P&C Exam 3: Chapters 5, 6, & 7
familiarity
"This feels familiar, so I must have seen it recently."
chunking examples
-A series of letters HOPTRASLU can be chunked as the syllables HOP, TRA, SLU -phone number
primacy effect
-Better memory for first few items -based in Long-term memory -During list presentation, the first few items receive the most memory rehearsal and are transferred from WM to LTM.
Reading span
-Captures active nature of working memory -Participant reads sentences and remembers the last word in each sentence -The number of words remembered is the reading span
Executive control/ central executive
-Control sequences of thought and action -Select and launch responses -Plan and set goals -Break habit or routine
Explicit memory
-Direct memory testing, such as recall or recognition -Conscious -Accompanied by the conviction that one is remembering a specific prior episode.
Network explanation for state-dependent learning and context reinstatement.
-During learning, connections are strengthened between the context and the learned material. -If you are in the same context during testing, the learned material will receive preactivation from these connections.
Clyde Wearing
-Good memory for generic information -Love for his wife -Unable to remember events -Disrupted episodic memory but intact semantic memory
flashbulb memory error example
-In one study, a group of college students were interviewed one day after the 1986 space shuttle Challenger explosion -Five years later, there was little agreement between the students' memories and what they had reported initially, even though they were very confident.
Implicit memory
-Indirect memory testing, such as a priming task -Unconscious -No realization that one is being influenced by past experiences.
modal model
-Information processing -components receive input from, and send input to, one another. *Short term memory *Sensory memory: two forms Iconic memory and echoic memory *Long term memory:
Which of the following provide evidence for a dissociation between familiarity and source memory?
-Its common to realize that a face is familiar but be unable to place it; it is also possible to have source memory without familiarity -People's patterns of brain activity are different when they are making judgments based on familiarity than when they are making judgments based on familiarity plus source memory. -Source memory is promoted by creating memory connections; familiarity can be promoted merely by sustained exposure.
Amnesic patients demonstrating preserved implicit memories without explicit memory
-Knowing the answer to a trivia question the second time around -Preferring a musical melody that they had been exposed to before
two types of rehearsal
-Maintenance rehearsal -Relational or elaborative rehearsal
autobiographical memory errors
-Memories about ourselves are a mix of genuine recall and schema-based reconstruction -Our autobiographical memories are also biased to emphasize consistency and positive traits
Which of the following statements is TRUE?
-Memory connections can both help and hurt memory accuracy. -When events are misremembered, they tend to be remembered as more normal, or more consistent with expectations, than they actually were. -The greater the density of connections associated with a particular episode, the more likely intrusion errors are to occur.
modal model and hippocampus
-Memory for the items at the beginning of the list but not the end is associated with activity in the hippocampus. -hippocampus associated with LONG TERM memory
problems with frame learning and memory
-New learning is grounded in previously learned (stored) knowledge -Effective learning depends on how the information will be later retrieved -Encoding may not lead to retrieval if it is not stored correctly
Fisher & Craik
-Participants told to remember the second word of a word pair that was semantically related or rhymed -During testing, the prime words were presented as cues or hints -RESULTS: depth of processing effect and context reinstatement effect
summary of memory errors
-People can confidently remember things that never happened -Memories become embedded in schematic knowledge -Schemata provide organization and retrieval paths -Forgetting may be a consequence of how our general knowledge is formed: Specific episodes merge in memory to form schemata
Permastore
-Permanent memories -May be aided by rehearsal and continuing to learn -rehearsal and continuing to learn related material is helpful for maintaining very-long-term retention.
Traumatic memories
-Physiological arousal increases consolidation Can be lost from Head injuries, sleep deprivation, drugs/alcohol, and—controversially—"repression" -Such memories are often enhanced and extra vivid, likely due to the biological process through which memories are formed—these processes are enhanced by physiological arousal.
