Organizational Behavior: Mid Term 1

Self-concept

"the concept the individual has of himself as a physical, social, and spiritual or moral being."10 In other words, because you have a self-concept, you recognize yourself as a distinct human being. A self-concept would be impossible without the capacity to think about complex things and processes

Good leaders were perceived as exhibiting the following behaviors:

(1) assigning specific tasks to group members, (2) telling others that they had done well, (3) setting specific goals for the group, (4) letting other group members make decisions, (5) trying to get the group to work as a team, and (6) maintaining definite standards of performance. Another recent study found that good leaders were perceived as those who consistently treated all members of a work unit in a fair manner.

McClelland's Need Theory

*Need for achievement Desire to accomplish something difficult. Achievement-motivated people share three common characteristics: (1) they prefer working on tasks of moderate difficulty; (2) they prefer situations in which performance is due to their efforts rather than to other factors, such as luck; and (3) they desire more feedback on their successes and failures than do low achievers. *Need for affiliation prefer to spend more time maintaining social relationships, joining groups, and wanting to be loved. Individuals high in this need are not the most effective managers or leaders because they tend to avoid conflict, have a hard time making difficult decisions without worrying about being disliked, and avoid giving others negative feedback *Need for power Desire to Influence, coach, teach, or encourage others to achieve. People with a high need for power like to work and are concerned with discipline and self-respect. There are positive and negative sides to this need. The negative face of power is characterized by an "if I win, you lose" mentality. In contrast, people with a positive orientation to power focus on accomplishing group goals and helping employees obtain the feeling of competence. To accomplish something difficult. To master, manipulate, or organize physical objects, human beings, or ideas. To do this as rapidly and as independently as possible. To overcome obstacles and attain a high standard. To excel one's self. To rival and surpass others. To increase self-regard by the successful exercise of talent.

21st-Century Managers

-Teams are pushing aside the individual as the primary building block of organizations. -Command-and-control management is giving way to participative management and empowerment. -Ego-centered leaders are being replaced by customer-centered leaders. -Employees increasingly are being viewed as internal customers.

Organizational Culture Layers - Espoused Values

-Values possess five key components. "Values (1) are concepts or beliefs, (2) pertain to desirable end-states or behaviors, (3) transcend situations, (4) guide selection or evaluation of behavior and events, and (5) are ordered by relative importance."7 It is important to distinguish between values that are espoused versus those that are enacted. -Espoused values represent the explicitly stated values and norms that are preferred by an organization. They are generally established by the founder of a new or small company and by the top management team in a larger organization. -Because espoused values represent aspirations that are explicitly communicated to employees, managers hope that those values will directly influence employee behavior. -It is important for managers to reduce gaps between espoused and enacted values because they can significantly influence employee attitudes and organizational performance

Organizational Culture Layers - Observable artifacts

-consist of the physical manifestation of an organization's culture. Organizational examples include acronyms, manner of dress, awards, myths and stories told about the organization, published lists of values, observable rituals and ceremonies, special parking spaces, decorations -also includes visible behaviors exhibited by people and groups -Artifacts are easier to change than the less visible aspects of organizational culture

Managing Diversity

-entails enabling people to perform up to their maximum potential -focuses on changing an organization's culture and infrastructure such that people provide the highest productivity possible

Diversity

-represents the multitude of individual differences and similarities that exist among people -pertains to the host of individual differences that make all of us unique and different from others

Workforce demographics

-statistical profiles of the characteristics and composition of the adult working population, -enable managers to anticipate and adjust for surpluses or shortages of appropriately skilled individuals.

Outcomes Associated with Organizational Culture

1 - Clearly related to measures of organizational effectiveness. 2 - Employees are more satisfied and committed to organizations with clan cultures. 3 - Innovation and quality can be increased by building characteristics associated with clan, adhocracy, and market cultures into the organization. 4 - An organization's financial performance is not very strongly related to organizational culture. 5 - Companies with market cultures tend to have more positive organizational outcomes.

organizational culture Outcomes associated with

1) Organizational culture is clearly related to measures of organizational effectiveness 2) Employees are more satisfied and committed to organizations with clan cultures 3) An organizations financial performance is not very strongly related to organizational culture 4) Companies with market culture tend to have more positive organizational outcomes 5) Innovation and quality can be increased by building characteristics associated with clan, adhocracy and market cultures into the organizations 6) Customer satisfaction is most strongly related to market cultures 7) Hierarchy cultures are not associated with positive outcomes

Deming

85-15 rule.31 Specifically, when things go wrong, there is roughly an 85% chance the system (including management, machinery, and rules) is at fault. Only about 15% of the time is the individual employee at fault

meta-analysis

A statistical pooling technique that permits behavioral scientists to draw general conclusions about certain variables from many different studies. It typically encompasses a vast number of subjects, often reaching the thousands. Are instructive because they focus on general patterns of research evidence, not fragmented bits and pieces or isolated studies.

Ajzen's Theory of Planned Behavior

Ajzen ultimately developed and refined a model focusing on intentions as the key link between attitudes and planned behavior Importantly, this model only predicts behavior under an individual's control, not behavior due to circumstances beyond one's control. According to this model, changing behavior starts with the recognition that behavior is modified through intentions, which in turn are influenced by three different determinants. Managers can thus influence behavioral change by doing or saying things that affect the three determinants of employees' intentions to exhibit a specific behavior: attitude toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control The first is the attitude toward the behavior and refers to the degree to which a person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation or appraisal of the behavior in question. The second predictor is a social factor termed subjective norm; it refers to the perceived social pressure to perform or not to perform the behavior. The third antecedent of intention is the degree of perceived behavior control, which ... refers to the perceived ease or difficulty of performing the behavior and it is assumed to reflect past experience as well as anticipated impediments and obstacles

Intention Determinants of

Attitude toward the behavior the degree to which a person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation or appraisal of the behavior in question. Subjective norm refers to the perceived social pressure to perform or not to perform the behavior the degree of perceived behavior control, which ... refers to the perceived ease or difficulty of performing the behavior and it is assumed to reflect past experience as well as anticipated impediments and obstacles.

Organizational Culture Layers

Basic assumptions: Constitute organizational values that have become so taken for granted over time that they become assumptions that guide organizational behavior *Observable artifacts, espoused values, and basic assumptions

work-related value for each of five religious affiliations:

Catholic. Consideration ("Concern that employees be taken seriously, be kept informed, and that their judgments be used.") Protestant. Employer effectiveness ("Desire to work for a company that is efficient, successful, and a technological leader.") Buddhist. Social responsibility ("Concern that the employer be a responsible part of society.") Muslim. Continuity ("Desire for stable environment, job longevity, reduction of uncertainty.") No religious preference. Professional challenge ("Concern with having a job that provides learning opportunities and opportunities to use skills well.")

Individual-Organization Value Conflict

Conflict can occur when values espoused and enacted by the organization collide with employees' personal values. We defined this type of conflict as PE fit. PE fit represents the extent to which personal characteristics match those from a work environment

Suppress

Differences are squelched or discouraged when using this approach. This can be done by telling or reinforcing others to quit whining and complaining about issues. The old "you've got to pay your dues" line is another frequently used way to promote the status quo.

Diversity climate

Employees' aggregate perceptions about an organization's policies, practices, and procedures pertaining to diversity

Extrinsic Rewards

Financial, material, and social rewards qualify as extrinsic rewards because they come from the environment. An employee who works to obtain extrinsic rewards, such as money or praise, is said to be extrinsically motivated.

Feedback for Coaching Purposes and Organizational Effectiveness

Focus on performance, not personalities. Give specific feedback linked to learning goals and performance outcome goals. Channel feedback toward key result areas for the organization. Give feedback as soon as possible. Give feedback to coach improvement, not just for final results. Base feedback on accurate and credible information. Pair feedback with clear expectations for improvement.

Four Functions of Organizational Culture

Give members an organizational identity. Facilitate collective commitment. Promote social system stability. Shape behavior by helping members make sense of their surroundings.

Implicit cognition

Implicit cognition represents any thoughts or beliefs that are automatically activated from memory without our conscious awareness. The existence of implicit cognition leads people to make biased decisions without an understanding that it is occurring

Organizational Behavior (OB)

Interdisciplinary field dedicated to better understanding and managing people at work. -Deals with how people act and react in organizations of all kinds. -Research and application oriented -3 Basic Levels: individual, group, organizational

Job enlargement

Involves putting more variety into a worker's job by combining specialized tasks of comparable difficulty. Some call this horizontally loading the job

Vroom's Expectancy Theory

Motivation boils down to the decision of how much effort to exert in a specific task situation. Generally, expectancy theory can be used to predict motivation and behavior in any situation in which a choice between two or more alternatives must be made. For instance, it can be used to predict whether to quit or stay at a job; whether to exert substantial or minimal effort at a task; and whether to major in management, finance, marketing, psychology, or communication. Expectancy represents an individual's belief that a particular degree of effort will be followed by a particular level of performance. The following factors influence an employee's expectancy perceptions: Self-esteem Self-efficacy Previous success at the task Help received from a supervisor and subordinates Information necessary to complete the task Good materials and equipment to work with Instrumentality A performance outcome perception. It represents a person's belief that a particular outcome is contingent on accomplishing a specific level of performance. Performance is instrumental when it leads to something else. For example, passing exams is instrumental to graduating from college. Valence the positive or negative value people place on outcomes. For example, most employees have a positive valence for receiving additional money or recognition. In contrast, job stress and being laid off would likely result in negative valence for most individuals. In Vroom's expectancy model, outcomes refer to different consequences that are contingent on performance, such as pay, promotions, or recognition. An outcome's valence depends on an individual's needs and can be measured for research purposes with scales ranging from a negative value to a positive value. Outcomes different consequences that are contingent on performance

Deny

People using this option deny that differences exist. Denial may manifest itself in proclamations that all decisions are color, gender, and age blind and that success is solely determined by merit and performance.

high-context cultures

Primary meaning derived from nonverbal situational cues high-context cultures—including China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Mexico, and Arab cultures—rely heavily on situational cues for meaning when perceiving and communicating with others. Nonverbal cues such as one's official position, status, or family connections convey messages more powerfully than do spoken words.

