Part 4

The establishment stage

(18-25) the individual begins as a newcomer to the organization. This is a period of great dependece on others. Big transitional time in both personal and work life

Four types of conflicts that can occur as individuals choose organizations and organizations choose individuals

1. A conflict between the organization's efforts to attract candidates and the individual's choice of an organization. The individual needs complete and accurate information to make a good choice, but the organization may not provide it 2. Conflict between the individual's attempt to attract several organizations and the organization's needs to select the best candidate. Individuals want good offers, so they do not disclose their faults. They describe their preferred job in terms of the organization's opening instead of describing a job they would really prefer 3. A conflict between the organization's need to select and retain the best candidate. In recruiting, organizations tend to give only positive information, which results in mismatches between the individual and the organization 4. Conflict is internal to the individual; it is between the individual's desire for several job offers and the need to make a good choice. When individuals present themselves as overly attractive, they risk being offered positions that are poor fits in terms of their skills and career goals

Levinson's four part diagnosis

1. Achieving an understanding of the organization's history 2. The organization as a whole is analyzed to obtain data about its structure and processes 3. Interpretive data about attitudes, relationships, and current organizational functioning are gathered 4. The data are analyzed and conclusions are reached

Andy Grovel, chairman of Intel, poses three key question that are central to managing you career

1. Am I adding real value? You add real value by continually looking for ways to making things truly better in your organization. In principle, every hour of our workday should be spend increasing the value of the output of the people for whom you're responsible 2. Am I plugged into what's happening around me? Inside the company? The industry? Are you a node in a network of plugged-in people, or are you floating around by yourself? 3. Am I trying new ideas, new techniques, and new technologies? Try them personally- don't just read about them

Three stages of the socialization process

1. Anticipatory socialization 2. Encounter 3. Change and Acquisition

Four characteristics of new economy due to technology

1. Any time: customers can get their goods and services 24/7 2. Any place: customers can order from anywhere if they have Internet access 3. No matter: intangibles are adding value to products, such as through digital photography 4. Mass customization: technology and information allow for rapid, responsive customization of products Thus, digital technology and economic change have resulted in downsizing and restructuring activities in the private sector

Three dimensions of environment that should be measured in assessing the degree of uncertainty

1. Capacity: capacity of the environment reflects the abundance or scarcity of resources. If resources abound, the environment supports expansions, mistakes, or both 2. Volatility: the degree of instability 3. Complexity: complexity of the environment refers to the differences and variability among environmental elements

Five actions managers can take to change culture

1. Change behavior- even if behavior does change, this is not sufficient for cultural change to occur. Behavior is an artifact of culture 2. Examine the justification for the changed behavior- individuals might change their behavior but not the values that drive it 3. Cultural communication- must send a consistent message about the new values and beliefs 4. Managers revise their selection strategies to more accurately reflect the new culture 5. Managers identify individuals who resist the cultural change or who are no longer comfortable with the values in the organization

Management by objective meets three needs

1. Clarifies what is expected of employees 2. Provides knowledge of results 3. Provides an opportunity for coaching and counseling by the manager

Two types of congruence between an individual and an organization

1. Congruence between the individual's abilities and the demands of the job 2. The fit between the organization's values and the individual's values

Six specific guidelines for managers who want to create a global culture

1. Create a clear and simple mission statement 2. Create systems that ensure an effective flow of information 3. Create "matrix minds" among managers; that is, broaden managers' minds to allow them to think globally 4. Develop global career paths 5. Use cultural differences as a major asset 6. Implement worldwide management education and team development programs

Culture serves four basic functions

1. Culture provides a sense of identity to members and increases their commitment to the organization 2. Culture is a sense-making device for organization members 3. Culture reinforces the values in the organization 4. Culture serves as a control mechanism for shaping behavior

The career stage model

1. Establishment: the person learns the job and begins to fit into the organization and occupation 2. Advancement: high achievement-oriented career stage in which the individual focuses on increasing competence 3. Maintenance: the individual tries to maintain productivity while evaluating progress toward career goals 4. Withdrawal: the final career stage in which the individual contemplates retirement or possible career changes

Some of the major reasons for resisting change

1. Fear of the unknown: change often brings uncertainty. This especially happens when there has been little communication about the change 2. Fear of loss: when a change is impending, some employees may fear losing their jobs, especially when robotics can take over a job 3. Disruption of interpersonal relationships: employees may resist change that threatens to limit meaningful interpersonal relationship on the job 4. Personality: individuals with an internal locus of control, high growth needs, and strong motivation are more likely to embrace changes at work 5. Politics: Organizational change may also shift the existing balance of power in the organization. Individuals or groups who hold power under the current arrangement may be threatened with losing these political advantages in the advent of change 6. Cultural assumptions and values: sometimes cultural assumptions and values can be impediments to change, particularly if the assumptions underling the change are alien to the employees

Underlying components of organization's charts

1. Formal lines of authority and responsibility 2. Formal systems of communication, coordination, and integration

Structural dimensions

1. Formalization: the degree to which an employee's role is defined by formal documentation 2. Centralization: the degree to which decisions are made at the top of the organization 3. Specialization: the degree to which jobs are narrowly defined and depend on unique expertise 4. Standardization: the degree to which work activities are accomplished in a routine fashion 5. Complexity: the degree to which many different types of activities occur in the organization 6. Hierarchy of authority: the degree of vertical differentiation across levels of managment

Roles of future managers

1. Having hierarchical relationship subordinated to functional and peer relationships 2. Getting things done by negotiating 3. Solving problems and making decisions 4. Creating the job by developing entrepreneurial projects 5. Having broad cross-functional collaboration 6. Emphasizing speed and flexibility 7. Coaching their workers