Repression
-Some have argued that memories, particularly those that are traumatic, can be "lost" and then "recovered." -Some of these cases may stem from the initial refusal to discuss the memory or cases of ordinary retrieval failure. -Some of these "repressed" memories may be false memories, especially if a therapist asks leading questions that provide misinformation.
chunking
-The ability to condense information -Requires effort -Reduces load -Does not increase WM -refers to a repackaging of the information held in working memory. Effort and attentional resources are required to repackage the input -repackaging does not increase working memory & may interfere with WM
avoiding memory errors
-The feeling of "remembering" is more likely with real memories, whereas false memories may provide only a sense of familiarity or "knowing." -However, this subjective distinction is a poor means for reliably discriminating real and false memories.
Certain principles of autobiographical memory reflect more general memory principles
-The importance of rehearsal -The formation of generalized schemata from individual memory episodes -The potential for intrusion errors and susceptibility to misinformation -emotion may be less applicable in other forms of memory
operation span
-The number of sentence-final words that can be remembered -Another measure of working memory -Creates a complex network of things that are working in working memory
serial recall
-The position of an item in the presentation list -sequential
eliminating recency effect
-Thirty seconds of filled delay displaces the last few items from working memory. This eliminates the recency effect. -Thirty seconds of unfilled delay does not change the recency effect.
Memory facilitated by organizing and understanding
-What the memorizer was doing at the time of exposure matters -The background knowledge of the memorizer matters
working memory
-a dynamic form of short-term memory -more recent term for short-term memory, emphasizing its function. It is dynamic because it is adaptive and does more than simply store information . -intricately related to executive functioning
If we compare the brain activity for remembered and forgotten items at the time of encoding
-activity in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex predicts later retention. -Hipocampus and preforntal cortex are more active in people who are able to remember information after encoding
long term memory
-all the information one can remember -hippocampus, amygdala, frontal lobe recognition -would be nonexistent without retrieval to bring it into the long term memory -is it even there if you can't retrieve it?
slowing down modal model experiments
-allows for more rehearsal of all items -This improves all parts of the curve that reflect LTM, that it, all items except for the last few -Fluency is important but not for initially remembering memory -aids in pre-recency -recency effect the same
Anterograde amnesia
-an inability to remember experiences after the event that triggered the memory disruption. -No loss of existing memories. -Damage to the hippocampus and surrounding brain regions -affects explicit memory, while implicit memory is preserved
what form of amnesia does Leonard suffer from in Memento
-anterograde -inability to form new memories
retrieval paths
-connections between the newly acquired material and representations already in memory
computer metaphor
-creating a file: acquisition -storing the file: storage -opening the file: retrieval
context dependent learning
-dependent on the state one is in during acquisition -New material is most likely to be recalled when the person is in the same mental, emotional, or biological state as when the material was learned
Craik & Tulving elaborate vs. simple
-elaborate sentences: better memory and richer retrieval paths -simple sentences: worse memory
word-stem completion
-example of repetition priming -Participants are given a string of letters and are asked to produce a word beginning with this string. For example, "CLA-" evokes responses such as "clam," "class," or "clatter." -If participants have encountered one of these words recently, they are more likely to provide it as a response in this task, even if they do not consciously remember seeing that word before.
Hippocampus damage
-fear w/ no memory -disrupted the ability to report explicitly which light was associated with the horn, but this patient still demonstrated an implicit fear response to the blue light.
intention to learn two levels
-incidental learning -intentional learning
Memento Teddy
-investigator assigned to Leonard's case when his wife died -real name John Edward Gammell-- John G. -person who Leonard talks to on the phone during fast forward
Incidental learning
-learning in the absence of any intention to learn -unintentional
metaphors for working memory
-loading dock: mechanically transfers input to and from long-term memory -librarian: actively categorizes, catalogs, and cross-references new material
hypnosis and memory
-makes people more open to suggestion and more vulnerable to misinformation effects. -Memories are not recovered, they are created -does not help people recover lost memories
Amygdala damage
-memory w/ no fear -disrupted the implicit fear response to the blue light, but this patient could still report explicitly which light was associated with the horn.
are acquisition, storage, and retrieval easily seperable
-no -New learning is grounded in previously learned (stored) knowledge -Effective learning depends on how the information will later be retrieved
does repeated exposure guarantee memory
-no does not guarantee encoding in LTM
digit span task
-participant asked to remember digits -list is increased until memory fails -maximum number is digit span -Used to determine an individual's working memory capacity
source modeling
-problem associated with determining which parts of the memory actually occurred and which parts are associated knowledge.