Cultural Influences on Organizational Behavior

Societal culture is shaped by the various environmental factors listed in the left-hand side Once inside the organization's sphere of influence, the individual is further affected by the organization's culture. Mixing of societal and organizational cultures can produce interesting dynamics in multinational companies.

Psychological Capital

Striving for success by developing one's self-efficacy, optimism, hope, and resiliency. [PsyCap is] an individual's positive psychological state of development and is characterized by: (1) having confidence (self-efficacy) to take on and put in the necessary effort to succeed at challenging tasks; (2) making a positive attribution (optimism) about succeeding now and in the future; (3) persevering toward goals, and when necessary, redirecting paths to goals (hope) in order to succeed; and (4) when beset by problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing back and even beyond (resiliency) to attain success.

Assimilate

The basic premise behind this alternative is that all diverse people will learn to fit in or become like the dominant group. It only takes time and reinforcement for people to see the light. Organizations initially assimilate employees through their recruitment practices and the use of company orientation programs. New hires generally are put through orientation programs that aim to provide employees with the organization's preferred values and a set of standard operating procedures.

Schwartz's Value Theory Continued

The circular pattern reveals which values are most strongly related and which ones are in conflict. In general, adjacent values like self-direction and universalism are positively related, whereas values that are further apart (e.g., self-direction and power) are less strongly related. Taking this one step further, Schwartz proposes that values that are in opposing directions from the center conflict with each other. Examples are power and universalism or stimulation and conformity/tradition. For instance, the drive to live a stimulating life by engaging in activities like skydiving or mountain climbing would conflict with the desire to live a moderate or traditional life.

Tolerate

Toleration entails acknowledging differences but not valuing or accepting them. It represents a live-and-let-live approach that superficially allows organizations to give lip service to the issue of managing diversity. Toleration is different from isolation in that it allows for the inclusion of diverse people. However, differences are not really valued or accepted when an organization uses this option.

Contrasting High-Context and Low-Context Cultures

True to form, Germany has precise written rules for even the smallest details of daily life.39 In high-context cultures, agreements tend to be made on the basis of someone's word or a handshake, after a prolonged get-acquainted and trust-building period. Low-context Americans and Canadians, at least those with cultural roots in Northern Europe, see the handshake as a signal to get a signature on a detailed, lawyer-approved, ironclad contract.

Percentage Change in US Population by Race

Unfortunately, three additional trends suggest that current-day minority groups are experiencing their own glass ceiling. First, minorities in general are advancing less in the managerial and professional ranks than whites. Second, the number of race-based charges of discrimination that were deemed to show reasonable cause by the US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission increased from 294 in 1995 to 1,061 in 2008. Finally, a number of studies showed that minorities experienced more perceived discrimination, racism-related stress, and less psychological support than whites.

Emotional Contagion

We, quite literally, can catch another person's bad mood or displayed negative emotions.

Work-Family Conflict - Practical Research Insights About

Work-family balance begins at home. Case studies of successful executives reveal that family and spousal support is critical for reaching senior level positions.This in turn suggests that both men and women need help with domestic responsibilities if there is any chance of achieving work-family balance. You are encouraged to hire domestic help if you need and can afford it. An employer's family-supportive philosophy is more important than specific programs. Many employers offer family-friendly programs today, including child and elder day care assistance, parental leave, telecommuting, and flexible work schedules. However, if employees are afraid or reluctant to take advantage of those programs because the organization's culture values hard work and long hours above all else, families will inevitably suffer. To be truly family-friendly, the organization needs to provide programs and back them up with a family-supportive philosophy, culture, and resources. Informal flexibility in work hours and in allowing people to work at home is essential to promoting work-family balance. Quite simply, flexibility allows people to cope more effectively with competing demands across their personal and work lives. This conclusion was supported by a recent study of 511 HR professionals. Ninety-one percent of respondents indicated that flexible work arrangements positively influenced morale, and 58 percent said that work-family balance "is the most effective tactic for attracting, rewarding and retaining top employees. Supportive bosses and colleagues can help. Research demonstrated that work-family conflict was lower when employees had good relationships with their direct supervisor and work colleagues.It is important that you proactively discuss potential work-family conflicts with your boss and colleagues prior to their occurrence as opposed to after the fact. The importance of work-family balance varies across generations. A recent longitudinal study of work values across 16,000 people from different generational groups demonstrated that (1) Gen Ys and Gen Xs preferred more leisure time and had higher extrinsic values (e.g., desire for salary) than Baby Boomers, and (2) Gen Ys had lower altruistic values (e.g., desire to help others) and intrinsic values (e.g., desire to have an interesting job) than Boomers. These results suggest that organizations should consider implementing work policies that are targeted toward different generational groups. For example, flextime and compressed work programs may be used to attract and retain both Gen Ys and Gen Xers while job enrichment. Take a proactive approach to managing work-family conflict. A recent meta-analysis of research involving more than 32,000 people demonstrated that an individual's personal life spills over to his or her work life and vice versa. This means that employees' job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and intentions to quit are significantly related to the amount of work-family conflict that exists in their lives. Organizations thus are encouraged to train managers to use family-supportive supervisory behaviors because research shows that managers can be taught to help employees reduce their levels of work-family conflict

Self-esteem

a belief about one's own self-worth based on an overall self-evaluation. is measured by having survey respondents indicate their agreement or disagreement with both positive and negative statements. increasing during young and middle adulthood, reaching a peak at about age 60 years, and then declining in old age from 31 countries worldwide, a moderate positive correlation was found between self-esteem and life satisfaction. But the relationship was stronger in individualistic cultures individualistic cultures socialize people to focus more on themselves, while people in collectivist cultures "are socialized to fit into the community and to do their duty.

Golem Effect

a loss in performance resulting from low leader expectations

Idiosyncratic Deals (I-Deals)

a middle ground between top-down and bottom-up methods and attempts to overcome their limitations Idiosyncratic deals (i-deals) represent "employment terms individuals negotiate for themselves, taking myriad forms from flexible schedules to career development."72 Although "star performers" have long negotiated special employment contracts or deals, demographic trends and the changing nature of work have created increased opportunities for more employees to negotiate i-deals. I-deals tend to involve personal flexibility, developmental needs, and task-related content. The goal of such deals is to increase employee motivation and productivity by allowing employees the flexibility to negotiate employment relationships that meet their needs and values.

Self-Efficacy

a person's belief about his or her chances of successfully accomplishing a specific task. -arises from the gradual acquisition of complex cognitive, social, linguistic, and/or physical skills through experience." -role models can inspire us to build self-efficacy The relationship between self-efficacy and performance is a cyclical one. Efficacy → performance cycles can spiral upward toward success or downward toward failure.

Job Design

also referred to as job redesign, "refers to any set of activities that involve the alteration of specific jobs or interdependent systems of jobs with the intent of improving the quality of employee job experience and their on the-job productivity

Case Study

an in-depth analysis of a single individual, group, or organization, Because of their limited scope, case studies yield realistic but not very generalizable results.

causal attributions

are suspected or inferred causes of behavior. Generally speaking, people formulate causal attributions by considering the events preceding an observed behavior.

Demographic Fault Line

as "hypothetical dividing lines that may split a group into subgroups based on one or more attributes.

GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness)

attempt to develop an empirically based theory to describe, understand, and predict the impact of specific cultural variables on leadership and organizational processes and the effectiveness of these processes

Ethnocentrism

belief that one's native country, culture, language, and behavior are superior to all others. can effectively deal with ethnocentrism through education, greater cross-cultural awareness, international experience, and a conscious effort to value cultural diversity

Micro aggressions

biased thoughts, attitudes, and feelings" that exist at an unconscious level

Contingency approach

calls for using management techniques in a situationally appropriate manner, instead of trying to rely on "one best way" or "one size fits all

Individualistic culture

characterized as "I" and "me" cultures, give priority to individual freedom and choice emphasize personal responsibility for one's affairs. This is no small matter in an aging society:

Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs)

consist of employee behaviors that are beyond the call of duty. Examples include "such gestures as constructive statements about the department, expression of personal interest in the work of others, suggestions for improvement, training new people, respect for the spirit as well as the letter of housekeeping rules, care for organizational property, and punctuality and attendance well beyond standard or enforceable levels

Procedural justice

defined as the perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions

Vulnerability

discussing one's weaknesses or limitations When teammates feel free to admit mistakes, ask for help, and acknowledge their own weaknesses, they reduce divisive politics and build a bond of trust more valuable than almost any strategic advantage

Withdrawal Cognitions

encapsulate this thought process by representing an individual's overall thoughts and feelings about quitting

Cross-cultural management

explains the behavior of people in organizations around the world and shows people how to work in organizations with employee and client populations from many different cultures."64 Historically, cross-cultural management research has focused almost exclusively on cultural differences. One researcher, troubled by inappropriate cross-cultural comparisons, recently called this approach "comparing chopsticks with forks

developmental personal and organizational implications

five key personal implications to consider. First, it is important to foster a broad developmental network because the number and quality of your contacts will influence your career success. Second, job and career satisfaction are likely to be influenced by the consistency between your career goals and the type of developmental network at your disposal. Third, a developer's willingness to provide career and psychosocial assistance is a function of the protégé/protégée's ability and potential and the quality of the interpersonal relationship Fourth, it is important to become proficient at using social networking tools such as Twitter, LinkedIn, and Facebook Finally, you should develop a mentoring plan. Experts suggest that this plan should include the following components:70 - Identify and prioritize your mentoring goals. These goals should be based on a determination of what you want to learn. - Identify people who are skilled or experienced in areas you want to improve. Don't overlook your peers as they are a good source of functional, technical, and organizational knowledge. - Determine how best to build a relationship with these "targeted" individuals. -Determine how you can provide value to your mentor. Because mentoring is a two-way street, others are more likely to help you if they see some value in assisting you in the pursuit of your career goals. -Determine when it is time to move on. Mentors are not forever. If you believe that your mentor is ineffective, or worse yet, causing more harm than benefit, find a new mentor.

