Organizational Behavior Test 2
Soft generic influence tactics
**friendlier and less coercive 1. Rational persuasion- use logic/facts 2. Inspirational appeals-appeal to others' emotions 3. Consultation- participative management 4. Ingratiation- using praise/flattery 5. Personal appeals-refer to friendship
Hard generic influence tactics
**involve more overt pressure 6. Exchange- promises/trading favors 7. Coalition tactics-getting others to support your position 8. Pressure-threats/demanding compliance 9. Legitimating tactics- based on authority
Compromising
-A give-and-take approach that involves moderate concern for both self and others -Appropriate when parties have opposite goals or possess equal power. -Compromise is inappropriate when overuse would lead to inconclusive action (ex: failure to meet production deadlines) -Everyone gets something, but its a temporary fix that can stifle creative problem solving -Appears to be win/win but in reality can be a lose/lose -Sometimes not a long term fix. Can breed resentment causing long term relationship damage.
Negative nonverbal actions include the following
-Avoiding eye contact and looking away from the speaker -Closing your eyes or tensing your facial muscles -Licking your lips -Biting your nails
Negotiation Implications for Managers: Building trust
-Build trust by accommodating others when you find you're wrong, when you need to demonstrate reasonableness, when other positions need to be heard, when issues are more important to others than to yourself, when you want to satisfy others and maintain cooperation, when you can build social credits for later issues, to minimize loss when you are outmatched and losing, and when employees should learn from their own mistakes.
Negotiation Implications for Managers: When to choose an authoritarian management style
-Choose an authoritarian management style in emergencies, when unpopular actions need to be implemented, and when the issue is vital to the organization's welfare. Be certain to communicate your logic when possible to make certain employees remain engaged and productive.
Practical Research Insights about influence/power
-Commitment is more likely when people rely on strong rational persuasion and do not rely on pressure and coalition tactics -Ingratiation (making the boss feel good) can slightly improve your performance appraisal results but can also have reverse effect -Commitment is more likely when the influence attempt involves something important and enjoyable -Credible people tend to be the most persuasive -Unfair influence tactics were associated with greater resistance among employees
How to deal with personality conflict: Tips for employees having a personality conflict
-Communicate directly with the other person to resolve the perceived conflict (emphasize problem solving and common objectives, not personalities) -Avoid dragging co-workers into the conflict -If dysfunctional conflict persists, seek help from direct supervisors or HR specialists
Negotiation Implications for Managers: Compromising
-Consider compromising when goals are important but not worth potential disruption, when opponents with equal power are committed to mutually exclusive goals, and when you need temporary settlements to complex issues.
Negotiation Implications for Managers: Distributive bargaining
-Distributive bargaining can resolve disputes, but it often reduces the satisfaction of one or more negotiators because it is confrontational and focused on the short term. Integrative bargaining, in contrast, tends to provide outcomes that satisfy all parties and build lasting relationships.
How to deal with personality conflict: Tips for third-party observers of a personality conflict
-Do not take sides in someone else's personality conflict -Suggest the parties work things out themselves in a constructive and positive way -If dysfunctional conflict persists, refer the problem to the parties' direct supervisors
Programmed conflict
-Encourages different opinions without protecting management's personal feelings -The trick is to get contributors to either defend or criticize ideas based on relevant facts rather than on the basis of personal preference of political interests ex: Devil's advocacy and dialectic method
Obliging (smoothing)
-High concern for others, low concern for self -involves playing down differences while emphasizing commonalities -An obliging person neglects his or her own concern to satisfy the concern of the other party -Appropriate when it is possible to get something in return -Cost outweighs the pluses -Temporary fix Win/lose -Neglect own concern - problem only gets worse.