Encoding specificity
-remembering something within a specific context -the tendency, when memorizing, to place in memory both the materials to be learned and the context of those materials. As a result, materials will be recognized as familiar later on only if they appear again in a similar context.
iconic memory
-sight - lasts one second - after image -form of sensory memory
Mnemonics
-strategies used to improve memory by providing an organizational framework -The downside is not finding a richer understanding of the material by relating it to things already known.
Memento Sammy Jenkins
-suffers from anterograde amnesia -was unable to remember new knowledge via conditioning
Retention interval
-the amount of time that elapsed between initial learning and subsequent retrieval -With an increased retention interval, more of the original event is forgotten and has to be reconstructed with schematic knowledge.
Maintenance rehearsal
-thinking about the material in a rote, mechanical way; repetition -reciting
Relational or elaborative rehearsal
-thinking about the material in terms of meaning, relating the items to each other and to what one already knows -deeper level of processing -linking -superior for establishing information in LTM
depth of processing three levels w/ examples
-type face task: shallow -phonological task: intermediate -semantic task: deep
H.M.
-was one of the most studied patients with amnesia -Severe epilepsy -Severe anterograde amnesia
can people be influenced by memories they are not aware of
-yes -May have familiarity without episodic memory -May be influenced without a feeling of familiarity
information processing
A perspective in cognitive psychology in which complex mental events involve a number of discrete components
lexical decision task example
A word like "butter" will be recognized faster after having seen "bread" because its node has already received spreading activation.
one way to frame learning and memory
Acquisition Storage Retrieval
Emotion and memory
Causes of better memory for emotional events trigger response in the amygdala which promotes consolidation Narrowing of attention More rehearsal emotional events--> amygdala--> better consolidation
Working memory is often divided into three components
Central executive Visuospatial buffer Articulatory rehearsal loop
Recognition
Decide if an items is the right one ex: "Is this the name of the restaurant?"
Korsakoff's syndrome
Deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1) because of alcoholism Severe anterograde amnesia
effects of processing and intention
Depth of processing has a strong effect -ex: Compare rows of table Intention to learn does not have a measurable effect -ex: Compare columns of table -Any effects of intention to learn are indirect; it all depends on whether the participant chooses a deep-processing strategy.
Source confusion
Eyewitness may select someone from a photo lineup based only on familiarity, not on actual recall -Where a bit of information was learned or where a particular stimulus was last encountered is misremembered.
Recall
Generate item with or without a cue Requires search through memory
double dissociation
Impairment of explicit with preserved implicit or Impairment of implicit with preserved explicit -H.M. had impairment of explicit w/ preserved explicit
memory errors implanted memories
In certain cases, entire events can be planted into someone's memory, so that the person recalls—confidently and in detail—an event that never took place.
Which statement about working memory is TRUE?
Information in it is fragile and easily lost. -Working memory is dynamic and hence information is quickly lost
Which of the following is an advantage of connecting new information to prior knowledge in several different ways?
It allows the information to be accessed from multiple retrieval paths. -The use of multiple retrieval paths ensures that a memory can be successfully accessed later.
Which of the following statements applies to stimulus-based priming but not to expectation-based priming?
It is bottom-up. -Stimulus-based priming is based on perceptual aspects of a stimulus and hence is bottom-up
Indirect memory tests
Look at how a second encounter yields different responses than the first
working memory capacity
Miller's magic number: 7 plus or minus 2
Which group would perform the WORST on a memory test?
Participants engaged in shallow processing without previous warning of a memory test -Depth of processing is important for memory. Hence, a person engaged in shallow processing will not remember as well.
In which of the following situations are you LEAST likely to decide a stimulus is familiar?
Processing fluency is quite low. -If it is difficult to process a stimulus then you are likely to think that it is not familiar.
Which of the following is TRUE about autobiographical memories?
Reconstruction of past events will often be consistent with current views of self. -People will actually bias their memories toward current views of the self
memory error plane crash example
Researchers interviewed nearly 200 people in Amsterdam several months after a plane crash in the city. When asked if they had seen footage of the plane crash on television, over half of the participants reported that they had. However, no such film exists.