Carroll's Global Corporate Social Responsibility Pyramid

from the bottom up, advises organizations in the global economy to: - Make a profit consistent with expectations for international businesses. - Obey the law of host countries as well as international law. - Be ethical in its practices, taking host-country and global standards into consideration. - Be a good corporate citizen, especially as defined by the host country's expectations

Culture Shock

involves anxiety and doubt caused by an overload of unfamiliar expectations and social cues The best defense against culture shock is comprehensive cross-cultural training, including intensive language study. Once again, the best way to pick up subtle—yet important—social cues is via the local language.

realistic job preview (RJP)

involves giving recruits a realistic idea of what lies ahead by presenting both positive and negative aspects of the job.

Human Capital

is the productive potential of an individual's knowledge and actions

social cognition/social information processing

is the study of how people make sense of other people and themselves. It focuses on how ordinary people think about people and how they think they think about people. Three of the stages in this model—selective attention/comprehension, encoding and simplification, and storage and retention—describe how specific information and environmental stimuli are observed and stored in memory. The fourth and final stage, retrieval and response, involves turning mental representations into real-world judgments and decisions. Stage 1 - Attention - the process of becoming consciously aware of something or someone. Attention can be focused on information either from the environment or from memory. Stage 2 - Encoding - raw information is interpreted or translated into mental representations. To accomplish this, perceivers assign pieces of information to cognitive categories. "By category we mean a number of objects that are considered equivalent. Categories are generally designated by names, e.g., dog, animal." A schema represents a person's mental picture or summary of a particular event or type of stimulus. Stage 3 - Storage and Retention - This phase involves storage of information in long-term memory. long-term memory is made up of three compartments (or wings) containing categories of information about events, semantic materials, and people. Event Memory This compartment is composed of categories containing information about both specific and general events. These memories describe appropriate sequences of events in well-known situations, such as going to a restaurant , going on a job interview, going to a food store, or going to a movie. Semantic Memory Semantic memory refers to general knowledge about the world. In so doing, it functions as a mental dictionary of concepts. Each concept contains a definition (e.g., a good leader) and associated traits (outgoing), emotional states (happy), physical characteristics (tall), and behaviors (works hard). Just as there are schemata for general events, concepts in semantic memory are stored as schemata. Person Memory Categories within this compartment contain information about a single individual (your professor) or groups of people (professors). You are more likely to remember information about a person, event, or an advertisement if it contains characteristics that are similar to something stored in the compartments of memory. Stage 4 - Retrieval and Response - People retrieve information from memory when they make judgments and decisions. Our ultimate judgments and decisions are either based on the process of drawing on, interpreting, and integrating categorical information stored in long-term memory or on retrieving a summary judgment that was already made.

Job Design Top Down Approaches

management is responsible for creating efficient and meaningful combinations of work tasks for employees. If done correctly, the theory is that employees will display higher performance, job satisfaction, and employee engagement, and lower absenteeism and turnover. scientific management, job enlargement, job rotation, job enrichment, and the job characteristics model. top-down approaches are constrained by the fact that managers cannot always create changes in task characteristics that are optimum for everyone.

morally attentive

meaning they faithfully consider the ethical implications of their actions and circumstances

Job rotation

moving employees from one specialized job to another

Whistle-blowing

occurs when an employee reports a perceived unethical and/or illegal activity to a third party such as government agencies, news media, or public-interest groups

Galatea effect

occurs when an individual's high self-expectations for him- or herself lead to high performance.

Strategic Plan

outlines an organization's long-term goals and the actions necessary to achieve these goals

Intrapersonal Value Conflict

people are likely to experience inner conflict and stress when personal values conflict with each other. For employees who want balance in their lives, a stressful conflict can arise when one values Therapists suggest that this type of value conflict can be reduced by "taking pride in characteristics that can't be stripped away—virtue, integrity, honesty, generosity. They also recommend investing more time and pride in relationships with family, friends, and community."6 In general, people are happier and less stressed when their personal values are aligned.

Foster Mutual Adaptation

people are willing to adapt or change their views for the sake of creating positive relationships with others. This implies that employees and management alike must be willing to accept differences and, most important, agree that everyone and everything is open for change.

Field Study

probes individual or group processes in an organizational setting. Because field studies involve real-life situations, their results often have immediate and practical relevance for managers.

Social Capital

productive potential resulting from strong relationships, goodwill, trust, and cooperative effort

Information/decision-making theory

proposes that diverse groups should outperform homogeneous groups.

Expatriate

refers to anyone living or working outside their home country.

interactional justice

relates to the "quality of the interpersonal treatment people receive when procedures are implemented." This form of justice does not pertain to the outcomes or procedures associated with decision making, but rather it focuses on whether or not people feel they are treated fairly when decisions are implemented. Fair interpersonal treatment necessitates that managers communicate truthfully and treat people with courtesy and respect.

Sample Survey

samples of people from specified populations respond to questionnaires. The researchers then draw conclusions about the relevant population. Generalizability of the results depends on the quality of the sampling and questioning techniques.

polychronic time

seen in the multiple and cyclical activities and concurrent involvement with different people in Mediterranean, Latin American, and especially Arab cultures

Organizational culture

set of shared, taken-for-granted implicit assumptions that a group holds and that determines how it perceives, thinks about and reacts to its various environments can impact employee motivation, satisfaction, and turnover can be a source of competitive advantage managers can influence organizational culture

Proactive personality

someone who is relatively unconstrained by situational forces and who effects environmental change. positively associated with individual, team, and organizational success.

External Locus of Control

tend to attribute key outcomes in their lives to environmental causes, such as luck or fate

Resiliency

the ability to bounce back from major blows in life, can be developed through deliberate practice,

Bottom-Up Approaches

this approach to job design is driven by employees rather than managers and is referred to as job crafting.

counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs)

types of behavior that harm employees, the organization as a whole, or organizational stakeholders such as customers and shareholder. Examples of CWBs include theft, gossiping, backstabbing, drug and alcohol abuse, destroying organizational property, violence, purposely doing bad or incorrect work, surfing the Net for personal use, excessive socializing, tardiness, sabotage, and sexual harassment.

Employees with a clear line of sight

understand the organization's strategic goals and know what actions they need to take, both individually and as team members.

Organizational Culture Layers - Basic Assumptions

unobservable and represent the core of organizational culture. They constitute organizational values that have become so taken for granted over time that they become assumptions that guide organizational behavior. They thus are highly resistant to change

e-business

using the Internet to facilitate every aspect of running a business, including the management of virtual teams

Individual Differences

variability among workers is substantial at all levels but increases dramatically with job complexity. In life insurance sales, for example, variability in performance is around six times as great as in routine clerical jobs bridges between self-concept and self-expression.

Employee Engagement

"the harnessing of organization members' selves to their work roles; in engagement, people employ and express themselves physically, cognitively, and emotionally during role performance." The essence of this definition is the idea that engaged employees "give it their all" at work. Further study of this attitudinal variable reveals that it contains four components: (1) feelings of urgency, (2) feelings of being focused, (3) feelings of intensity, and (4) feelings of enthusiasm caused by a host of variables that can be separated into two categories: personal factors and contextual or work-environment factors. -Personal characteristics found or thought to influence employee engagement include positive or optimistic personalities, proactive personality, conscientiousness, PE fit, and being present or mindful. Mindfulness represents the extent to which someone is focused on a moment in time and what is happening rather than daydreaming about something or somewhere else. -contextual factors that potentially impact employee engagement. One clearly involves organizational culture. For example, employees are more likely to be engaged when an organization has a clan culture that promotes employee development, recognition, and trust between management and employees Job security and feelings of psychological safety also propel employee engagement. -Job security and feelings of psychological safety also propel employee engagement. employee engagement is higher when people feel that they are being supported by both their direct supervisor and the company as a whole and when they have a line of sight with the organization's vision, strategies, and goals: Line of sight represents the extent to which employees understand how their jobs influence the achievement of broader strategic goals employee engagement was significantly associated with organizational-level customer satisfaction/loyalty, profitability, productivity, turnover, and safety outcomes.a positive relationship between employee engagement and employees' performance and physical and psychological well-being, and corporate-level financial performance and customer satisfaction

Alderfer's ERG Theory

*existence needs (E)—the desire for physiological and materialistic well-being; *relatedness needs (R)—the desire to have meaningful relationships with significant others; *growth needs (G)—the desire to grow as a human being and to use one's abilities to their fullest potential does not assume needs are related to each other in a stair-step hierarchy as does Maslow. Alderfer believes that more than one need may be activated at a time. Finally, ERG theory contains a frustration-regression component. That is, frustration of higher-order needs can influence the desire for lower-order needs

Demographic fault line

-"hypothetical dividing lines that may split a group into subgroups based on one or more attributes." -Fault lines form when work-group members possess varying demographic characteristics and negative interpersonal processes occur when people align themselves based on salient fault lines or demographic characteristics. Fault lines form when work-group members possess varying demographic characteristics (e.g., gender, age, ethnicity), and negative interpersonal processes occur when people align themselves based on salient fault lines or demographic characteristics.