Three streams of applied organizational design

1. High-performance 2. Self-managed teams 3. Managing processes rather than functions and the evolution of IT

Three different forms of differentiation

1. Horizontal 2. Vertical 3. Spatial

Three reasons why it is important to understand careers

1. If we know what to look forward to over the course of our careers, we can take a proactive approach to planning and managing them 2. As managers, we need to understand the experiences of our employees and colleagues as they pass through the various stages of careers over their life span 3. Career management is good business. It makes good financial sense to have highly trained employees keep up with their fields so that organizations an protect valuable investments in human resources

Mentoring relationship phases

1. Initiation: the mentoring relationship begins to take on significance for both the mentor and the protege 2. Cultivation: the relationship becomes more meaningful, and the protege shows rapid progress because of the career and psychosocial support provided by the mentor. Proteges influence mentors as well 3. Separation: the protege feels the ned to assert independence and work more autonomously 4. Redefinition: occurs if separation was successful. The relationship takes on a new identity as both parties consider themselves colleagues or friends

Three characteristics of OD

1. It is a systematic approach to planned change. It is a structured cycle of diagnosing organizational problems and opportunities and then applying expertise to them 2. OD is grounded in solid research and theory 3. OD is goal oriented. It is a process that seeks to improve the individual and organizational well being and effectiveness

Barriers to finding a mentor

1. Lack of access to mentors 2. Fear of initiating a mentoring relationship 3. Fear that supervisors or coworkers might not approve of the mentoring relationship 4. Afraid to initiate a mentoring relationship because it might be misconstrued as a sexual advance by the potential mentor or others

Four dimensions of differentiation

1. Manager's goal orientation 2. Time orientation 3. Interpersonal orientation 4. Formality of structure

Three emerging organization structures due to emphasis of high-performance, self-managed teams, and managing processes rather than functions and the evolution of IT

1. Network Organizations: weblike structures that contract some or all of their operating functions to other organizations and then coordinate their activities through managers and other employees at their headquarters. Can be global in scope 2. Virtual Organizations: temporary network organizations consisting of independent enterprises 3. Circle Organizations: drive to achieve teamwork without teams. Three interactive systematic parts: create demand, produce product, and provide support

Example of three methods used to triangulate on the culture

1. Obtrusive observations by eight observers, which provided an outsider perspective 2. Self-administered questionnaires, which provided quantitative insider information 3. Personal interviews with the center's staff, which proved qualitative contextual information

Kathy Kram notes that there are four keys to the success of a formal mentoring program

1. Participation should be voluntary. Careful matching is important 2. Support from top executives is needed to convey the intent of the program and its role in career development 3. Training should be provided to mentors so they understand the functions of the relationship 4. A graceful exit should be provided for mismatches or for people in mentoring relationships that have fulfilled their purpose

Levinson points out three major changes that contribute to the midlife cirisis

1. People realize that their lives are half over and that they are mortal 2. Age forty is considered by people in their twenties and thirties to be "over the hill" and not part of the youth culture 3. People reassess their reams and evaluate how close they have comet o achieving those dreams

John Holland's theory of occupational choice contends that there are six types of personalities and that each is characterized by a set of interests and values

1. Realistic: stable, persistence, and materialistic 2. Artistic: imaginative, emotional, and impulsive 3. Investigative: curious, analytical, and independent 4. Enterprising: ambitious, energetic, and adventurous 5. Social: generous, cooperative, and sociable 6. Conventional: efficient, practical, and obedient

Six kinds of rites in an organization

1. Rites of passage: show that an individual's status has changed. IE retirement dinners 2. Rites of enhancement: reinforce the achievement of individuals 3. Rites of renewal: emphasize change in the organization and commitment to learning and growth 4. Rites of integration: unite diverse groups or teams within the organization and renew commitment to the larger organization. 5. Rites of conflict reduction: focus on dealing with conflicts or disagreements that arise naturally in organizations. 6. Rites of degradation: used by some organizations to visibly punish persons who fail to adhere to values and norms of behavior

Four forces reshaping organization

1. Shorter life cycles within the organization 2. Globalization 3. Rapid IT changes

Five structural configurations

1. Simple structure 2. Machine bureaucracy 3. Professional bureaucracy 4. Divisionalized from 5. Adhocracy

Four contextual variables influence success of an organization's design

1. Size: the total number of employees. Formalization, specialization, and standardization all tend to be greater in larger organizations because they are necessary to control activities within. As the size increases, so does complexity 2. Technology: defined as the tools, techniques, and actions used by an organization to transform inputs into outputs. The larger the organization, the more varied its technologies 3. Environment: anything outside the boundaries of an organizaion 4. Strategy and goals: provide legitimacy in the organization as well as employee direction, decision guidelines, and criteria for performance

Career functions of a mentor

1. Sponsorship:actively helping the individual get job experience and promotions 2. Facilitating exposure and visibility: providing opportunities for the protege to develop relationships with key figures in the organization to advance 3. Coaching: involves providing advice in both career and job performance 4. Protection: provided by shielding the protege from potentially damaging experiences

Six different kinds of stories

1. Stories about the boss: these may reflect whether the boss is human 2. Stories about getting fired: events leading to employee firings are recounted 3. Stories about how the company deals with employees who have to relocate 4. Stories about whether lower-level employees can rise to the top 5. Stories about how the company deals with crisis situations 6. Stories about how status considerations work when rules are broken

Given the current business environment, managers may want to focus on three particular cultural modifications