Reading span and operation span correlate strongly with
Test performance Reasoning Reading ability
What causes the recency effect?
The last words heard are still in working memory at testing.
memory confidence
There is little relationship between our confidence in our memories and their accuracy -feedback may affect confidence but does not improve memory
second presentation and lexical decision
There will be a faster decision upon the second presentation even if the person is not aware of it.
Virtually all mental activities require
WORKING MEMORY -reading -goal driven behavior -some tasks require more WM than others -individual differences in WM predict some cognitive abilities -higher working memory: higher cognitive abilities
lexical-decision task
When items are presented in pairs, the semantic relationship between words affects the speed of lexical decision. -evidence for spread of activation and priming
Which of the following is true regarding recall performance?
Whether a clue about a word's sound is more helpful for recall than a clue about its meaning depends on how the word was thought of when it was learned. -This is state-dependent learning in that learning and recall contexts match.
self-reference effect
a tendency to have better memory for information relevant to oneself than for other sorts of material.
Illusion of truth
an effect of implicit memory in which claims that are familiar end up seeming more plausible
processing fluency
an improvement in the speed or ease of processing that results from prior practice in using those same processing steps -Recently encountered items are easier to recognize a second time -fluency may underlie the feeling of familiarity for stimuli that we have previously encountered -involved in Implicit memory
While under hypnosis, people
are more susceptible to the misinformation effect. -Hypnosis makes people open to suggestion, and hence they are likely to suffer from misinformation.
organization
argued by Katona to be the key to creating connections in the to-be-remembered material -we memorize well when we find order in the material
Intrusion errors are typically caused by
background knowledge brought to a situation. -Background knowledge is used to fill in missing information and thus leads to intrusion errors.
anterograde amnesia and procedural learning
can demonstrate improvements new implicit tasks
The distinction between explicit and implicit memory is supported by evidence from
cases of brain damage
priming
changes in perception and belief caused by previous experience
semantic
deepest level of processing -what does it mean to you
deep processing
engaging the information in a more meaningful way
shallow processing
engaging the information in a relatively superficial way
explicit memory forms
episodic semantic
intrusion errors
errors in which other knowledge intrudes into the remembered event -more intrusions--> better memory
misinformation effect
event misleading information --> time--> misleading information becomes part of the event -The participant experiences an event and is exposed to misleading information about how it unfolded. -Some time is allowed to pass. On a later memory test, a substantial number of participants have incorporated the misleading information into their memory.
Depth of processing promotes recall by
facilitating later retrieval -Consider learning as a way to establish indexing, a path to the information -Connections between to-be-remembered items facilitates retrieval
Someone with a larger working memory capacity is likely to perform better than someone with a smaller working memory capacity on which of the following tasks
following directions efficient reading learning a computer language
memory error office example Brewer and Treyens
found that participants who had been asked to wait in an office recalled seeing books and other items typical of an office, even though these items had not been present.
semantic memory
general knowledge not tied to any time or place
Context reinstatement effect
having the same kind of context during learning and retrieval provides an advantage, compared to different kinds of contexts. -Depth is better for memory than context alone -context reinstatement is also better than context alone
Articulatory rehearsal loop
helper component that deals with verbal material
Visuospatial buffer
helper component that deals with visual material and imagery
most memorable period of life
high school through early college
primacy associated with
hippocampus
short term memory
holds information currently in use while you are working on it -synonymous w/ working memory
effective learning depends on
how the information will be later retrieved
The nature of a disruption in the acquisition of new memories depends on
how the memories will be used or retrieved later on
memory error
hypothesis: existing knowledge--> enter event---> time---> mixed event and existing knowledge -it can be difficult to separate memory for a particular episode with associated knowledge in memory. It is also easy for new information to be transplanted or grafted into an event.
consequentiality of the flashbulb event
if the event matters directly for the participant's life, then the event is more likely to be remembered well.
Amnesia
is a disruption of memory due to brain damage
self-schema
is a set of beliefs and memories about oneself. Thus, people recall their past attitudes, the past status of their romantic relationships, and their health in a fashion that emphasizes consistency and thereby makes the past look more like the present than it really was.