Integrating
-High concern for self, high concern for others Positives: -interested parties confront the issue and cooperatively identify the problem, generate and weigh alternative solutions, and select a solution. Brainstorming and consensus techniques effectively used here. Everyone has a voice. -Appropriate for complex issues plagued by misunderstanding -Only true win/win -Long term fix -Deals with the underlying problem rather than merely with symptoms Negatives: -Very time consuming -Inappropriate for resolving conflicts rooted in opposing value systems
Dominating (forcing)
-High concern for self, low concern for others -relies on formal authority to force compliance -Appropriate when an unpopular solution must be implemented and a quick decision must be made -Win/lose -Creates long term relationship damage
How to deal with personality conflict: Tips for managers whose employees are having a personality conflict
-Investigate and document conflict -If appropriate, take corrective action -If necessary attempt informal dispute resolution -Refer difficult conflicts to HR specialists or hired counselors for formal resolution attempts and other interventions
Avoiding
-Low concern for self, low concern for others -involves either passive withdrawal from the problem or active suppression of the issue -Appropriate for trivial issues -Problem only gets worse -Win/lose -Worst choice.
Positive nonverbal actions include the following
-Maintain eye contact -Nod to show interest and agreement -Lean forward to show the speaker you are interested -Use a tone of voice that matches your message
Gender Differences in Negotiations
-Men and women negotiate differently and these differences affect outcomes. -There is some merit to the popular stereotype that women are more cooperative, pleasant, and relationship-oriented in negotiations than are men. -These gender differences can be lessened at both the organizational and individual level. -Men ask more
Nonverbal communication & sources of nonverbal communication
-Messages sent outside of the written or spoken word -Experts estimate 65%-90% of communication includes nonverbal messages Sources: •Body movement and gestures •Touch •Facial expression •Eye contact
Contrast Distributive and Integrative Bargaining: Distributive bargaining
-Research shows that when you're engaged in distributive bargaining, one of the best things you can do is make the first offer, and make it an aggressive one. Shows power. -Establishes an anchoring bias. -Another distributive bargaining tactic is revealing a deadline.
Bases of power
-Reward power -Coercive power -Legitimate power -Expert power -Referent power
Negotiation Implications for Managers: When to seek integrative solutions
-Seek integrative solutions when your objective is to learn, when you want to merge insights from people with different perspectives, when you need to gain commitment by incorporating concerns into a consensus, and when you need to work through feelings that have interfered with a relationship.
Task roles
-Task-oriented group behavior -Keep the group on track -Enable the work group to define, clarify, and pursue a common purpose Example: Initiator Information seeker/giver Opinion seeker/giver Elaborator Coordinator Orienter Evaluator Energizer Procedural technician Recorder
Devil's advocacy
-Type of programmed conflict -Assigning someone the role of a critical -Intended to generate critical thinking and reality testing
Dialectic method
-Type of programmed conflict -Fostering a debate of opposing viewpoints to better understand an issue
Norming
-Usually make it to stage 2 because a respected member, other than the leader, challenges the group to resolve its power struggles so it can accomplish something -Questions about authority and power are resolved through unemotional, matter-of-fact group discussion -Group cohesiveness: "We feeling"
Communication
-interpersonal exchange of information and understanding -two way process
Maintenance roles
-relationship-building group behavior -Keep the group together Example: Encourager Harmonizer Compromiser Gatekeeper Standard setter Commentator Follower
Contact hypothesis
-the more the members of different groups interact, the less intergroup conflict they will experience -Managers should identify and root out specific negative linkages between groups
Reputation in negotiation
-the way other people think and talk about you. -Develop a trustworthy reputation: competence and integrity.
Relationships in negotiation
-think about what's best for the other party and the relationship as a whole. -Repeated negotiations built on trust provide more options.
Organizational functions of formal groups
1. Accomplish complex, interdependent tasks that are beyond the capabilities of individuals. 2. Generate new or creative ideas and solutions. 3. Coordinate interdepartmental efforts. 4. Provide a problem-solving mechanism for complex problems requiring varied information and assessments. 5. Implement complex decisions. 6. Socialize (in order to begin the building of trust) and train team members.