1. Support for a global view of business 2. Reinforcement of ethical behavior 3. Empowerment of employees to excel in product and service quality

Newcomers face three things

1. Task demands: involve the actual work performed 2. Role demands: involve the expectations placed on newcomers. Newcomers may not know exactly what is expected of them (role ambiguity) or may receive conflicting expectations from other individuals (role conflict) 3. Interpersonal demands: arise from relationships at work. Politics, leadership styles, and group pressure are interpersonal demands

Perrow proposed two variables

1. Task variability: considers the number of exceptions encountered in doing the tasks within the job 2. Problem analyzability: examines the types of search procedures followed to find ways to respond to task exceptions

From exrensive interviews with MIT graduates, Schein developed five career anchors

1. Technical/functional competence: individuals who hold this career anchor want to specialize in given functional area (finance or marketing) and become competent. The idea of general management doe snot interest them 2. Managerial competence: adapting this career anchor means individuals want general management responsibility. They want to see their efforts have an impact on organizational effectiveness. 3. Autonomy and independence: freedom is the key to this career anchor, and often these individuals are uncomfortable working in large organizations. Autonomous careers such as writer, professor, or consultant attract these individuals 4. Creativity: Individuals holding this career anchor feel strong ned to create something. They are often entrepreneurs 5. Security/stability: long-term career stability, whether in a single organization or in a singly geographic are, fits people with this career anchor. Some government jobs provide this type of security Career anchors emerge over time and may be modified by work or life experiences. The importance of knowing your career anchor is that it can help you find a match between you and an organization

The four key aspects of structure that could be modified to the technology

1. The amount of discretion that an individual can exercise to complete a task 2. The power of groups to control the unit's goals and strategies 3. The level of interdependence among groups 4. The extent to which organizational units coordinate work using either feedback of planning

As the time approaches for beginning a career, individuals face two difficult decisions

1. The choice of occupation 2. The choice of organization

Three characteristics of an industry that may affect culture

1. The competitive environment 2. Customer requirements 3. Societal expectations

The basic design dimensions have been affected because managers worldwide can be connected through computerized networks- three affects

1. The hierarchy of authority has been flattened 2.The basis of centralization has been changed- now managers can use technology to acquire more information and make more decisions, or to push information and decision making lower in the hierarchy and, thus, decrease centralization 3. Less specialization and standardization are needed, because people using advanced information processing technologies have more sophisticated jobs that require a broader understanding how how the organization gets work done

Three factors for choosing structure for managing an international business

1. The level of vertical differentiation: a hierarchy of authority must be created that clarifies the responsibilities of both domestic and foreign managers 2. The level of horizontal differentiation: foreign and domestic operations should be grouped in such a way that the company effectively serves the needs of all customers 3. The degree of formalization, specialization, standardization, and centralization: the global structure must allow decisions to be made in the most appropriate area of the organization, however, controls must be in place that reflects the strategies and goals of the parent firm

Four issues of ethical concerns of OD

1. The selection of the OD method to be used 2. Voluntary participation, employees should be given info about it 3. Confidentiality 4. The potential for manipulation by the change agent

As the level of centralization increases, so does the following

1. The strategic decision process will be initiated by only a few dominant individuals 2. The decision process will be goal oriented and rational 3. The strategic process will be constrained by the limitations of top managers.

As the level of complexity increases, so does the probability of the following

1. The strategic decision process will become more politicized 2. The organization will find it more difficult to recognize environmental opportunities and threats 3. The constraints on good decision processes will be multiplied by the limitations of each individual within the organizion

As the level of formalization increases, so does the probability of the following

1. The strategic decision process will become reactive to crisis rather than proactive opportunities 2. Strategic moves will be incremental and precise 3. Differentiation in the organization will not be balanced with integrative mechanisms 4. Only environmental crisis that are in areas monitored by the formal organizational systems will be acted upon

Strong cultures are thought to facilitate performance for three reasons

1. They are characterized by goal alignment- all employees share common goals 2. They create a high level of motivation because of the values shared by the members 3. They provide control without the oppressive effects of bureaucracy

Schein three levels of organizational culture

1. Unconscious and invisible: the basic assumptions are environmental relationships, human relationships, human nature, human activity, space, time and reality. 2. Deeper level of awareness: values are espoused values and enacted values 3. Visible but may be hard to interpret: artifacts are personal enactment, ceremonies and rites, stories, ritual, symbols.

Kurt Lewin change model

1. Unfreezing: reducing forces for status quo. The first step in Lewin's change model, in which individuals are encouraged to discard old behaviors by shaking up the equilibrium stat that maintains the status quo 2. Moving: developing new attitudes, values and behaviors. The second step is in which new attitudes, values and behaviors are substituted for old ones.Organizations accomplish moving by initiating new options and explaining the rationale for the change, as well as by providing training to help employees develop the new skills they need. 3. Refreezing: reinforcing new attitudes, values and behaviors. The final step is in which new attitudes, values and behaviors are established as the new status quo

Three types of technology

1. Unit: least complex small-batch manufacturing technology and, sometimes, made-to-order production. 2. Mass: more complex large-batch manufacturing technology, for example the American automotive assembly lines. 3. Process production: most complex, means continuous production, examples include oil refining and beer making.

As part of the diagnosis, it is important to address the following issues

1. What are the forces for change? 2. What are the forces preserving the status quo? 3. What are the most likely sources of resistance to change? 4. What are the goals to be accomplished by the change?

