance of the different jobs represented, and that the more narrow cognitive abilities were often more predictive the GMA. Higher level of GMA generally higher level understanding their job duties including more complex jobs such as flying an airplane vs working at a convenient store.
Chao, O'Leary-Kelly, Wolf, Klein and Gardner (1994) 6 Dimensions
History, Language, Politics, People, Organizational goals and values, Performance proficiency
Special Issues in OCB Research
How is OCB linked with employee and organization performance and effectiveness? Does OCB à effectiveness or vice versa? The construct validity of OCB What role do employee expectations play? Will OCB remain a viable construct in the future?
Substance Abuse
Illegal drug use is limited, but alcohol and over-the-counter (OTC) drugs are more prevalent Problem because of absenteeism and counterproductive behaviors Personality (reliability) and other personal characteristics (background) have been studied as predictors of substance use Stressful job conditions and social norms at work may also contribute Drug testing (Comment 6.5)
Negative workplace behaviors
Incivility & absences workplace incivility represents behavior that is rude or discourteous and generally violates shared societal norms for how people should be treated. (i.e. the orange man)
Married couples working
Increased from 46% to 54%
Drawback for teenagers working
Increased risk for drug, alcohol and tobacco use Drop off in school/academic performance Greater risk of injury *overall positive experience for youth workers
Factors related to perforance
Individuals who are highly conscientious put time and effort into acquiring high levels of job knowledge and therefore perform better than those who are less conscientious.
Reducing Absenteeism
Institute fair absence control policies to discourage unnecessary absence Foster a "positive absence culture" in the organization and at the work group level Help employees overcome barriers to attendance
Managing Newcomer Expectations
Is often important that new hires know what they are getting into when they start a job (Comment 3.5) Two general techniques: Realistic job previews (RJPs) Expectation-lowering procedures (ELPs)
Recruitment (Applicant's Perspective)
Judging fit with an organization in terms of traits and values (culture) or personal needs Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA) as a guide Value clarification may be a useful activity for applicants (Comment 3.2)
Job Performance
Linked to behaviors associated with job-related tasks Distinguished from other related terms (effectiveness, utility, productivity, efficiency) Critical to clearly define the criterion
Antecedents of Work-Family Conflict
Many factors can predict the extent to which one experiences work-family conflict Job design and organizational factors Characteristics of an individual Characteristics of family life
Eric Snowden
Misuse of information for purposes that run counter to the goals of the organization - release of information on NSA efforts to collect personal information on American citizens.
Common Forms of CWB Employee Absenteeism
More to this than simply a consequence of negative work attitudes Complex to study Excused versus unexcused Reasons for absence Time frame of absence Common indicators include time lost and frequency metrics
Socialization (A Newcomer Perspective)
New hires are active seekers of information Process of newcomer info seeking was outlined by Miller and Jablin (1991) (Fig. 3.2, Table 3.4) Several general types of tactics: questions (overt or indirect), test limits, disguised conversations, observation or surveillance, reliance on third parties to provide information Quantity and quality of information will vary by type of tactic
Socialization: An Interactionist Perspective
Newcomer and organizational tactics for info seeking and sharing are likely to interact Organizational efforts at socialization may not always be needed (e.g., with proactive newcomers) Early socialization does impact how well newcomers eventually work, though, especially on teams
third parties
Newcomer asks a co-worker if she thinks the supervisor is pleased with the newcomer's performance Book Definition: The asker may inquire about a topic with a third party rather than the person whom the question concerns - can combine multiple tactics
Disguised Conversations
Newcomer asks co-worker what she did over the weekend to understand whether employees are expected to bring work home on the weekends. Book Definition: Asker engages in general conversation and subtly encourages targets to speak about certain topics.
Observation
Newcomer observes co-workers in similar job positions in order to understand the level of performance expected by the organization Book Definition: Used by newcomers to unobtrusively get information about attitudes and/or procedures
surveillance
Newcomer pays close attention to co-workers at the end of the day to find out how long employees stay at work Book Definition: Similar to observation, but focuses on cues and is most often used in situations with high uncertainty.
Testing Limits
Newcomer solicits information by breaking or deviating from organizational rules and observing reactions Book Definition: Asker performs a behavior and monitors responses to their action
Harmful Intent
No assumption is made with regard to harmful intent. A behavior is considered to be a CWB (Counterproductive Workplace Behavior) on the basis whether it is harmful to an organization or people in an organization regardless of whether that was the intent of the person engaging in the behavior. *cost the organization $ regardless of whether doing it to harm the organization or for personal gain CWB does not have to harm organization directly to be considered CWB. Service employees deliberately engage in harmful acts towards customers. Not directed at organization but indirectly harms the organization when business is lost.
Organizational Citizenship Behavior
OCB refers to behaviors that are not part of employees' formal job descriptions (i.e., helping a co-worker who has been absent; being courteous to others) or behaviors for which employees are not formally rewarded. In role and extra performance roles help enhance overall organization but not necessarily evaluated.
Types of behaviors, who does it and why?