Desired outcomes of conflict
1. Agreement 2. Stronger relationships 3. Learnings
Negotiation Tactics
1. Build trust, share information 2. Ask questions 3. Give away abit more information 4. Make multiple offers simultaneously 5. search for a post settlement revisit
Keys to Effective Listening
1. Capitalize of thought speed 2. Listen for ideas 3. Find an area of interest 4. Hold your fire 6. Work at listening 7. Resist distractions 8. Hear what is said 9. Challenge yourself 10. Use handouts, overheads, or other visual aids
Influence outcomes
1. Commitment - substantial agreement followed by initiative and persistence in pursuit of common goals 2. Compliance - reluctant agreement requiring subsequent prodding to satisfy minimum requirements 3. Resistance - stalling, unproductive arguing, or outright rejection
Major forms of conflict
1. Personality conflict 2. Intergroup conflict 3. Cross-cultural conflictP
Five Steps of the Negotiation Process
1. Preparation and planning 2. Definition of ground rules 3. Clarification and justification 4. Bargaining and problem solving 5. Closure and implementation
Individual functions of formal groups
1. Satisfy the individual's need for affiliation (motivation). 2. Develop, enhance, and confirm the individual's self-esteem and sense of identity. 3. Give individuals an opportunity to test and share their perceptions of social reality. 4. Reduce the individual's anxieties and feelings of insecurity and powerlessness. 5. Provide a problem-solving mechanism for personal and interpersonalproblems.
Linguistic style
A person's typical speaking pattern
Communication competence
Ability to effectively use communication behaviors in a given context Determined by 3 sets of criteria 1. Communication abilities/traits: -Cross-cultural awareness -Assertiveness -Aggressiveness -Defensiveness -Active listening 2. Situational factors: -Company philosophy & openness -Company policy and procedures -Organizational climate -Geographic location of organization 3. Individuals involved: -A friend -Someone you do not trust -A superior -A subordinate
Noise
Anything that interferes with the transmission and understanding of a message
Communication styles
Assertive communication styles: expressive and self-enhancing, but does not take advantage of others. Aggressive communication styles: expressive and self-enhancing, but takes unfair advantage of others -Nonassertive style: timid and self-denying behavior
Alternative dispute resolution
Avoiding costly lawsuits by resolving conflicts informally or through mediation or arbitration -Facilitation: Third party (manager) urges disputing parties to deal with each other directly in a pos and constructive manner -Conciliation: Neutral third party acts as communication conduit -Peer review: panel or coworkers hears both sides of dispute -Ombudsman: Hears grievances on confidential basis and attempts to arrange a solution -Mediation: Actively guides the disputing parties in exploring innovative solutions to the conflict -Arbitration: Disputing parties agree ahead of time to accept the decision or a neutral arbitrator in a formal court like setting
Cross cultural conflict
Because differing assumptions about how to think and act, the potential for cross-cultural conflict is both immediate and huge
Personality traits in negotiations
Can you predict an opponent's negotiating tactics if you know something about his/her personality? -The evidence says "sort of."