The five most important elements in managing culture

1. What leaders pay attention to 2. How leaders react to crisis 3. How leaders behave 4. How leaders allocate rewards 5. How leaders hire and fire individuals

Two cautionary notes

1. an organization structure may be weak or deficient. If the structure is out of alignment with its contextual variables, one or more of the following four symptoms appears. First, decision-making is delayed. Second, decision making lack quality because information linkages are not providing the correct information to the right person. Third, the organization doe snot respond innovatively to a changing environment. Fourth, a great deal of conflict is evident when departments are working against one another 2. The personality of the chief executive may adversely affect the structure of the organization. Managers' personal cognitive biassis and political ideologies affect their good judgments and decision making

Three key strategies for managing resistance to change

1. communication: discussion about impending change is essential if employees are to adjust effectively. Details and rational should be provided. Keeping employees informed about anticipated events and the possible consequences of change can reduce uncertainty and decrease resistance. 2. Participation: employees must be engaged and involved in order for change to work. Participation helps employees become involved in the change and establish a feeling of ownership in the process 3. Empathy and support: some employees may not handle or embrace change well. Active listening is an excellent tool for identifying the reasons behind resistance and for uncovering fears. Emotional support and encouragement can help an employee deal with the anxiety that is a natural response to change

At work, three major tasks face the newcomer

1. negotiating effective psychological contracts 2. Managing the stress of socialization 3. Making a transition from organizational outsider to organizational insider

Roles of manager's today

1. strictly adhering to boss-employee relationship 2. Getting things done by giving orders 3. Carrying messages up and down the hierarchy 4. Carrying messages up and down the hierarchy 5. Having a narrow functional focus 6. Going through channels, one by one 7 Controlling subordinates

The five basic parts of the organization for Mintzberg

1. the upper echelon or strategic apex 2. the middle level 3. the operating core 4. the technical staff 5. the support staff

Organizational Development (OD)

A systematic approach to organizational improvement that applies behavioral science theory and research to increase individual and organizational well being and effectiveness

Stories

As they are told and retold, they give meaning and identity to organizations and are especially helpful in orienting new employees. Certain themes recur across different types of organizations

Harry Levinson's diagnostic approach

Begin by identifying where the problem in the organization is, what it is like, how long it has been happening, and what has already been done about it. Then a four part diagnosis can begin

Internal change agents

Change leaders within organizations tend to be young, in the twenty-five to forty age ranges. They are more flexible than ordinary general managers and much more people-oriented. They get more out of people than ordinary people can. Have the ability to operate in more than one leadership style and can shift from a team mode to command and control, depending on the situation. They are also comfortable with uncertainty

Symbols

Communicate organizational culture by unspoken messages. They are representative of organizational identity and membership to employees

Negative reactions may be manifested in overt behavior or through more passive resistance to change

Disengagement, disidentification, disenchantment, disorientation

Disoriented

Feelings of loss and confusion due to a change. They waste energy trying to figure out what to do instead of how to do things. Disoriented individuals ask a lot of questions and become very detail oriented. Disorientation is a common reaction among people who are used to clear goals and unambiguous directions

Daniel Goleman's emotional intelligence

He argues that it is a constellation of the qualities that mark a star performer at work. Includes, self-awareness, self-control, trustworthiness, confidence, and empathy, etc. He argues that emotional competencies are twice as important as raw/technical intelligence. He argues that the further up the corporate ranks you go, the more important it becomes

Skills training

Increasing the job knowledge, skills and abilities that are necessary to do a job effectively. It is accomplished either in formal classroom settings or on the job

The maintenance stage

May be a misnomer for this career stage because some people continue to grow in their careers. Whether it is a stage of crisis or contentment, there are two issues to grapple with: sustaining performance and becoming a mentor

Are organizational Development Efforts Effective

No single method of OD is effective in every instance. Multiple-method OD approaches one recommended. Productivity goes up with them

Ethical considerations in Organizational Development

OD is a process of helping organizations improve. IT may involve resisitence to change, shifts in power, losses of control, and redefinition of tasks.

Data can be gathered using a variety of methods

Observation, interviews, questionnaires, and archival records

Six areas to examine for problems

Organization's purpose, structure, reward systems, support systems, relationships, leadership

Globalization

Organizations operate worldwide rather than in just one country

Psychosocial function of a mentor

Role modeling occurs when the mentor displays behavior for the protege to emulate

The leader's role in shaping and reinforcing culture

Schein says that leaders play a crucial role in shaping and reinforcing culture

Two ways to see ethical guidelines

Some employees see the code of ethics as a management showpiece, leading to cynicism and resentment. In other cases, a heavy reliance on a strict set of rules may reduce the perceived need for employees to think about and be involved in ethical decision making, leading to inferior choices in the long run

The new career

Today's environment demands leaner organizations. The paternalistic attitude that organizations take care of employees no longer exists. Individuals now take on more responsibility for managing their own careers. It involves a type of participatory management technique on the part of the individual, but the organization responds to each individual's needs and thus, is more flexible in its career development programs. In the new paradigm, discrete exchange occurs when an organization gains productivity while a person gains work experience

Simple structure

a centralized form of organization that emphasizes the upper echelon and direct supervision with no middle level, it is a small business

Professional bureaucracy

a decentralized form of organization that emphasizes the operating core and standardization of skills. Emphasizes the expertise of the professionals. Both vertical and horizontal differentiation. Example is university

Career management

a lifelong process of learning about self, jobs, and organizations; setting personal career goals; developing strategies for achieving the goals, and revising the goals based on work and life experiences.

Machine bureaucracy

a moderately decentralized form of organization that emphasizes the technical staff and standardization of work processes. There are different parts of the assembly line and there is a supervisor for each, supervisor answers to a manager, a manager answers to CEO.