Organizational - wasting time, sabotage, being late, and talking negatively about the organization to others are CWBs Individual behaviors directed at individual employees rather than the organization as a whole. Making rude and insulting remarks, starting rumors, excluding others from activities
Reducing and preventing conflict
Organizational support: Work-family policies and benefits as well as perceptions of culture and support Comment 4.2: Family-supportive organizational perceptions Comment 4.3: Cultural differences in organizational support Supervisor support Family-supportive supervisor behaviors Personal coping Skill development Seeking assistance
Information seeking tactics (Miller & Jablin)
Overt Questioning Indirect Questioning Testing Limits Disguised Conversations Observation Surveillance Third parties
Causes of CWB
Person factors Traits Situation factors Norms Injustice Figure 6.1: Stressor-Emotion Model
General Mental Ability (definition)
Person's capacity for information processing and understanding Shown to account for 25%+ of variance in performance across most jobs Especially when job is complex May be associated with job performance via a person's job-related knowledge Narrow cognitive abilities may be better predictors than GMA Potential adverse impact of GMA tests Emotional intelligence as a predictor of performance May be especially important in jobs requiring emotional labor
Push and Pull Factors
Personal characteristics Age Health Financial resources Commitment to job Outside influences (Comment 4.4) Pension plans Government policies Job flexibility Work environment
Organizational Socialization
Post-hire, transitional process of acculturation and knowledge building Onboarding Dimensions: History Language Politics People Organizational goals and values Performance proficiency
Innovation in Organizations
Productive behavior in which useful novelty is created and applied within an organization Research is considering the influence of employee and organization factors (separately and together) on the development of innovation Comment 5.8 Employee attributes that matter: Specific skills, meta-skills, personality characteristics, and motivation necessary for creativity Organizational determinants: Technical vs. administrative innovation Strategies for increasing organizational innovation: Hiring, training, influencing motivation
Social Security Act of 1935
Provided old-age pension (retirement) age 65, and a program of unemployment insurance (temporary aid to help people who lose jobs to find a new job), and federal welfare program (aid for very poor). Most famous and important legacy of New Deal. Has resulted (along with Medicare) with drastic reduction in poverty among elderly in the US
Sexual
Quid pro quo and hostile work environment are two forms of which counter productive workplace harassment behavior?
Employee Theft
Ranges in intensity and frequency Seems to be linked to individual characteristics and unfair or frustrating work conditions Moderating role of locus of control Figure 6.2
Personality
Recent resurgence of interest here Several specific traits have shown consistent positive relationships with performance: Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Openness to experience Emerging considerations for predicting performance: Bandwidth: Trait versus facet level Potential curvilinear relationships Contextualizing personality to the job Composite traits related to performance Core self-evaluations Psychological capital Proactive personality
Recruitment Process
Recruitment Planing/Strategic Planning Succession Planning Skills Inventory
Outcomes of Youth Employment
Researchers have primarily considered the degree to which youth employment affects performance, social development, and physical health and safety Academic performance: Hours worked, balancing act Social development: Generally positive influence on social development; cynical attitudes can develop
Youth sector jobs
Restaurant and Service
The decision to retire
Retirement as process Psychological influences and outcomes Push and pull factors
Objective Measures
Sales volume, customer complaints and output data are examples of ___________.
Job Experience
Shown to relate positively to job performance over many jobs As with GMA, seems to link to performance via job-related knowledge Diminishing returns May be important to consider both density and timing of past job experiences
Recruiting Methods
Sourcing and its costs/supply levels Sourcing metrics Common recruiting sources are summarized in Table 3.1 Increasing use of Internet as a path to applicants New challenges (volume, tracking)
3 types of conflict
Strain-based (Work interfering family or Family interfering work) Time-based (Work interfering family or Family interfering work) Behavior-based (Work interfering family or Family interfering work)
GMA (definition)
Strongest prediction of job performance.
Abusive
Taking credit for subordinates work is an example of _________________ supervision.
family-to-work conflict percentage
The estimates of family-to work conflict are lower, with approximately 10% to 14% of people reported experiencing this type of conflict.
Restriction in Performance Ratings
The problem is in low variability among employees when using the rating data Artifactual restriction versus true restriction Possible reasons for this restriction: "Survival of the fittest" Organizational standards are too low High performance is not consistently valued Low performance is often excused Resources are unevenly distributed or limited
Withdrawal
This is the most common form of CWB in workplaces.
