parts of speech

noun

A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing. The classification of things encompasses visible things, ideas, actions, conditions, and qualities. Nouns can be concrete, abstract, singular, plural, collective, compound, common or proper. Abstract noun: There are varying _philosophies_ regarding man's place in the universe.

compound nouns

A noun that is composed of two or more words acting as a single unit is called a compound noun. For example, the noun space and the noun ship can act together to name a particular object—a spaceship. An expression such as space movie, on the other hand, is not generally considered a compound noun because it means nothing more than what the two words suggest: "a movie about space." Compound nouns may appear in three forms: as separate words, as hyphenated words, or as combined words. separated- life preserver coffee table bird dog hyphenated- sergeant-at-arms, self-rule, daughter-in-law combined battlefield, dreamland, porthole

action and linking verbs

A verb is a word or group of words that expresses time while showing an action, a condition, or the fact that something exists. Action verbs, as their name suggests, express physical or mental action. A linking verb serves a more passive function, expressing existence or a condition. Certain linking verbs can be used to connect their subjects to words that identify or describe them. Action verb: Julius Caesar _possessed_ a great military mind. Linking verbs: His armies _will be_ here soon, but they _appear_ distant.

transitive and intransitive verbs

A verb is transitive if it directs action toward someone or something named in the same sentence. A verb is intransitive if it does not direct action toward someone or something named in the same sentence. The word toward which a transitive verb directs its action is called the object of the verb. You can determine whether a verb has an object and is thus transitive by asking Whom? or What? after the verb. Transitive He wrote a proclamation. (Wrote what? Answer: proclamation.) The general questioned the soldier. (Questioned whom? Answer: soldier.) Notice in the examples that the action of the transitive verbs is done to something. The writing is done to the proclamation; the questioning is done to the soldier. Intransitive verbs never have objects. With intransitive verbs, no action is done to something; it is just done. Nothing receives it. Intransitive The army marched south. (Marched what? No answer.) He fights for his king. (Fights what? Answer: not mentioned.)

verb phrase

A verb phrase is a verb with one, two, or three helping verbs before it. Helping verbs, also known as auxiliary verbs or auxiliaries, add meaning to other verbs. Single Verb The nation _instituted_ a new law. Verb Phrases The nation _will institute_ a new law. The nation _should have instituted_ a new law. A new law _might have been instituted_ by the nation. Any of the forms of the verb be can be used as helping verbs, as can these words. Helping Verbs Other Than Be do, have, shall, may, does, has, should, might, did, had, must Verb phrases are often interrupted by other words. To find the complete verb in a sentence, locate the main verb first; then, check for helping verbs that may precede it. Interrupted Verb Phrases They _will_ probably not _institute_ a new law.

other types of verbs

All verbs are either transitive or intransitive, depending on whether they transfer action to another word in a sentence. A verb is transitive if it directs action toward someone or something named in the same sentence. The word toward which a transitive verb directs an action is called the object of the verb. Intransitive verbs never have objects. Transitive: Alexander the Great, seen here on horseback, _conquered_ much of the Mediterranean world. (object: much) Intransitive: He _marched_ into Persia in 334 B.C.

adverbs

Like adjectives, adverbs describe other words or make them more specific. An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. An adverb that modifies a verb answers any of the following questions: Where? Why? In what way? To what extent? An adverb that modifies an adjective or another adverb answers only the question To what extent? Modifying an adverb: The Saguaro cactus grows _very_ slowly.

collective nouns

Nouns that name groups of people or things are called collective nouns. Although a collective noun looks singular, its meaning may be either singular or plural depending on how it is used in a sentence. Examples council delegation entourage orchestra team troop

common and proper nouns

A common noun names any one of a class of people, places, or things. astronomer nation building A proper noun names a specific person, place, or thing. India, France William Herschel National Observatory, Taj Mahal

How does a concrete noun differ from an abstract noun?

A concrete noun names something physical, while an abstract noun names something nonphysical.

concrete and abstract nouns

A concrete noun names something that you can physically see, touch, taste, hear, or smell. nebula gas scientist telescope An abstract noun names something that is nonphysical, or that you cannot readily perceive through any of your five senses. distance light-year discovery infinity

prepositions

Prepositions make it possible to show relationships between words in a sentence. Relationships may involve location, direction, cause, or possession. A prepositional phrase is a group of words that includes a preposition and a noun or pronoun. The noun or pronoun is known as the object of the preposition. Objects may have more than one modifier. A prepositional phrase may also have more than one subject. Prepositions: _During_ his lifetime, Alexander Graham Bell resided _in_ Scotland and Canada.

prepositions and prepositional phrases

Prepositions make it possible to show relationships between words, including location, direction, time, cause, or possession. A preposition relates the noun or pronoun that appears with it to another word in the sentence. A prepositional phrase is a group of words that includes a preposition and a noun or pronoun. The noun or pronoun with a preposition is called the object of the preposition. Objects may have one or more modifiers. A prepositional phrase may also have more than one object.