Perceptual Process Model of Communication
Communication is a form of social information processing in which receivers interpret messages by cognitively processing information. This model depicts communication as a process in which receivers create meaning in their own minds. -Sender & receiver -Encoding -Message -Selecting a medium -Decoding -Creating meaning -Feedback
Intergroup conflict
Conflict among work groups, teams, and departments is a common threat to organizations competitiveness (Conflict between 2 groups, not within 1 group)
Added-value negotiation
Cooperatively developing multiple-deal packages while building a long-term friendship Consists of 5 steps: 1. Clarify interests 2. Identify options 3. Design alternative deal packages 4. Select a deal 5. Perfect the deal
Aggressive communication style (description, nonverbal behavior pattern, verbal behavior pattern)
Description: -Taking advantage of others; expressive and self enhancing at others' expense Nonverbal behavior pattern: -Glaring eye contact -Moving or leaning too close -Threatening gestures (pointed finger; clenched fist) -Loud voice -Frequent interruptions Verbal behavior pattern: -Swear words and abusive language -Attributions and evaluations of others' behavior -Sexist or racist terms -Explicit threats or put-downs
Assertive communication style (description, nonverbal behavior pattern, verbal behavior pattern)
Description: -pushing hard without attacking; permits others to influence outcome; expressive and self-enhancing without intruding on others' Nonverbal behavior pattern: -Good eye contact -Confortable but firm posture -Strong, steady, and audible voice -Facial expressions matched to message -Appropriately serious tone -Selective interruptions to ensure understanding Verbal behavior pattern: -Direct and unambiguous language -No attributions or evaluations of others behavior -Use of "I" statements and cooperative "we" statements
Nonassertive communication style (description, nonverbal behavior pattern, verbal behavior pattern)
Description: Encouraging others to take advantage of us; inhibited; self-denying Noneverbal behavior pattern: -Little eye contact -Downward glances -Slumped posture -Constantly shifting weight -Wringing hands -Weak or whiny voice Verbal behavior pattern: -Qualifiers ("maybe", "kind of") -Fillers ("uh,""you know," "well") -Negaters ("It's not really that important, "I'm not sure)
Basic types of negotiation
Distributive and integrative Distributive: Any gains to one person comes at the expensive of another. Fixed pie thinking: If the one person gets a large slice of the pie, the other person must make do with a smaller slice -win/lose -low info sharing -short term relationship Integrative: Parties may determine a situation in which they are both better off Fixed pie thinking: Expand the pie so that both parties are satisfied -win/win -high info sharing -long term relationship
Conflict iceberg
For a given conflict, the manager would work from top to bottom, noting any observations or insights about each level. From top to bottom: 1. Issues 2. Personalities 3. Emotions 4. Interests, needs, and desires 5. Self-perceptions and self-esteem 6. Hidden expectations 7. Unresolved issues from the past
Formal vs informal group
Formal group: Formed by the organization -Form 2 basic functions: organizational and individual Informal group: Formed by friends
Impression management
Getting others to see us in a certain manner
Negotiation
Give and take process between conflicting interdependent parties
Group vs team
Group: two or more freely interacting people with shared norms and goals and a common identity Team: small group with complementary skills who hold themselves mutually accountable for common purpose, goals, and approach. Interdependent tasks.
Moods/Emotions in Negotiation
Influence negotiation, but the way they do appears to depend on the type of negotiation.
Rahim's Five Conflict Handling Styles
Integrating Obliging (smoothing) Dominating (forcing) Avoiding Compromising
Personality conflict
Interpersonal opposition driven by personal dislike or disagreement
Antecedents of conflict
Knowing antecedents of conflict prepares managers to anticipate conflict and take steps to resolve it if it becomes dysfunctional -Incompatible personalities or value systems -Overlapping or unclear job boundaries -Competition for limited resources -Interdepartment or intergroup competition -Inadequate communication -Interdependent tasks (so that one person cannot complete an assignment until others have completed their work) -Organizational complexity -Unreasonable or unclear policies, standards, or rules -Unreasonable deadlines or extreme time pressure -Collective decision making -Decision making by consensus -Unmet expectations -Unresolved or suppressed conflicts
Conflict
One party perceives its interests are being opposed or set back by another party
Communication distortion
Purposely modifying the content of a message, thus reducing the accuracy of communication between managers and employees
Functional conflict
Serves organization's interests
Employee empowerment
Sharing varying degrees of power with lower level employees to better serve the customer
Coalition
Temporary groupings of people who actively pursue a single issue
Reciprocity
The effectiveness of interpersonal strategic alliances is anchored to the concept of reciprocity. Reciprocity is the almost universal belief that people should be paid back for what they do--that one good (or bad) turn deserves another (A mutual exchange of benefits)
Tuckman's Five-Stage Theory of Group Development
Theory of stages that groups in teams in the workplace go through a maturation process, such as one would find in a life cycle 1. Forming (independence) 2. Storming (steps 2-4: dependence/interdependence) 3. Norming 4. Performing 5. Adjourning (return to independence)
Dysfunctional conflict
Threatens organization's interests
What can happen with too much group cohesiveness?