Sexual Harassment
Two main legal forms Difficult to identify and study Preventing sexual harassment: Clear communication of what is and is not considered acceptable behavior Statement of consequences for violating organizational norms/policies Comment 6.6: Sexual harassment
Explanations Personality Predictor Job Performance
Variable that links them together same variable proposed to mediate the relation between both general mental ability and experience and performance. Has to do with Motivation rather than ability. Self-esteem, locus of control, generalized self-efficacy, and neuroticism all tap a person's core self-evaluation which is defined as "basic conclusions or bottom-line evaluations that represent one's appraisal of people, events, or things in relation to oneself"
Measurement of Job Performance
Various methods exist: Paper/pencil, job skills, hands-on, simulations, task ratings, and general/global ratings Ratings are generally the most popular Focus on evaluating performance-related behaviors Indirect is more common than direct Murphy's list of performance assessment options Good measurement must overcome many threats: Measurement/rater error Restricted range in ratings Instability of performance over time Efforts to reduce error in ratings Behaviorally anchored rating scales Rater training Multiple methods Distinction between: Typical or normal performance Maximum or peak performance
Workplace Violence and Mistreatment
Violence is infrequent, but can be severe Violence studied as outgrowth of factors in the physical and organizational environment, and individual characteristics Mistreatment can be varied and appears to lead to depression, anxiety, and decreased job satisfaction among other employees Causes of mistreatment are not well understood, but individual characteristics and organizational treatment seem to play a role
Applicant's perspective
Which organizations are most attractive to them Which fit best with their skill level, personality, culture and values
Adjustment to Retirement
Work as central to self-concept Factors that predict adjustment Financial resources Better health Strong social network Participation in leisure activities Quality of adjustment Mixed results on psychological well-being and happiness Overall generally positive adaptation Depends on manner in which left job
Behavior-based WIF
Work interfering w/family. A person is dismissive or cold to a spouse due to the harsh nature of his or her work persona.
Time-based WIF
Work interfering w/family. A person is unable to pick up children after school because he or she is asked to work late.
Strain-Based WIF
Work interfering with Family. A person experiences fatigue and anxiety at family dinner as a result of a stressful interaction at work.
Balancing work and nonwork
Work-family conflict Classifications (Table 4.1) Time-based E.g., having to pick up a child from day care at 4:00 but having a business meeting at 4:00 Strain-based E.g., after a day with difficult clients, being tired and irritable at home Behavior-based E.g., working in the military and not being able to switch out of combat, discipline mode at home
Positive side of work-family interface
Work-family enrichment and facilitation Positive spillover and synergy Work-family integration Using various strategies to blend both domains People differ in their preferences for integration
Measures of performance/production
all of the behaviors employees engage in while at work that contribute to organizational goals.
indirect questioning
asking questions in a roundabout way to retrieve information that will make you more competitive, help you make better choices, and help you survive in an organization i.e. newcomer asks supervisor about promotion possibilities using a hypothetical situation involving a friend with a different employer Book Definition: Asker discounts the information-seeking intent of the question, and /or allows targets to avoid responding to them.
encounter phase of socialization
becomes official member, sees organization as they are (attorney handling cases) gains clarification of role responsibilities, mediating conflicting role demands
work
begins in high school years, work life balance requires a physical and physiological transition
anticipatory socialization phase
during recruitment phase or even earlier (internship) (Feldman's first phase)
Family Supportive Organization Perceptions
found to have a stronger negative relationship with strain- and time-based work-to-family conflict than with strain- and time-based family-to work conflict. *The family supportive organization perceptions were found to more strongly help people reduce the amount that their work life interfered with attending to their family life
acculturation
learn how to adapt to the culture of an organization
Big 5 Personality Traits
neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness
Crucial factors in an organization's recruitment plans
nonwork interface - people have to initially make the transition into work in the first place and then transition out of work through retirement
sabotage
purposely damaging a piece of equipment or wasting material is an example of __________.
social undermining
represents a variety of behaviors that are intended to keep others in the workplace from developing favorable relationships, from being successful. *social exclusion, being highly critical of others, spreading rumors.
Abusive supervison
represents a variety of forms of abuse at the hands of supervisors. Demeaning, condescending, being overly critical both in private and in front of others, even taking credit for subordinates work.
change and acquisition phase
requires employees to master important tasks and roles and to adjust to their work group's values and norms "firing on all cylinders" some work-life balance know what is expected and what is NOT expected
applicant perspective
second hand information (website, brochure, may know someone that works there will only consider if they feel the company meets their skills, values and cultures
situation based "opportunity norms"
stress and injustice
affective outcomes
successfully socialized, tend to exhibit higher levels of job satisfaction, internal work motivation, and job involvement. Sense of "embeddedness" with the organization Feel connected to others, feel like they fit in. Proximal outcomes vs more long-term or "distal" outcomes
Behavioral outcomes phase
the event of socialization can be assessed by whether employees are capable of carrying out their role-related assignments. Includes spontaneously innovative and cooperativeness with other employees (custodianship, content innovation, or role innovation) i.e. physician notifying patient vs nurse i.e. police, military performing by the book possibility of employee being lured away at this phase if not completely socialized
overt questioning
the practice of asking a direct question about what you want to know i.e. Newcomer asks where the copy room is located Book Definition: Asker directly solicits information from a source
organizational socialization
the process by which newcomers learn an organization's values and norms and acquire the work behaviors necessary to perform jobs effectively
organizational culture
the set of values, ideas, attitudes, and norms of behavior that is learned and shared among the members of an organization
conflict types
work-family conflict is bi-directional. Work to family and family to work inter-role conflict in which demands of one domain are incompatible with the demands of the other domain 3 Types of Conflict (Strain, Time, Behavior)