Divisionalized form

a moderately decentralized of organization that emphasizes the middle level and standardization of outputs. It is a configuration composed of divisions, each of which may have its own structural configuration.

Career anchors

a network of self-perceived talents, motives, and values that guide an individual's career decisions. Edgar Schein developed the concept of career anchors based on a twelve year study of MBA graduates from MIT.

Organizational/corporate culture

a pattern of basic assumptions that are considered valid and that are taught to new members as the way to perceive, think, and feel in the organization

Career plateau

a point in an individual's career in which the probability of moving further up the hierarchy is low. Organizations can provide challenges and opportunities for learning. The key is keeping the work stimulating and involving. They need to know that their contributions are significant and appreciated.

Product and service quality programs

a program that embeds product and service quality excellence in the organizational culture

Organizational Culture Inventory

a quantitative assessment, it focuses on behaviors that help employees fit into the organization and meet the expectations of coworkers. Two underlying dimensions are task/people and people/satisfaction. It is self-report.

Kilmann-Saxton Culture-Gap Survey

a quantitative assessment, it focuses on what actually happens and on the expectations of other in the organization

Dual-career partnership

a relationship in which both people have important career roles. Often stresses center around stereotypes that providing income is a man's responsibility and taking care of the home is the woman's domain

Adhocracy

a selective decentralized form of organization that emphasizes the support staff and mutual adjustment among people. It is designed to fuse interdisciplinary experts into smoothly functioning ad hoc project teams. Interdisciplinary experts, NASA has rocket scientists, engineers, radar specialists, etc. Different jobs but equal

Career path

a sequence of job experiences that an employee moves along during his or her career

Contextual variables

a set of characteristics that influence the organization's design processes

Career ladder

a structures series of job positions through which an individual progresses in an organization

Executive coaching

a technique in which managers or executives are paired with a coach in a partnership to help the executive perform more efficiently. Coaching is typically a special investment in top-level managers.

Role Negotiation

a technique whereby individuals meet and clarify their psychological contract. When both parties have a mutual agreement on expectations there is less ambiguity in the process of working together

Leadership training and development

a variety of techniques that are designed to enhance individuals' leadership skills. The best leadership training and development programs combine classroom learning with on-the-job experiences. Action learning- leaders take on unfamiliar problems or familiar problems in unfamiliar settings. The leaders work on the problem and meet, coming from different organizations. Outcome of action learning: leaders learn about themselves through the challenges of their comrades. Other techniques: simulations, business games, role-playing, cast-studies

Survey feedback

a widely used method of intervention whereby employee attitudes are solicited using a questionnaire. Once the data are collected, they are analyzed and fed back to the employees to diagnose problems and plan other interventions. Employees must be able to trust that there will be no negative repercussions from their responses. They should be informed of the purpose of the survey

Flexible work schedule

a work schedule that allows employees discretion to accommodate personal concerns Example: telecommuting, company-sponsored childcare

Characteristics of the organizations that will succeed in meeting the competitive challenges that businnesses face

adaptiveness, flexibility, responsiveness

Advantages and disadvantages of external change agents

advantages: bring an outsider's objective view to the organization. they may be preferred by employees because of their impartiality disadvantages: their knowledge of the organization's history is limited. They may also be viewed with suspicion by organization members

Advantages and disadvantages of internal change agents

advantages: they have certain advantages in managing the change process. They know the organizations past history, its political system, and its culture. Because they must live with the results of their change efforts, internal change agents are likely to be very careful about managing change disadvantages: in internal change agents include that they may be associated with certain faction within an organization and may easily be accused of favoritism. Also, internal change agents may be too close to the situation to have an objective view of what needs to be done

WTO structure

all WTO members may participate in all councils committees, etc., except Appellate Body, Dispute Settlement panels, Textiles Monitoring Body, and plurilateral committees.

Job Redesign

an OD intervention method that alters jobs to improve the fit between individual skills and the demands of the job. Many of these methods are used as OD techniques for realigning task demands and individual capabilities or for redesigning jobs to fit new techniques or organizational structures beteer

Process Consultation

an OD method that helps managers and employees improve the processes that are used in organizations. The processes most often targeted are communication, conflict resolution, decision-making, group interaction, and leadership. An outside consultant is used. The steps are entering the organization, defining the relationship, choosing an approach, gathering data and diagnosing the problems, intervening, and gradually leaving the organizaion

Career latice

an approach to building competencies by moving through different departments

Phased retirement

an arrangement that allows employees to reduce their hours and/or responsibilities to ease into retirement

Managers find themselves trying to meet what seems to be conflicting goals:

an efficiency orientation that results in on-time delivery and a quality orientation that results in customized, high-quality goods or services. Thus, organizations must become "dynamically stable"

Psychological contract

an implicit agreement between an individual and an organization that specifies what each is expected to give and receive in the relationship. Individuals expect to receive time, energy, talents, and loyalty in order to meet their goals. They form between individuals as in the establishment stage, newcomers form attachment relationships with many people in the organization.

Mentor

an individual who provides guidance, coaching, counseling, and friendship to a protege. They are important to career success because they perform both career and psychosocial functions

Team Building

an intervention designed to improve the effectiveness of work group. Team building usually begins with a diagnostic process through which team members identify problems, and it continues with the team's planning actions to take in order to resolve those problems. Includes team-building exercises.