Too much cohesiveness can breed groupthink because a desire to get along pushes aside critical thinking
Third-party Negotiations
When individuals or group representatives reach a stalemate and are unable to resolve their differences through direct negotiations, they may turn to a third party. *A mediator *An arbitrator *A conciliator
Contrast Distributive and Integrative Bargaining: Integrative bargaining
Why don't we see more integrative bargaining in organizations? Need the right conditions: -Parties who are open with information and candid about their concerns. -A sensitivity by both parties to the other's needs. -The ability to trust one another. -A willingness by both parties to maintain flexibility.
Social power
ability to marshal the human, informational, and material resources to get something done
Active Listening
actively decoding and interpreting verbal messages to get not only the verbal meaning of the words but also the "hidden messages". To remain fair, objective and limit/control emotions of all participants.
Why is compromising bad in negotiation?
compromising reduces the pressure to bargain integratively
Decoding
consists of translating verbal, oral, or visual aspects of a message into a form that can be interpreted
Selecting a medium
depends on the nature of the message, its intended purpose, type of audience, proximity to the audience, time horizon for disseminating the message, personal preferences, and the complexity of the problem/situation at hand Potential media: •Face-to-face conversations •Telephone calls •E-mail •Written memos or letters
Roles
expected behaviors for a given position
Sender & receiver
individual, group, or organization that desires or attempts to communicate with a particular receiver
Organizational politics
intentional acts of influence to enhance or protect the self-interests of individuals or groups
Referent power
obtaining compliance through charisma or personal attraction
Legitimate power
obtaining compliance through formal authority
Expert power
obtaining compliance through one's knowledge or information
Coercive power
obtaining compliance through threatened or actual punishment
Reward power
obtaining compliance with promised or actual rewards
Message
output of encoding *May contain hidden agendas as well as trigger affective or emotional reactions *Need to match the medium used to transmit them
Creating meaning
receiver creates the meaning of a message in his head
Feedback
receives encodes a response and then transmits it to the original sender
Encoding
translates mental thoughts into code or language that can be understood by others
Finding facts first when negotiation
when overconfidence gets in the way of rational thought and analysis it can have devastating consequences 1. Scope the dialogue 2. Listen with all of your senses 3. Listen all of the time 4. Define the ground rules for analysis 5. Clarify roles 6. Assess findings together 7. Communicate results together
Performing
•Activity focused on solving task problems •Contributors get work done without hampering others •Conflicts handled constructively and efficiently •Climate of open communication, strong cooperation, and lots of helping behavior
Drawbacks to E-mail
•Can lead to a lot of wasted time and effort •People overestimate their ability to effectively communicate via e-mail •Information overload •People are using e-mail to communicate when they should be using other media •E-mail only works when the party you desire to communicate with also gets it •Speed of getting a response is dependent on how frequently the receiver examines his messages •Because of misuse and potential legal liability, many companies now have policies for using email
Forming
•Group members tend to be uncertain and anxious about their roles, whose in charge and the group's goals •Mutual trust is low
Why people avoid conflict
•Harm •Rejection •Loss of relationship •Anger •Being seen as selfish •Saying the wrong thing •Failing •Hurting someone else •Getting what you want •Intimacy
How to Create Strategic Allies
•Mutual respect: Assume coworkers are intelligent and competent •Openness: Talk to coworkers honestly and directly •Trust: Assume that your coworkers have good intentions •Mutual benefit: When making plans or decision, look for alternatives in which both parties win
Benefits of E-mail
•Reduces the cost of distributing information to a large number of employees •Tool for increasing teamwork •Reduces the costs and time associated with print duplication and paper distribution •Fosters flexibility
Storming
•Time of testing--> individuals test the leader's policies and assumptions as they try to determine how they fit into the power structure •Subgroups take place •Procrastination may occur
Adjourning
•Work is done •Time to move on to other things •May feel a sense of loss •Return to independence