Retrograde amnesia
is an inability to remember events that occurred before the event that triggered the memory disruption.
acquisition & memory
is synonyomus with learning learn things--> remember what we learn--> learn what we remember
Spreading activation
is the process through which activation travels from one node to another, via the associative links. -Similar to neurons: Input sums to reach a threshold, causing firing
Peg-word systems:
items are "hung" on a system of already well known "pegs"
The dangers of source confusion are NOT particularly relevant to which real-world situation?
jury selection -Jury selection does not involve memory and hence is not particularly susceptible to source confusion.
procedural memory
knowing how/ memory for skills
Activation in the rhinal cortex during encoding predicts
later feelings of familiarity and a "know" response.
Activation in the hippocampus during encoding predicts
later source memory and a "remember" response.
classical conditioning
learning about associations among stimuli
Central executive
makes decisions, plans responses, and coordinates helper components
Which of the following is likely to INCREASE the intrusion of schematic knowledge in later recall?
making an effort to fill in the gaps in one's memories -Trying to fill in gaps is likely to increase the use of schemata in order to guess what might have happened.
Decay
memories may fade or erode
Flashbulb memories
memories of extraordinary clarity, typically for highly emotional events.
episodic memory
memory for specific events
According to interference theory, most forgetting is attributable to the fact that
new learning disrupts or overwrites old learning. -Interference arises because the new memories interfere with or impede old memories.
Learning connects
new material with existing memory
Interference
newer learning may disrupt older memories
can you improve working memory
no but you can enhance it
schematic knowledge intrusions
occur when something breaks the schema ex: a palm tree breaks a highway schema -can help us remember an event -cause use to make errors in remembering an event through regularizing the memory
working memory associated with
perirhinal cortex
sensory memory role in information processing
plays a smaller role in memory than previously thought
implicit memory forms
procedural priming perceptual learning classical conditioning
Context reinstatement
re-creating the context present during learning, improves memory performance
perceptual learning
recalibration of perceptual systems as a result of experience
A question like, "What's the name of the doctor?" requires _____; a question like, "Isn't that the guy we usually see at the gym?" requires _____.
recall; recognition -The first requires you to come up with the actual name (recall), but the second only requires you to decide if the person matches someone you have seen before (recognition).
schema
refers to knowledge that describes what is typical or frequent in a given situation.
Autobiographical memory
refers to memory of episodes and events in a person's own life
recency effect
remember the last few items as they are still in working memory Often the first to be recalled
Implicit memory
remembering things even we are not consciously aware of it
free recall
repeat back as many words as they can in any order
Which of the following would help improve recall of a difficult-to-understand paragraph the LEAST?
repeating the paragraph aloud many times -This option is reliant on maintenance rehearsal, which is the least favorable way to learn material.
echoic memory
sound -lasts four to five seconds -form of sensory memory
encoding
taking in information
Retrieval failure
the memory is intact but cannot be accessed
retrieval failure
the method of recovering "lost" memories that are the most grounded in research provide a diverse set of retrieval cues -retrieval failure can not be undone
consolidation
the process through which memories are "cemented" in place through the creation of new or altered neural connections
depth of processing effect
thinking about meaning at the time of encoding provides an advantage, compared to thinking about rhyming at encoding
working memory vs. long term memory
time -WM: temporary/ fragil/ easiy displaced -LTM: long lasting capacity -WM: limited -LTM: large access -WM: relatively easy -LTM: relatively hard
Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) procedure.
used to demonstrate intrusion errors. -If a list such as "bed, rest, awake, tired, dream, wake, snooze..." is presented, participants are very likely to recall having studied the word "sleep," even though it was not on the list.
spreading activation and hints
used to help us remember something -ex: South Dakota's capital is easier to remember with the hint that the answer is a man's name. With that hint, "Pierre" receives activation from two nodes and is more likely to reach threshold.
source memory
when available, recognition responses are similar in mechanism to recall ex: "Yes, I saw this word before."
Which testing method mainly targets implicit, rather than explicit, memory?
word-stem completion
can pictures create memories
yes, pictures can create false memories
intentional learning
—learning with the intention to learn -deeper level of processing better--> acquisition/ long term learning -intentional