Strong culture

an organization culture with a consensus on the values that drive the company and with an intensity that is recognized even to outsiders. The culture is deeply held and widely shared and highly resistant to change

Adaptive culture

an organizational culture that encourages confidence and risk taking among employees, has leadership that produces change, and focuses on the changing needs of customers

Mechanistic structure

an organizational design that emphasizes structured activities, specialized tasks, and centralized decision-making

Organic structure

an organizational design that emphasizes teamwork, open communication, and decentralized decision making

Integration mechanisms

are designed to achieve unity among individuals and groups in various jobs, departments, and divisions in the accomplishment of organizational goals and tasks

The fit perspective

argues that a culture is good only if it "fits" the industry or the firm's strategy. The fit perspective is useful in explaining short-term performance but not long-term performance

The advancement stage

around 30 years. A period when individuals strive for achievement. They seek greater responsibility and authority and strive for upward mobility. Individuals reassess their goals and feel the need to make changes into their career dreams

Health promotional program

as organizations have become increasingly concerned with the costs of stress in the workplace, health promotion programs have become a part of larger OD efforts. Psychologically healthy settings is important

Eldercare

assistance in caring for elderly parents and/or other elderly relatives. Caring for an elderly dependent at home can create severe work-home conflict

Evaluating the success of cultural change may be best done by looking at...

behavior

Personal enactment

behavior that reflects the organization's values

Reasons for unethical behavior

belief that a behavior is not really unethical, that it is in the organization's best interest, that it will not be discovered, and that the organization will support it because it offers a good outcome for the organization

Project allegiance

both individuals and organizations are committed to the successful completion of a project. The firm's gain is the project outcome; the individual's gain is experience and shared success

Realistic job previews

both positive and negative information given to potential employees about the job they are applying for, thereby giving them a realistic picture of the job. Its function is uncertainty reduction. Result in more effective matches, lower turnover, and higher organizational commitment and job satisfaction

Effective change leaders

build strong relationships within their leadership team, between the team and the organizational members, and between the team and key environmental players. Strong relationships between leaders and followers lead to less resistance to change

Career exchange

careers are made up of exchanges between individuals and organizations. Inherent in these exchanges is the idea of reciprocity, or give and take

Transformational change

change in which the organization moves to a radically different, and sometimes unknown future state. The organization's mission, culture, goals, structure, and leadership may all change dramatically

Strategic change

change of a larger scale, such as organizational restructuring

Incremental change

change of a relatively small scope, such as making small improvements, they are fine-tuning of the organization or the making of small improvements

Planned change

change resulting rom a deliberate decision to alter the organization.

Unplanned change

change that is imposed on the organization and is often unforeseen. Responsiveness to unplanned change requires tremendous flexibility and adaptability on the part of organizations

Liaison roles in horizontal integration

created when a person in one department or area of the organization has the responsibility for coordinating with another department

Needs analysis

crucial step in managing change. It is an analysis of the skills and competencies that employees must have to achieve the goals of the change. It is essential because interventions such as training programs must target these skills and competencies

Assumptions

deeply held beliefs that guide behavior and tell members of an organization how to perceive and think about things. As the deepest and most fundamental level of an organization's culture, according to Schein, they are the essence of culture. Organization members may not be aware of their assumptions and may be reluctant or unable to discuss or change them

The organizational development cycle

diagnosis and needs analysis goes to intervention goes to follow and and back to needs analysis

Differentiation vs integration

differentiation is the process of dividing work in the organization, and integration is the process of coordinating work in the organization. From a structural perspective, every manager and organization looks for the best combination of differentiation and integration for accomplishing the goals of the organization

When diversity is very high,

employees are more likely to develop a shared identity in the organization's culture instead of relying on their own national culture

Bridge employment

employment that takes place after retiring from a full-time position but before permanent withdrawal from the workforce

Rituals

everyday organizational practices that are repeated over and over. As everyday practices, they reinforce the organizational culture by establishing role identities, and fixing values, beliefs, and norms

Several issues during the advancement stage

exploring career paths, finding a mentor, working out dual-career partnerships, and managing conflict between work and personal life

Disenchantment

feeling negativity or anger toward a change. They realize that past is gone and are mad about it. It is contagious. It is often difficult to reason with disenchanted employees, so the first step is managing this reaction is to bring these employees from their highly negative, emotionally charged state to a more neutral state. The second part of the strategy is to acknowledge that their anger is normal and that you do not hold it against them

Disidentification

feeling that one's identity is being threatened by a change. many times they cling to a past procedure because they had a sense of master over it, and it gave them a sense of security. Because disidentified employees are so vulnerable, they often feel like victims in the change process. Managers can help them through the transition by encouraging them to explore their feelings and helping them transfer their positive feelings into the new situation

The flattening of the organizational hierarchy has resulted in,

fewer opportunities for promotion

Quantitative methods

for assessing organizational culture, such as questionnaires, are valuable because or their precision, comparability, and objectivity

Supervisors and newcomers

for best results, a supervisor should show high levels of support for newcomers for at least two years

Spatial differentiatiation

geographic differentiation, different regions have perhaps a standard, but structure differs by region

External forces

globalization, workforce diversity, and managing ethical behavior precipitate organizational change

Newcomers who are successful socialized should exhibit

good performance, high job satisfaction, and the intention to stay with the organization.