Clan Culture

-A clan culture has an internal focus and values flexibility rather than stability and control. It resembles a family-type organization in which effectiveness is achieved by encouraging collaboration between employees. This type of culture is very "employee-focused" and strives to instill cohesion through consensus and job satisfaction and commitment through employee involvement. -Clan organizations devote considerable resources to hiring and developing their employees, and they view customers as partners.

Hierarchy Culture

-Control is the driving force -has an internal focus, which produces a more formalized and structured work environment, and values stability and control over flexibility. -leads to the development of reliable internal processes, extensive measurement, and the implementation of a variety of control mechanisms. Effectiveness in a company with this type of culture is likely to be assessed with measures of efficiency, timeliness, quality, safety, and reliability of producing and delivering products and services.

Principles of TQM

-Do it right the first time to eliminate costly rework and product recalls. -Listen to and learn from customers and employees. -Make continuous improvement an everyday matter. -Build teamwork, trust, and mutual respect. -The organization's culture is defined by and supports the constant attainment of customer satisfaction through an integrated system of tools, techniques, and training. This involves the continuous improvement of organizational processes, resulting in high-quality products and services

Social categorization theory

-holds that similarities and differences are used as a basis for categorizing self and others into groups, with ensuing categorizations distinguishing between one's own in-group and one or more out-groups. -People tend to like and trust in-group members more than out-group members and generally favor in-groups over out-groups.

Organization

A system of consciously coordinated activities or forces of two or more people. Organizations are a social invention helping us to achieve things collectively that we could not achieve alone

Stereotype

An individual's set of beliefs about the characteristics or attributes of a group Not always negative May or may not be accurate Stereotyping is a four-step process. 1 - categorizing people into groups according to various criteria, such as gender, age, race, and occupation. 2 - we infer that all people within a particular category possess the same traits or characteristics (e.g., all women are nurturing, older people have more job-related accidents, all African 3 - we form expectations of others and interpret their behavior according to our stereotypes. 4 - stereotypes are maintained by (1) overestimating the frequency of stereotypic behaviors exhibited by others, (2) incorrectly explaining expected and unexpected behaviors, and (3) differentiating minority individuals from oneself.

Wiseman's four guidelines for improving your luck:

Be active and involved. Be open to new experiences and networking with others to encounter more lucky chance opportunities. Listen to your hunches about luck. Learn when to listen to your intuitive gut feelings. Meditation and mind-clearing activities can help. Expect to be lucky no matter how bad the situation. Remain optimistic and work to make your expectations a self-fulfilling prophecy. Turn your bad luck into good fortune. Take control of bad situations by remaining calm, positive, and focused on a better future.

Internet and Social Media Revolution

Because of _________ traditional media such as newspapers radio and television are less important for the younger generation

Performance

Before moving on, we need to say something about a modern-day threat to abilities, skills, and general competence. That threat, according to public health officials, is sleep deprivation. only about four in 10—of the respondents from each ethnic group say they get a good night's sleep on most nights.job-related stress was the number-one response (42%) to the question "What's robbing you of a good night's sleep? Staying awake 24 hours impairs cognitive psychomotor performance to the same degree as having a 0.1 percent blood alcohol level."

Kelley's Model of Attribution

Behavior can be attributed either to: Internal factors within a person (such as ability) or: External behavior within the environment (such as a difficult task) *It is important to remember that consensus relates to other people, distinctiveness relates to other tasks, and consistency relates to time. 1) Consensus involves a comparison of an individual's behavior with that of his peers. There is high consensus when one acts like the rest of the group and low consensus when one acts differently. 2) Distinctiveness involves comparing a person's behavior on one task with the behavior from other tasks. High distinctiveness means the individual has performed the task in question in a significantly different manner than he or she has performed other tasks. Low distinctiveness means stable performance or quality from one task to another. 3) Consistency determined by judging if the individual's performance on a given task is consistent over time.High consistency implies that a person performs a certain task the same, time after time. Unstable performance of a given task over time would mean low consistency.

Personality Dimensions

Extraversion and conscientiousness were found to be the most stable of the Big Five conscientiousness had the strongest positive correlation with job performance and training performance. how to help conscientious employees perform well. Specifically, they prefer goal-focused leadership, like high-complexity jobs, and need valid feedback that will help them learn and not frustrate their pursuit of goals entrepreneurs score high on conscientiousness. Another relevant finding: Extraversion (an outgoing personality) correlated positively with promotions, salary level, and career satisfaction. And, as one might expect, neuroticism (low emotional stability) was associated with low career satisfaction.

Work-Family Conflict

Family values involve enduring beliefs about the importance of family and who should play key family roles (e.g., child rearing, housekeeping, and income earning). Work values center on the relative importance of work and career goals in one's life. -Value similarity relates to the degree of consensus among family members about family values. When a housewife launches a business venture despite her husband's desire to be the sole bread winner, lack of family value similarity causes work-family conflict. -Value congruence, on the other hand, involves the amount of value agreement between employee and employer. If, for example, refusing to go on a business trip to stay home for a child's birthday is viewed as disloyalty to the company, lack of value congruence can trigger work-family conflict. -work-family conflict can take two distinct forms: work interference with family and family interference with work -The last two boxes in the model—value attainment and job and life satisfaction—are a package deal. Satisfaction tends to be higher for those who live according to their values and lower for those who do not.

Managing the Goal-Setting Process - Step 2: Promote Goal Commitment

Goal commitment can be enhanced by following these guidelines: Explain why the organization is committed to a comprehensive goal-setting program. Create clear lines of sight by clarifying the corporate goals and linking the individual's goals to them. "The task of leaders is to simplify.". Let employees participate in setting their own goals and creating their own action plans. Encourage them to set challenging "stretch" goals. Goals should be difficult, but not impossible.24 Foster personal growth by having employees build goal ladders, chains of progressively more difficult and challenging goals. Specifically, focusing on completed goals in the ladder promotes a feeling of satisfaction. Focusing on remaining goals in the ladder tends to motivate a higher level of achievement. High achievers are good at strategically alternating their focus on what has been accomplished (for a feeling of satisfaction) and their focus on the challenges ahead (for motivation to work harder)

Human Relations Movement

Grew out of the Hawthorne studies; proposed that workers respond primarily to the social context of work including social conditioning, group norms and interpersonal dynamics; assumed that the managers concern for workers would lead to increased worker satisfaction and improved worker performance

Human and Social Capital

HRM has become increasingly important as firms have come to realize the value of their human resources in improving productivity; its critical to the bottom line performance of the firm and the HR planning has become part of the strategic planning process

Herzberg's Motivator-Hygiene Model

Herzberg found separate and distinct clusters of factors associated with job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Job satisfaction was more frequently associated with achievement, recognition, characteristics of the work, responsibility, and advancement. These factors were all related to outcomes associated with the content of the task being performed. Herzberg labeled these factors motivators because each was associated with strong effort and good performance. He hypothesized that motivators cause a person to move from a state of no satisfaction to satisfaction job dissatisfaction to be associated primarily with factors in the work context or environment. Specifically, company policy and administration, technical supervision, salary, interpersonal relations with one's supervisor, and working conditions were most frequently mentioned by employees expressing job dissatisfaction. Herzberg labeled this second cluster of factors hygiene factors. He further proposed that they were not motivational. At best, Herzberg proposed that individuals will experience no job dissatisfaction when he or she has no grievances about hygiene factors Herzberg concludes that "the opposite of job satisfaction is not job dissatisfaction, but rather no job satisfaction; and similarly, the opposite of job dissatisfaction is not job satisfaction, but no dissatisfaction." Herzberg thus asserts that the dissatisfaction-satisfaction continuum contains a zero midpoint at which dissatisfaction and satisfaction are absent. Conceivably, an organization member who has good supervision, pay, and working conditions but a tedious and unchallenging task with little chance of advancement would be at the zero midpoint. That person would have no dissatisfaction (because of good hygiene factors) and no satisfaction (because of a lack of motivators).

Job Characteristics Model

In general terms, core job dimensions are common characteristics found to a varying degree in all jobs. Three of the job characteristics shown combine to determine experienced meaningfulness of work: Skill variety. The extent to which the job requires an individual to perform a variety of tasks that require him or her to use different skills and abilities. Task identity. The extent to which the job requires an individual to perform a whole or completely identifiable piece of work. In other words, task identity is high when a person works on a product or project from beginning to end and sees a tangible result. Task significance. The extent to which the job affects the lives of other people within or outside the organization. Experienced responsibility is elicited by the job characteristic of autonomy, defined as follows: Autonomy. The extent to which the job enables an individual to experience freedom, independence, and discretion in both scheduling and determining the procedures used in completing the job. Finally, knowledge of results is fostered by the job characteristic of feedback, defined as follows: Feedback. The extent to which an individual receives direct and clear information about how effectively he or she is performing the job.

Barriers to implementing successful diversity programs:

Inaccurate stereotypes and prejudice. Ethnocentrism Poor career planning A negative diversity climate An unsupportive and hostile working environment for diverse employees Lack of political savvy on the part of diverse employees Difficulty in balancing career and family issues Fears of reverse discrimination Diversity is not seen as an organizational priority The need to revamp the organization's performance appraisal and reward system Resistance to change

Deliberate Practice

It is activity designed specifically to improve performance, often with a teacher's help; it can be repeated a lot; feedback on results is continuously available; it's highly demanding mentally, whether the activity is purely intellectual, such as chess or business-related activities, or heavily physical, such as sports; and it isn't much fun.