External change agents

have more power in directing changes if employees perceive the change agents as being trustworthy, possessing important expertise, having a track record that establishes credibility, and being similar to them

Vertical integrators

hierarchical referral, rules and procedures, plans and schedules, positions added to the structure of the organization, and management information systems that provide standing information for employees without direct communication. These integrators allow managers to have wider spans of control because the managers do not have to inform each employee of what is expected and when it is expected

Vertical lines on an organization chart

indicate the lines of hierarchical referral up and down the organization

In choosing an occupation

individuals assess their needs, values, abilities, and preferences and attempts to match them with an occupation that provides a fit

Expectancy theory

individuals choose organizations that maximize positive outcomes and avoid negative outcomes

Impact of technology

influenced how organizations transform inputs into outputs. It has broadened the span of control, flattened the organizational hierarchy, decentralized decision making, and lowered the amount of specialization and standardization

Dynamic equilibrium

integration mechanisms keep it, it is a condition in which all the parts of the organization are interrelated and balanced

Management by objectives

involves joint goal setting between employees and managers. Includes the setting initial objectives, periodic progress reviews, and problem solving to remove any obstacles to goal achievement. Joint effort between managers and employees

Female vs. male mentors

male mentors report giving more career development support, whereas female mentors report giving more psychological support

Retirement trends

many trends right now, ranging from early to phased to never retiring

Career planning

matching an individual's career aspirations with the opportunities in the organization. IT is a joint responsibility of organizations and individuals

Individual actions

newcomers should ask about the negative side of the job if they were not given a realistic job preview

"pace" of change

one of the toughest decisions faced by leaders. Some scholars argue that rapid change is more likely to succeed, since it creates momentum, while other argue that these short, sharp changes are actually rare and not experience by most firms. The pace of change is important, but there is no agreement

The adaptation perspective

only cultures that help organizations adapt to environmental change are associated with excellent performance

During the encounter phase,

organizations should provide early job assignments that present opportunities for the new recruit to succeed. Providing encouragement and feedback to the newcomer during this stage is crucial

The strong culture perspective

organizations with "strong" cultures perform better than other organizations

Irrational choice between individuals and organizations

other theories propose that people select organizations in much less rational fashion. Job candidates may satisfice- select the first organization that meets one or two important criteria- and then justify their choice by distorting their perception

Specialization

particular grouping of activities performed by an individual

An assumption that drives Holland's theory

people choose occupations that match their own personalities

Resistance to change

people often resist change in a rational response based on self-interest. However, there are countless other reasons people resist change

Retirement

planning for it should include not only financial planning but also a plan for psychologically withdrawing from work. The pursuit of hobbies and travel, volunteer work, or more time with extended family can all be part of the plan. The key is to plan early and carefully, as wel as to anticipate the transition with a positive attitude and a full slate of desirable activities

Organizational empowerment

power flows down to business units and in turn to employees. Employees are expected to add value and help the organization remain competitive by being innovative and creative

Internal forces

pressure for change that originate inside the organization are generally recognizable in the forms of signals indicating that something needs to be altered. A crisis, economic troubles, etc. cause organizations to look internally

Horizontal integration mechanisms

provide the communication and coordination that are necessary for links across jobs and departments in the organization. The need for horizontal integration mechanisms increases as the complexity of the organization increases. They are built into the design of the organization by including liaison roles, task forces, integrator positions, and teams

Disengagment

psychological withdrawal from change. They lack drive and commitment, and they simply comply without real psychological investment in their work. The basic managerial strategy for dealing with disengaged individuals is to confront them with their reaction and draw them out so that they can identify the concerns that need to be addressed

Organizational action

realistic job previews start the relationship between the newcomer and the organization with integrity and honesty

Managing Ethical Behavior

recent ethical scandals have brought ethical behavior in organizations to the forefront of public consciousness. An organization must create a culture that encourages ethical behavior. Ethical behavior is expected in relationships with customers, the environment, and society

The span of control

refers to and defines the number of subordinates a manager can and should supervise

Domain of the organization

refers to the area of the organization claims for itself with respect to how it fits into its relevant environment

Ceremonies and rites

relatively elaborate sets of activities that are enacted time and again on important occasions. These occasions provide opportunities to reward and recognize employees whose behavior is congruent with the values of the company

Empowerment

serves to unleash employee's creativity and productivity. It requires eliminating traditional hierarchical notions of power. An integral part of it and improvement involves the manager trusting his or her employees. Involving employees in decision making, removing obstacles to their performance, and communicating the value of product and service quality reinforce the values of it and quality in the organizational culture

Individual focused techniques

skills training, leadership training and development, executive coaching, role negotiation, job redesign

Formal mentoring programs

some companies have these. Employees with multiple mentors, such as those gained from mentoring networks, have even greater career success than those with only one mentor

Horizontal differentiation

specialized knowledge, education, or training. Example- universities have different colleges of specializations that are equal

Quality methods

such as interviews and observations, are valuable because of their detail descriptiveness, and uniqueness

Some OD intervention methods emphasize changing the organization or changing the work groups within the organization

survey feedback, management by objectives, product and service quality programs, team building and process consultation

Artifacts

symbols of culture in the physical and social work environment. They are the most visible and accessible level of culture. Have to figure out there meanings

The midlife transition

takes place approximately between ages forty and forty-five, is often a time of crisis

Task forces in horizontal integration

temporary committees composed of representatives from multiple departments who assemble to address a specific problem affecting these departments

Enron ethics

term applied to the gap between words and deeds, it illustrates that leader behavior deeply affects organizational culture

Environment uncertainty

the amount and rate of change in the organization's environment.

Becoming your own career coach

the best way to stay employed is to see yourself as being in business for yourself, even if you work for someone else. Know what skills you can package for other employers and what you can do to ensure that your skills are state of the art. Organizations need employees who have acquired multiple skills and are adept to more than one job. Employers want employees who have demonstrated competence in dealing with change

Technology interdependence

the degree of interrelatedness of the organization's various technological elements. The greater the technological interdependence the greater organizational complexity and that the problems of this greater complexity may be offset by decentralized decision-making

Integration

the design process of linking the tasks together to form a structure that supports goal accomplishment. The process of coordinating the different parts of the organization.

Vertical differentiation

the difference in authority and responsibility in the organizational hierarchy. Tall, narrow organizations have greater vertical differentiation, and flat, wide organizations have less vertical differentiation

Organizational life cylces

the differing stages of an organization's life from birth to death. The total organization has a life circle that begins at birth, moves through growth and maturity to decline, and possibly experiences revival. Subunits experience life cycles.

Task environment

the elements of an organization's environment that are related to its goal attainment, it includes stakeholders such as unions, customers, suppliers, competitors, government regulatory agencies, and trade associations

Anticipatory socialization

the first socialization stage. All of the learning that takes place prior to the newcomer's first day on the job. Realism is the degree to which a newcomer holds realistic expectations about the job and about the organization. Should know about the culture. When organizations not only give realistic job previews that highlight major stressors but also teach various coping strategies to deal with these stressors, newcomers feel less stressed and report higher levels of adjustment

Change agent

the individual or group that undertakes the task of introducing and managing a change in an organization. Change agents can be internal, such as managers or employees. Change agents can also be external, such as outside consultants

Organizational structure

the linking of departments and jobs within an organization. Gives the organization the form to fulfill its function in the environment

Description of Kurt Lewin's change model

the model contends that a person's behavior is the product of two opposing forces; one force pushes towards preserving the status quo, and the other force pushes for change. when the two opposing forces are equal, the current behavior is maintained. For behavioral change to occur, the forces maintaining the status quo must be overcome

The better the fit between the structure and the contextual dimensions of the organization,

the more likely the organization will process information and design appropriate organizational roles for long-term prosperity

The flatter the organization,

the more necessary the horizontal integration mechanisms

Departmentalization

the more specialized the jobs within an organization, the more departments are differentiated within that organization, it can be by function, product, service, client, geography, process, or a combination of these

The old paradigm

the mutual loyalty contract is when employee loyalty was exchanged for job security

Mutual influence

the newcomers have made adjustments in the job and organization to accommodate their knowledge and personalities. When socialization is effective, newcomers understand and adopt the organization's values and norms

Complexity

the number of activities, subunits, or subsystems within the organization, should mirror the environment

Career

the pattern of work-related experiences that span the course of a person's life. The objective element of the career is the observable, concrete environment. Subjective element involves your perception of the situation

Globalization

the power players in the global market are the organizations that can capitalize on emerging markets throughout the world. Because global business implicitly involves multiple governments and legal systems, it carries unique risks not found by firms competing within a single nation

Organizational socialization

the process by which newcomers are transformed from outsiders to participating, effective members of the organization. It begins with the careful selection of newcomers who are likely to reinforce the organizational culture

Organizational design

the process of constructing and adjusting an organization's structure to achieve its goals

Differentiation

the process of deciding how to divide the work in an organization, the design process of breaking the organizational goals into tasks

Encounter

the second stage of socialization in which the newcomer learns the tasks associated with the job, clarifies roles, and establishes new relationships at work. This stage commences on the first day at work and goes to six to nine months on the job

Values

the second, deeper level of culture that reflects a person's underlying beliefs of what should be or should not be. They are often consciously articulated, both in conversation and in a company's mission statement or annual report

Change and Acquisition

the third socialization stage in which the newcomer begins to master the demands of the job. They become proficient at managing their tasks, clarifying and negotiating their roles, and engaging in relationships at work. The time when the socialization process is completed varies widely, depending on the individual, the job, and the organization. The end of the process is signaled by newcomers being considered by themselves and others as organizational insiders

The primary purpose of socilaization

the transmission of core values to new organizational members

Triangulation

the use of multiple methods to measure organizational culture. It has been used by anthropologists, sociologists, and other behavioral scientists to study organizational culture. IT can lead to better understanding of the phenomenon of culture and is the best approach to assessing organizational culture

Workforce diversity

the workforce will see increased participation from women because the majority of new workers will be women. The workforce will be more culturally diverse than ever. Third, the workforce is aging. There will be fewer young workers and more middle-aged Americans working

Good mentoring relationships characteristic

there is regular contact between mentor and protege that has clearly specified purposes.

Management information systems

they are designed to process information up and down the organization and also serve as a vertical linkage mechanism. Computer systems make information processing up and down the organization more efficient

The people who will be most successful in the new career paradigm

those who are flexible, team oriented (rather than hierarchical), energized by change, and tolerant of ambiguity

The people who will become frustrated in the new career paradigm

those who are rigid in their thinking and learning styles and who have high needs of control

Work-Home conflict

time pressures, responsibilities at home can clash

The withdrawal stage

usually occurs later in life and signals that a long period of continuous employment will soon come to a close. Older workers may face discrimination and stereotyping, they may be viewed as less productive, more resistant to change, and less motivated. However, older workers are undervalued. With their level of experience, strong work ethic, and loyalty, these workers have much to contribute. Older workers have lower rates of tardiness and absenteeism, are more safety conscious, and are more satisfied with their jobs than are younger workers

Enacted values

values reflected in the way individuals actually behave

Vertical integration

vertical linkages are used to integrate activities up and down the organizational chain of command.

Espoused values

what members of an organization say they value

Managers are models

who communicate the organizational culture to employees through personal enactment. Their modeled behavior sets the norms for the other employees to follow. Their leadership is essential for developing a culture that values diversity, supports empowerment, fosters innovations in product and service quality and promotes ethical behavior.