Job Enrichment

Job enrichment is the practical application of Frederick Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory of job satisfaction entails modifying a job such that an employee has the opportunity to experience achievement, recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and advancement. These characteristics are incorporated into a job through vertical loading. Rather than giving employees additional tasks of similar difficulty (horizontal loading), vertical loading consists of giving workers more autonomy and responsibility. Intuit, for example, attempts to do this by "encouraging workers to take four hours a week of 'unstructured time' for their own projects and hosting 'idea jams,' where teams present new concepts for prizes

Job Satisfaction Causes of

Need fulfillment - extent to which the characteristics of a job allow an individual to fulfill his or her needs Discrepancies - satisfaction is a result of met expectations. Met expectations represent the difference between what an individual expects to receive from a job, such as good pay and promotional opportunities, and what he or she actually receives. When expectations are greater than what is received, a person will be dissatisfied. In contrast, this model predicts that an individual will be satisfied when he or she attains outcomes above and beyond expectations. Value attainment - that satisfaction results from the perception that a job allows for fulfillment of an individual's important work values. Equity - satisfaction is a function of how "fairly" an individual is treated at work. Satisfaction results from one's perception that work outcomes, relative to inputs, compare favorably with a significant other's outcomes/inputs. Dispositional/Genetic Components - the belief that job satisfaction is partly a function of both personal traits and genetic factors. As such, this model implies that stable individual differences are just as important in explaining job satisfaction as are characteristics of the work environment. Dispositions had stronger relationships with intrinsic aspects of a job (e.g., having autonomy) than with extrinsic aspects of work (e.g., receipt of rewards). Genetic factors also were found to significantly predict life satisfaction, well-being, and general job satisfaction

Needs

Needs are physiological or psychological deficiencies that arouse behavior. They can be strong or weak and are influenced by environmental factors. Thus, human needs vary over time and place. The general idea behind need theories of motivation is that unmet needs motivate people to satisfy them. Conversely, people are not motivated to pursue a satisfied need. Let us now consider four popular content theories of motivation: Maslow's need hierarchy theory, Alderfer's ERG theory, McClelland's need theory, and Herzberg's motivator-hygiene model.

Process of Culture Change

Organizational members teach each other about the organization's preferred values, beliefs, expectations, and behaviors four caveats about culture change. First, leaders are the architects and developers of organizational culture, and managing organizational culture is one of the most important functions of leadership. Second, the process of culture change essentially begins with targeting one of the three layers of organizational culture previously discussed—observable artifacts, espoused values, and basic assumptions. That said, culture will not change in a significant way unless managers are able to change basic underlying assumptions. Third, it is important to consider the extent to which the current culture is aligned with the organization's vision and strategic plan before attempting to change any aspect of organizational culture.

PE Fit

PE fit is defined "as the compatibility between an individual and a work environment that occurs when their characteristics are well matched. first must conduct an evaluation of your strengths, weaknesses, and values. Next, do the same for the company or department at hand by doing research about the company on the Internet or talking with current employees. This information will now enable you to prepare a set of diagnostic questions to ask during the interview process. These questions need to focus on determining your level of fit.

Avoiding cultural collisions

People on both sides of the context barrier must be trained to make adjustments. A new employee should be greeted by a group consisting of his or her boss, several colleagues who have similar duties, and an individual located near the newcomer. Background information is essential when explaining anything. Include the history and personalities involved. Do not assume the newcomer is self-reliant. Give explicit instructions not only about objectives, but also about the process involved. High-context workers from abroad need to learn to ask questions outside their department and function. Foreign workers must make an effort to become more self-reliant

"Under Management" Only 1 out of 100 managers provides every direct report with these five basics every day:

Performance requirements and standard operating procedures related to tasks and responsibilities. Defined parameters, measurable goals, and concrete deadlines for all work assignments for which the direct report will be held accountable. Accurate monitoring, evaluation, and documentation of work performance. Specific feedback on work performance with guidance for improvement. Fairly distributed rewards and detriments [penalties].

Managing the Goal-Setting Process - Step 3: Provide Support and Feedback

Practical guidelines include the following: Make sure each employee has the necessary skills and information to reach his or her goals. As a pair of goal-setting experts succinctly stated, "Motivation without knowledge is useless."26 Training often is required to help employees achieve difficult goals and build goal ladders. Pay attention to employees' effort→performance expectations, perceived self-efficacy, and reward preferences and adjust accordingly. Be supportive and helpful. Empower employees as they grow. Do not use goals as a threat. Give employees timely and task-specific feedback (knowledge of results) about what they are doing right and wrong. Provide monetary and nonmonetary incentives and reward both significant progress and goal accomplishment.

Intrinsic Rewards

Psychic rewards, however, are intrinsic rewards because they are self-granted. One who derives pleasure from the task itself or experiences a sense of competence or self-determination is said to be intrinsically motivated

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: The Pygmalion Effect - managers can create positive performance expectations.

Recognize that everyone has the potential to increase his or her performance. Set high performance goals. Positively reinforce employees for a job well done. Provide frequent feedback that conveys a belief in employees' ability to complete their tasks. Give employees the opportunity to experience increasingly challenging tasks and projects. Communicate by using facial expressions, voice intonations, body language, and encouraging comments that reflect high expectations. Provide employees with the input, information, and resources they need to achieve their goals. Introduce new employees as if they have outstanding potential. Encourage employees to stay focused on the present moment and not to worry about negative past events. Help employees master key skills and tasks.

Personality Testing

Researchers, test developers, and organizations that administer personality assessments offer the following suggestions for getting started or for evaluating whether tests already in use are appropriate for forecasting job performance: Determine what you hope to accomplish. If you are looking to find the best fit of job and applicant, analyze the aspects of the position that are most critical for it. Look for outside help to determine if a test exists or can be developed to screen applicants for the traits that best fit the position. Industrial psychologists, professional organizations, and a number of Internet sites provide resources. Insist that any test recommended by a consultant or vendor be validated scientifically for the specific purpose that you have defined. Vendors should be able to cite some independent, credible research supporting a test's correlation with job performance. Ask the test provider to document the legal basis for any assessment: Is it fair? Is it job related? Is it biased against any racial or ethnic group? Does it violate an applicant's right to privacy under state or federal laws? Vendors should provide a lawyer's statement that a test does not adversely affect any protected class, and employers may want to get their own lawyer's opinion, as well. Make sure that every staff member who will be administering tests or analyzing results is educated about how to do so properly and keeps results confidential. Use the scores on personality tests in tandem with other factors that you believe are essential to the job—such as skills and experience—to create a comprehensive evaluation of the merits of each candidate, and apply those criteria identically to each applicant.

Managing the Goal-Setting Process - Step 1: Set Goals

SMART is an acronym for specific, measurable, attainable, results oriented, and time bound. There are two additional recommendations for Step 1. First, for complex tasks, employees need to be trained in problem-solving techniques and developing performance action plans. An action plan specifies the strategies or tactics necessary to accomplish a goal. Second, because of individual differences, it may be necessary to establish different goals for employees performing the same job. An individual's goal orientation is another important individual difference to consider when setting goals. Three types of goal orientations are a learning goal orientation, a performance-prove goal orientation, and a performance-avoid goal orientation. People with a high learning goal orientation view skills as malleable. They make efforts not only to achieve current tasks but also to develop the ability to accomplish future tasks. People with a high performance-prove goal orientation tend to focus on performance and try to demonstrate their ability by looking better than others. People with a high performance-avoid goal orientation also focus on performance, but this focus is grounded in trying to avoid negative outcomes.

Schwartz's Value Theory

Schwartz believes that values are motivational in that they "represent broad goals that apply across contexts and time

Emotional Labor

Smile, look happy for the customers," employees are told over and over. But what if the employee is having a rotten day can be particularly detrimental to the employee performing the labor and can take its toll both psychologically and physically. Employees ... may bottle up feelings of frustration, resentment, and anger, which are not appropriate to express. These feelings result, in part, from the constant requirement to monitor one's negative emotions and express positive ones. If not given a healthy expressive outlet, this emotional repression can lead to a syndrome of emotional exhaustion and burnout.

Goal Setting Practical Insights

Specific high goals lead to greater performance. Goal specificity pertains to the quantifiability of a goal. people demonstrated that performance was greater when people had specific high goals.50 Feedback enhances the effect of specific, difficult goals. Feedback plays a key role in all of our lives. Feedback lets people know if they are headed toward their goals or if they are off course and need to redirect their efforts. Goals plus feedback is the recommended approach. Goals inform people about performance standards and expectations so that they can channel their energies accordingly. In turn, feedback provides the information needed to adjust direction, effort, and strategies for goal accomplishment. Participative goals, assigned goals, and self-set goals are equally effective. Both managers and researchers are interested in identifying the best way to set goals. Action planning facilitates goal accomplishment. An action plan outlines the activities or tasks that need to be accomplished in order to obtain a goal. They can also include dates associated with completing each task, resources needed, and obstacles that must be overcome. Managers can use action plans as a vehicle to have performance discussions with employees, and employees can use them to monitor progress toward goal achievement. An action plan also serves as a cue to remind us of what we should be working on, which in turn was found to lead to goal-relevant behavior and success. Goal commitment and monetary incentives affect goal-setting outcomes. Goal commitment is the extent to which an individual is personally committed to achieving a goal. In general, an individual is expected to persist in attempts to accomplish a goal when he or she is committed to it. Researchers believe that goal commitment moderates the relationship between the difficulty of a goal and performance. That is, difficult goals lead to higher performance only when employees are committed to their goals. Conversely, difficult goals are hypothesized to lead to lower performance when people are not committed to their goals.

Feedback Practical Lessons

The acceptance of feedback should not be treated as a given; it is often misperceived or rejected. This is especially true in intercultural situations. Managers can enhance their credibility as sources of feedback by developing their expertise and creating a climate of trust. Negative feedback is typically misperceived or rejected. Although very frequent feedback may erode one's sense of personal control and initiative, feedback is too infrequent in most work organizations. Feedback needs to be tailored to the recipient. While average and below-average performers need extrinsic rewards for performance, high performers respond to feedback that enhances their feelings of competence and personal control.45 More recent research insights about feedback include the following: Computer-based performance feedback leads to greater improvements in performance when it is received directly from the computer system rather than via an immediate supervisor.46 Recipients of feedback perceive it to be more accurate when they actively participate in the feedback session versus passively receiving feedback.47 Destructive criticism tends to cause conflict and reduce motivation.48 "The higher one rises in an organization the less likely one is to receive quality feedback about job performance

Managing Age-Related

The following seven initiatives can help to keep older workers engaged and committed to working.50 -Provide challenging work assignments that make a difference to the firm. -Give the employee considerable autonomy and latitude in completing a task. -Provide equal access to training and learning opportunities when it comes to new technology. -Provide frequent recognition for skills, experience, and wisdom gained over the years. -Provide mentoring opportunities whereby older workers can pass on accumulated knowledge to younger employees. -Ensure that older workers receive sensitive, high-quality supervision. -Design a work environment that is both stimulating and fun.

GLOBE Cultural Dimensions Rankings

The nine cultural dimensions from the GLOBE project are Power distance. How much unequal distribution of power should there be in organizations and society? Uncertainty avoidance. How much should people rely on social norms and rules to avoid uncertainty and limit unpredictability? Institutional collectivism. How much should leaders encourage and reward loyalty to the social unit, as opposed to the pursuit of individual goals? In-group collectivism. How much pride and loyalty should individuals have for their family or organization? Gender egalitarianism. How much effort should be put into minimizing gender discrimination and role inequalities? Assertiveness. How confrontational and dominant should individuals be in social relationships? Future orientation. How much should people delay gratification by planning and saving for the future? Performance orientation. How much should individuals be rewarded for improvement and excellence? Humane orientation. How much should society encourage and reward people for being kind, fair, friendly, and generous?

Corporate social responsibility (CSR)

The notion that corporations have an obligation to constituent groups in society other than stockholders and beyond that prescribed by law or union contract.

Interpretation

The reciprocal process of perception

Job Satisfaction - Correlates of

The relationship between job satisfaction and these other variables is either positive or negative. The strength of the relationship ranges from weak (very little relationship) to strong. Strong relationships imply that managers can significantly influence the variable of interest by increasing job satisfaction.

Organizational Culture

The set of shared, taken-for-granted implicit assumptions that a group holds and that determines how it perceives, thinks about, and reacts to its various environments. -passed on to new employees through the process of socialization -operates at different levels -shaped by four key components: the founders' values, the industry and business environment, the national culture, and the senior leaders' vision and behavior (see conceptual framework)

Historical Perspective

The study of a subject in light of its earliest phases and subsequent evolution. *The object is to sharpen one's vision of the present, not the past.

Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory

These needs are Physiological. Most basic need. Entails having enough food, air, and water to survive. Safety. Consists of the need to be safe from physical and psychological harm. Love. The desire to be loved and to love. Contains the needs for affection and belonging. Esteem. Need for reputation, prestige, and recognition from others. Also contains need for self-confidence and strength. Self-actualization. Desire for self-fulfillment—to become the best one is capable of becoming. two key managerial implications of Maslow's theory are worth noting. First, it is important for managers to focus on satisfying employee needs related to self concepts—self-esteem and self-actualization—because their satisfaction is significantly associated with a host of important outcomes such as academic achievement, physical illness, psychological well-being (e.g., anxiety disorders, depression), criminal convictions, drug abuse, marital satisfaction, money and work problems, and performance at work. Second, a satisfied need may lose its motivational potential. Therefore, managers are advised to motivate employees by devising programs or practices aimed at satisfying emerging or unmet needs.

Build Relationships

This approach is based on the premise that good relationships can overcome differences. It addresses diversity by fostering quality relationships—characterized by acceptance and understanding—among diverse groups

Isolate

This option maintains the current way of doing things by setting the diverse person off to the side. In this way the individual is unable to influence organizational change. Managers can isolate people by putting them on special projects. Entire work groups or departments are isolated by creating functionally independent entities, frequently referred to as "silos."

Phase 2: Encounter

This second phase begins when the employment contract has been signed. During the encounter phase employees come to learn what the organization is really like. It is a time for reconciling unmet expectations and making sense of a new work environment. Onboarding is one such technique.

Interpersonal Value Conflict

This type of value conflict often is at the core of personality conflicts, and such conflicts can negatively affect one's career

Management by Objectives

a management system that incorporates participation into decision making, goal setting, and objective feedback. The central idea of MBO, getting individual employees to "own" a piece of a collective effort

Adams's Equity Theory of Motivation

a model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges or give-and-take relationships. As a process theory of motivation, equity theory explains how an individual's motivation to behave in a certain way is fueled by feelings of inequity or a lack of justice. two primary components are involved in the employee-employer exchange, inputs and outcomes. An employee's inputs, for which he or she expects a just return, include education/training, skills, creativity, seniority, age, personality traits, effort expended, and personal appearance. On the outcome side of the exchange, the organization provides such things as pay/bonuses, medical benefits, challenging assignments, job security, promotions, status symbols, and participation in important decisions. if the comparison person enjoys greater outcomes for similar inputs, negative inequity will be perceived . On the other hand, a person will experience positive inequity when his or her outcome to input ratio is greater than that of a relevant coworker. Interestingly, the current economy can create positive inequity for layoff survivors because they feel fortunate to still have a job.

Humility

a realistic assessment of one's own contribution and the recognition of the contribution of others, along with luck and good fortune that made one's own success possible has been called the silent virtue Humble individuals have a down-to-earth perspective of themselves and of the events and relationships in their lives. Humility involves a capability to evaluate success, failure, work, and life without exaggeration. Furthermore, humility enables leaders to distinguish the delicate line between such characteristics as healthy self-confidence, self-esteem, and self-assessment, and those of over-confidence, narcissism, and stubbornness. Humility is the mid-point between the two negative extremes of arrogance and lack of self-esteem. This depiction allows one to see that a person can be humble and competitive or humble and ambitious at the same time, which contradicts common—but mistaken—views about humility.

Societal culture

a set of beliefs and values about what is desirable and undesirable in a community of people, and a set of formal or informal practices to support the values *Complex and multilayered culture influences organizational behavior in two ways. Employees bring their societal culture to work with them in the form of customs and language. Organizational culture, a by-product of societal culture, in turn affects the individual's values, ethics, attitudes, assumptions, and expectations.

Cultural intelligence

ability to interpret ambiguous cross-cultural situations correctly the culturally intelligent person requires knowledge of culture and of the fundamental principles of cross-cultural interactions. This means knowing what culture is, how cultures vary, and how culture affects behavior. Second, the culturally intelligent person needs to practice mindfulness, the ability to pay attention in a reflective and creative way to cues in the cross-cultural situations encountered and to one's own knowledge and feelings. Third, based on knowledge and mindfulness, the culturally intelligent person develops cross-cultural skills and becomes competent across a wide range of situations. These skills involve choosing the appropriate behavior from a well-developed repertoire of behaviors that are correct for different intercultural situations

Culture Change in Organization

accomplished by using one or more of the following mechanisms: -Formal statements of organizational philosophy, mission, vision, values, and materials used for recruiting, selection, and socialization. -The design of physical space, work environments, and buildings. -Slogans, language, acronyms, and sayings. -Deliberate role modeling, training programs, teaching, and coaching by managers and supervisors. -Explicit rewards, status symbols (e.g., titles), and promotion criteria. -Stories, legends, or myths about key people and events. -The organizational activities, processes, or outcomes that leaders pay attention to, measure, and control. -Leader reactions to critical incidents and organizational crises. -The workflow and organizational structure. -Organizational systems and procedures. -Organizational goals and the associated criteria used for recruitment, selection, development, promotion, layoffs, and retirement of people.

Job Satisfaction

an affective or emotional response toward various facets of one's job. This definition implies job satisfaction is not a unitary concept. Rather, a person can be relatively satisfied with one aspect of his or her job and dissatisfied with one or more other aspects.

Affirmative Action

an artificial intervention aimed at giving management a chance to correct an imbalance, an injustice, a mistake, or outright discrimination that occurred in the past. Affirmative action does not legitimize quotas. Quotas are illegal. They can only be imposed by judges who conclude that a company has engaged in discriminatory practices. It also is important to note that under no circumstances does affirmative action require companies to hire unqualified people. (1) affirmative action plans are perceived more negatively by white males than women and minorities because it is perceived to work against their own self-interests (2) affirmative action plans are viewed more positively by people who are liberals and Democrats than conservatives and Republicans (3) affirmative action plans are not supported by people who possess racist or sexist attitudes

Performance management

an organization-wide system whereby managers integrate the activities of goal setting, monitoring and evaluating, providing feedback and coaching, and rewarding employees on a continuous basis Organizational behavior (OB) can shed valuable light on key aspects of performance management—namely, goal setting, feedback and coaching, and rewards and positive reinforcement. First, people with the requisite abilities, skills, and job knowledge need to be hired. -Never compromise on hiring. -Nothing demotivates people like the equal treatment of unequals. Next, training is required to correct any job knowledge shortfalls

Include/Exclude

an outgrowth of affirmative action programs. Its primary goal is to either increase or decrease the number of diverse people at all levels of the organizations.

Reasonable Religious Accommodation

any adjustment to the work environment that will allow the employee to practice his religion. Examples of reasonable accommodation include: flexible scheduling, voluntary substitutions or swaps, job reassignments and lateral transfers, and modification of grooming requirements.

Perception

cognitive process that enables us to interpret and understand our surroundings Recognition of objects is one of this process's major functions The study of how people perceive one another has been labeled social cognition and social information processing.

emotions

complex, patterned, organismic reactions to how we think we are doing in our lifelong efforts to survive and flourish and to achieve what we wish for ourselves Lazarus's definition of emotions centers on a person's goals. The word organismic is appropriate because emotions involve the whole person—biological, psychological, and social. Importantly, psychologists draw a distinction between felt and displayed emotions. a person might feel angry (felt emotion) at a rude co-worker but not make a nasty remark in return (displayed emotion)

Attitude - Affective Component

contains the feelings or emotions one has about a given object or situation. How do you feel

Attitude

defined as "a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a given object While values represent global beliefs that influence behavior across all situations, attitudes relate only to behavior directed toward specific objects, persons, or situations. Values and attitudes generally, but not always, are in harmony. Three factors accounted for middle-age attitude stability: (1) greater personal certainty, (2) perceived abundance of knowledge, and (3) a need for strong attitudes.

Socialization Mangement

five practical guidelines for managing organizational socialization -effective onboarding programs resulted in increased retention, productivity, and rates of task completion for new hires. - reinforce a culture that promotes ethical behavior. Managers are encouraged to consider how they might best set expectations regarding ethical behavior during all three phases of the socialization process -The type of orientation program used to socialize employees affects their expectations and behavior. -Support for stage models is mixed. Although there are different stages of socialization, they are not identical in order, length, or content for all people or jobs. -Managers should pay attention to the socialization of diverse employees.

Market Culture

has a strong external focus and values stability and control. Organizations with this culture are driven by competition and a strong desire to deliver results and accomplish goals. Because this type of culture is focused on the external environment, customers and profits take precedence over employee development and satisfaction. The major goal of managers is to drive toward productivity, profits, and customer satisfaction.

Adhocracy Culture

has an external focus and values flexibility. This type of culture fosters the creation of innovative products and services by being adaptable, creative, and fast to respond to changes in the marketplace. Adhocracy cultures do not rely on the type of centralized power and authority relationships that are part of market and hierarchical cultures. They empower and encourage employees to take risks, think outside the box, and experiment with new ways of getting things done. This type of culture is well suited for start-up companies, those in industries undergoing constant change, and those in mature industries that are in need of innovation to enhance growth.

360-degree feedback

involves letting individuals compare their own perceived performance with behaviorally specific (and usually anonymous) performance information from their manager, subordinates, and peers. Even outsiders may be involved in what is sometimes called full-circle feedback. Top management support and an organizational climate of openness can help 360-degree feedback programs succeed. Trust is at the core of using 360-degree feedback to enhance productivity. Trust determines how much an individual is willing to contribute for an employer. Using 360 confidentially, for developmental purposes, builds trust; using it to trigger pay and personnel decisions puts trust at risk.

Ethics

involves the study of moral issues and choices. It is concerned with right versus wrong, good versus bad, and the many shades of gray in supposedly black-and-white issues.

Cross-cultural training

is any type of structured experience designed to help departing employees (and their families) adjust to a foreign culture. The trend is toward more such training in the United States. Easiest. Predeparture training is limited to informational materials, including books, lectures, films, videos, and Internet searches. Moderately difficult. Experiential training is conducted through case studies, role playing, simulations, and introductory language instruction. Most difficult. Departing employees are given some combination of the preceding methods plus comprehensive language instruction and field experience in the target culture. As an example of the latter, PepsiCo transfers "about 25 young foreign managers a year to the US for one-year assignments in bottling plants.

sex-role stereotype

is the belief that differing traits and abilities make men and women particularly well suited to different roles. These stereotypes have been found to influence our perceptions of women as leaders. (1) people often prefer male bosses (2) women have a harder time being perceived as an effective leader (e.g., women were seen as more effective than men only when the organization faced a crisis and turnaround) (3) women of color are more negatively affected by sex-role stereotypes than white women or men in general

Feedback

objective information about individual or collective performance. Subjective assessments such as "You're doing a poor job," "You're lazy," or "We really appreciate everyone's hard work" do not qualify as objective feedback. But hard data such as units sold, days absent, dollars saved, projects completed, customers satisfied, and quality rejects are all candidates for objective feedback programs. Managers can enhance their credibility as sources of feedback by developing their expertise and creating a climate of trust. Negative feedback is typically misperceived or rejected Recipients of feedback perceive it to be more accurate when they actively participate in the feedback session versus passively receiving feedback feedback serves two functions for those who receive it: one is instructional and the other motivational. Feedback instructs when it clarifies roles or teaches new behavior.

Phase 1: Anticipatory Socialization

occurs before an individual actually joins an organization. It is represented by the information people have learned about different careers, occupations, professions, and organizations. Anticipatory socialization information comes from many sources. An organization's current employees are a powerful source of anticipatory socialization. So are the Internet and social media. -realistic job preview (RJP) involves giving recruits a realistic idea of what lies ahead by presenting both positive and negative aspects of the job.

Intrinsic motivation

occurs when an individual is "turned on to one's work because of the positive internal feelings that are generated by doing well, rather than being dependent on external factors (such as incentive pay or compliments from the boss) for the motivation to work effectively

Discrimination

occurs when employment decisions about an individual are due to reasons not associated with performance or are not related to the job. For example, organizations cannot discriminate on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, sex, age, physical and mental disabilities, and pregnancy.

organizational identification

occurs when one comes to integrate beliefs about one's organization into one's identity

Collectivist culture

oppositely called "we" and "us" cultures, rank shared goals higher than individual desires and goals Collectivist cultures, oppositely called "we" and "us" cultures, rank shared goals higher than individual desires and goals. People in collectivist cultures are expected to subordinate their own wishes and goals to those of the relevant social unit.

Organizational Socialization

process by which a person learns the values, norms, and required behaviors which permit him to participate as a member of the organization -turns outsiders into fully functioning insiders by promoting and reinforcing the organization's core values and beliefs. -Daniel Feldman has proposed a three-phase model of organizational socialization that promotes deeper understanding of this important process. As illustrated in Figure 3-5, the three phases are (1) anticipatory socialization, (2) encounter, and (3) change and acquisition.

Onboarding

programs help employees to integrate, assimilate, and transition to new jobs by making them familiar with corporate policies, procedures, culture, and politics and by clarifying work-role expectations and responsibilities.

Competing Values Framework

provides a practical way for managers to understand, measure, and change organizational culture One axis pertains to whether an organization focuses its attention and efforts on internal dynamics and employees or outward toward its external environment and its customers and shareholders. The second is concerned with an organization's preference for flexibility and discretion or control and stability. Combining these two axes creates four types of organizational culture that are based on different core values and different sets of criteria for accessing organizational effectiveness. **the clan culture—upper-left quadrant—is represented by values that emphasize an internal focus and flexibility, whereas the market culture—bottom-right quadrant—has an external focus and concern for stability and control. You can see the same conflict between an adhocracy culture that values flexibility and an external focus and a hierarchy culture that endorses stability and control along with an internal focus.

Cognitive dissonance

psychological discomfort a person experiences when his or her attitudes or beliefs are incompatible with his or her behavior people will seek to reduce the "dissonance," or psychological tension, through one of three main methods: Change your attitude or behavior, or both. This is the simplest solution when confronted with cognitive dissonance. Returning to our example about needing a blood transfusion, this would amount to either (a) telling yourself that you can't get AIDS through blood and take the transfusion or (b) simply refusing to take the transfusion. Belittle the importance of the inconsistent behavior. This happens all the time. In our example, you could belittle the belief that you can get AIDS from the foreign blood bank. (The doctor said she regularly uses blood from that blood bank.) Find consonant elements that outweigh dissonant ones. This approach entails rationalizing away the dissonance. You can tell yourself that you are taking the transfusion because you have no other options. After all, you could die if you don't get the required surgery.

Motivation

psychological processes that cause the arousal, direction, and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed Content theories of motivation focus on identifying internal factors such as instincts, needs, satisfaction, and job characteristics that energize employee motivation. These theories do not explain how motivation is influenced by the dynamic interaction between an individual and the environment in which he or she works. This limitation led to the creation of process theories of motivation. Process theories of motivation focus on explaining the process by which internal factors and cognitions influence employee motivation.3 Process theories are more dynamic than content theories.

Attitude - Behavioral Component

refers to how one intends or expects to act toward someone or something

Stereotype threat

refers to the 'predicament' in which members of a social group (e.g., African Americans, women) 'must deal with the possibility of being judged or treated stereotypically, or of doing something that would confirm the stereotype

Fundamental Attribution Bias

reflects one's tendency to attribute another person's behavior to his or her personal characteristics, as opposed to situational factors. This bias causes perceivers to ignore important environmental forces that often significantly affect behavior.

Attitude - Cognitive Component

reflects the beliefs or ideas one has about an object or situation. What do you think

Organizational commitment

reflects the extent to which an individual identifies with an organization and is committed to its goals. -Affective commitment refers to the employee's emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in the organization. Employees with a strong affective commitment continue employment with an organization because they want to do so. Affective commitment is enhanced by hiring people whose personal values are consistent with the organization's values. A positive, satisfying work environment also should increase employees' desire to stay. -Continuance commitment refers to an awareness of the costs associated with leaving the organization. Employees whose primary link to the organization is based on continuance commitment remain because they need to do so. Continuance commitment is enhanced by offering employees a variety of progressive benefits and human resource programs. -Finally, normative commitment reflects a feeling of obligation to continue employment. Employees with a high level of normative commitment feel that they ought to remain with the organization normative commitment is influenced by organizational culture and the socialization process. Normative commitment can be increased by making sure that management does not breach its psychological contracts and by trying to enhance the level of trust throughout the organization.

Distributive justice

reflects the perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed or allocated

Developmental relationship strength

reflects the quality of relationships among the individual and those involved in his or her developmental network A receptive developmental network is composed of a few weak ties from one social system such as an employer or a professional association. traditional network contains a few strong ties between an employee and developers that all come from one social system.

developmental relationships diversity of

reflects the variety of people within the network an individual uses for developmental assistance. There are two subcomponents associated with network diversity: (1) the number of different people the person is networked with and (2) the various social systems from which the networked relationships stem

Age sterotypes

reinforce age discrimination because of their negative orientation. Long-standing age stereotypes depict older workers as less satisfied, not as involved with their work, less motivated, not as committed

Cognitions

represent "any knowledge, opinion, or belief about the environment, about oneself, or about one's behavior." those involving anticipation, introspection, planning, goal setting, evaluating, and setting personal standards are particularly relevant to OB.

Psychological contracts

represent an individual's perception about the terms and conditions of a reciprocal exchange between him- or herself and another party. In a work environment, the psychological contract represents an employee's beliefs about what he or she is entitled to receive in return for what he or she provides to the organization.

Sustainability

represents "a company's ability to make a profit without sacrificing the resources of its people, the community, and the planet

Ability

represents a broad and stable characteristic responsible for a person's maximum—as opposed to typical—performance on mental and physical tasks

Vision

represents a long-term goal that describes "what" an organization wants to become.

Glass ceiling

represents an absolute barrier or solid roadblock that prevents women from advancing to higher-level positions

Intelligence

represents an individual's capacity for constructive thinking, reasoning, and problem solving Charles Spearman proposed in 1927 that all cognitive performance is determined by two types of abilities. The first can be characterized as a general mental ability needed for all cognitive tasks. The second is unique to the task at hand Howard Gardner concept of multiple intelligences (MI) includes not only cognitive abilities but social and physical abilities and skills as well: Linguistic intelligence: Potential to learn and use spoken and written languages. Logical-mathematical intelligence: Potential for deductive reasoning, problem analysis, and mathematical calculation. Musical intelligence: Potential to appreciate, compose, and perform music. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: Potential to use mind and body to coordinate physical movement. Spatial intelligence: Potential to recognize and use patterns. Interpersonal intelligence: Potential to understand, connect with, and effectively work with others. Intrapersonal intelligence: Potential to understand and regulate oneself. Naturalist intelligence: Potential to live in harmony with one's environment.

Self-Serving Bias

represents one's tendency to take more personal responsibility for success than for failure. The self-serving bias suggests employees will attribute their success to internal factors (high ability or hard work) and their failures to uncontrollable external factors (tough job, bad luck, unproductive co-workers, or an unsympathetic boss). This tendency plays out in all aspects of life.

Phase 3: Change and Acquisition

requires employees to master important tasks and roles and to adjust to their work group's values and norms. This will only occur when employees have a clear understanding about their roles necessitates that employees have a clear understanding regarding the use of social media

Monochronic time

revealed in the ordered, precise, schedule-driven use of public time that typifies and even caricatures efficient Northern Europeans and North Americans Low-context cultures, such as in the United States, tend to run on monochronic time, while higher-context cultures, such as in Central America's Costa Rica, tend to run on polychronic time. People in polychronic cultures view time as flexible, fluid, and multidimensional. For example, imagine yourself doing business in the Persian Gulf nation of Qatar:

Learning Goal

strives to improve creativity and develop skills When skills are lacking, a developmental process is needed wherein learning goals precede performance outcome goals.

Performance Outcome Goal

targets a specific end result But for employees who lack the necessary skills, performance outcome goals are more frustrating than motivating. When skills are lacking, a developmental process is needed wherein learning goals precede performance outcome goals.

Scientific Management

that kind of management which conducts a business or affairs by standards established by facts or truths gained through systematic observation, experiment, or reasoning. The application of scientific management involves the following five steps: (1) develop standard methods for performing jobs by using time and motion studies, (2) carefully select employees with the appropriate abilities, (3) train workers to use the standard methods and procedures, (4) support workers and reduce interruptions, and (5) provide incentives to reinforce performance

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: The Pygmalion Effect

that someone's high expectations for another person result in high performance for that person The key process underlying both the Pygmalion and Galatea effects is the idea that people's expectations or beliefs determine their behavior and performance, thus serving to make their expectations come true. In other words, we strive to validate our perceptions of reality, no matter how faulty they may be. Thus, the self-fulfilling prophecy is an important perceptual outcome we need to better understand.

emotional intelligence

the ability to manage oneself and one's relationships in mature and constructive ways. Referred to by some as EI and others as EQ, emotional intelligence is said to have four key components: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management. The first two constitute personal competence; the second two feed into social competence

Internal Locus of Control

the belief that one controls the events and consequences affecting one's life Proactive people identify opportunities and act on them, show initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs. an "internal" tends to attribute positive outcomes, such as getting a passing grade on an exam, to her or his own abilities. Accordingly, an "internal" tends to blame negative events, such as failing an exam, on personal shortcomings—not studying hard enough, perhaps.

Personality

the combination of stable physical and mental characteristics that give the individual his or her identity. These characteristics or traits—including how one looks, thinks, acts, and feels—are the product of interacting genetic and environmental influences.

Self-monitoring

the extent to which a person observes his or her own self-expressive behavior and adapts it to the demands of the situation. - High self-monitors are sometimes called chameleons, who readily adapt their self-presentation to their surroundings. Low self-monitors, on the other hand, often are criticized for being on their own planet and insensitive to others. -Individuals high in self-monitoring are thought to regulate their expressive self-presentation for the sake of desired public appearances, and thus be highly responsive to social and interpersonal cues of situationally appropriate performances. Individuals low in self-monitoring are thought to lack either the ability or the motivation to so regulate their expressive self-presentations. Their expressive behaviors, instead, are thought to functionally reflect their own enduring and momentary inner states, including their attitudes, traits, and feelings For high, moderate, and low self-monitors: Become more consciously aware of your self-image and how it affects others. For high self-monitors: Don't overdo it by evolving from a successful chameleon into someone who is widely perceived as insincere, dishonest, phony, and untrustworthy. You cannot be everything to everyone. For low self-monitors: You can bend without breaking, so try to be a bit more accommodating while being true to your basic beliefs. Don't wear out your welcome when communicating. Practice reading and adjusting to nonverbal cues in various public situations. If your conversation partner is bored or distracted, stop—because they are not really listening.

Foreign Assignment Cycle

the first and last stages of the cycle occur at home. The middle two stages occur in the foreign or host country. Each stage hides an OB-related trouble spot that needs to be anticipated and neutralized. Otherwise, the bill for another failed foreign assignment will grow.

job crafting

the physical and cognitive changes individuals make in the task or relational boundaries of their work job crafting is limited by the amount of latitude people have in changing their own jobs.

Mentoring

the process of forming and maintaining developmental relationships between a mentor and a junior person Mentoring can serve to embed an organization's culture when developers and the protégé/protégée work in the same organization for two reasons. First, mentoring contributes to creating a sense of oneness by promoting the acceptance of the organization's core values throughout the organization. Second, the socialization aspect of mentoring also promotes a sense of membership. two general functions—career and psychosocial—of the mentoring process. Five career functions that enhanced career development were sponsorship, exposure-and-visibility, coaching, protection, and challenging assignments. Four psychosocial functions were role modeling, acceptance-and-confirmation, counseling, and friendship. The psychosocial functions clarified the participants' identities and enhanced their feelings of competence

Management

the process of working with and through others to achieve organizational objectives, efficiently and ethically, in the face of constant change -Dealing effectively with people is what management is all about. -Managers with high skills mastery tend to have better subunit performance and employee morale than managers with low skills mastery -Effective female and male managers do not have significantly different skill profiles,59 contrary to claims in the popular business press in recent years -At all career stages, derailed managers (those who failed to achieve their potential) tended to be the ones who overestimated their skill mastery (rated themselves higher than their employees did)

Skill

the specific capacity to physically manipulate objects. Among the many desirable skills and competencies in organizational life are written and spoken communication, initiative, decisiveness, tolerance, problem solving, adaptability, and resilience. Importantly, our cautions about on-the-job personality testing extend to ability, intelligence, and skill testing and certification

proxemics

the study of cultural expectations about interpersonal space four interpersonal distance zones. Some call them space bubbles. They are intimate distance, personal distance, social distance, and public distance.

Reward Distribution Criteria

three general criteria for the distribution of rewards are as follows: Performance: results. Tangible outcomes such as individual, group, or organization performance; quantity and quality of performance. Performance: actions and behaviors. Such as teamwork, cooperation, risk taking, creativity. Nonperformance considerations. Customary or contractual, where the type of job, nature of the work, equity, tenure, level in hierarchy, and so forth are rewarded.

Laboratory Study

variables are manipulated and measured in contrived situations. College students are commonly used as subjects.

Goal

what an individual is trying to accomplish; it is the object or aim of an action -direct attention -regulate effort -increase persistence -foster the development and application of task strategies and action plans

Self-efficacy Model

would involve cognitive appraisal of the interaction between your perceived capability and situational opportunities and obstacles People program themselves for success or failure by enacting their self-efficacy expectations significant positive correlation between self-efficacy and job performance -can be boosted in the workplace through careful hiring, challenging assignments, training and coaching, goal setting, supportive leadership and mentoring, and rewards for improvement.

low-context cultures

written and spoken words carry the burden of shared meanings. Low-context cultures include those found in Germany, Switzerland, Scandinavia, North America, and Great Britain