Many flowering plants produce bright, beautiful blooms. Which of the underlined adjectives is a pronoun?

many

has an intransitive verb

many soldiers volunteered freely

Mrs. Kim told us ancient Greek myths about several of the constellations, including many in the northern hemisphere. Which words in the sentence are indefinite pronouns?

many, several

He often brings home fresh vegetables from the farmers' market. Which words in the sentence are adverbs?

often, home often and home both modify the verb brings. often tells when, and home tells where

She carefully placed her invention on the counter. Which word in the sentence does the prepositional phrase on the counter relate to?

placed

prepositions, conjunctions, and interjunctions

prepositions and conjunctions—function in sentences as connectors. Prepositions express relationships between words or ideas, whereas conjunctions join words, groups of words, or even entire sentences. Another part of speech, interjections, functions by itself, independent of other words in a sentence.

proper adjectives and common adjectives

proper adjectives are proper nouns used as adjectives or adjectives formed from proper nouns. they usually begin with capital letters. adjectives can also be compound. most are hyphenated; others are combined or are separate words. examples rain-forest plants; water-soluble pigments (hyphenated) airborne pollen; evergreen shrubs (combined) North American rhododendrons (separated) Proper adjectives: Monday morning San Francisco streets European roses Roman hyacinth

adjectives

qualifies the meaning of a noun or pronoun by providing information about its appearance, location, etc. an adjective answers one of four questions about a noun or pronoun: what kind? which one? how many? and how much? examples green fields (what kind of fields?) the flower garden (which garden?) six roses (how many roses?) extensive rainfall (how much rainfall?) when an adjective modifies a noun, it usually precedes the noun. occasionally, though, the adjective may follow the noun. examples the naturalist was tactful about my knowledge. (tactful modifies naturalist) I considered the naturalist tactful. (tactful modifies naturalist) an adjective that modifies a pronoun usually follows it. sometimes, however, the adjective may precede the pronoun. examples after : they were brokenhearted by the early frost before : brokenhearted by the early frost, they left for Florida. more than one adjective may modify a single noun or pronoun. example we hired a competent, enthusiastic gardener.

We are reading a book that contains an account of early space flights. Which kind of pronoun is that in the sentence?

relative

The scientist knew that something had to be done to keep the discovery secret, or he would lose his opportunity to announce it first. Which pronoun in the sentence has no specific antecedent?

something

We replanted the apple tree uprooted by the storm. Identify all of the adjectives in this sentence.

the, apple, uprooted, the the, apple, and uprooted modify tree; the modifies storm

pronouns used as adjectives

these pronouns work in two ways in a sentence. - they act as pronouns because they have antecedents - they also act as adjectives because they modify nouns by answering which one? other pronouns become adjectives instead of pronouns when they stand before nouns and answer the question which one? A pronoun is used as an adjective if it modifies a noun. Possessive pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, interrogative pronouns, and indefinite pronouns can all function as adjectives when they modify nouns. possessive pronouns or adjectives: my, your, his, her, its, our, their / antecedent - the bird built _its_ nest. demonstrative adjectives: this, that, these, those / _that_ hummingbird flew to the flowers ... _those_ roses wilted in the sun interrogative adjectives: which, what, whose / _which_ parakeet will you take? ... _whose_ money is on the table? indefinite adjectives: used with singular nouns- another, each, either, little, much, neither, one give me _another_ chance used with plural nouns- both, many, few, several _many_ cows raided the garden used with singular or plural nouns- all, any, more, most, other, some give me _some_ birdseed, please

articles

three common adjectives- A, AN, and THE- are known as articles. A and AN are called indefinite articles because they refer to any one of a class of nouns. THE refers to a specific noun, and therefore, is called the definite article. indefinite: A daisy AN orchid definite: THE stem

what is the function of the transitive verb?

to direct action toward an object in the sentence

Alexander the Great built the city of Alexandria in Egypt. What kind of verb is the word built?

transitive

interrogative pronouns

used to begin a direct or indirect question what which who whom whose The antecedent for an interrogative pronoun may not always be known, as the first of the following examples illustrates. Direct Question What fell from the sky? Indirect Question He had two problems. I asked which needed to be solved first. (Which refers to problems.)

relative pronouns

used to begin a subordinate clause and relate it to another idea in the sentence. Relative Pronouns that, which, who, whom, whose the antecedent for a relative pronoun is located in another clause of the sentence. Each relative pronoun links the information in a subordinate clause to a word in an independent clause.

demonstrative pronouns

used to point out a specific person, place, or thing. Demonstrative pronouns may be located before or after their antecedents. Before That is a newly discovered galaxy. (That refers to galaxy.) After A star to steer by—this was all I had. (The pronoun this refers back to the noun star.)

personal pronouns

used to refer to (1) the person speaking, (2) the person spoken to, or (3) the person, place, or thing spoken about. First-person pronouns refer to the person speaking; second-person pronouns refer to the person spoken to; and third-person pronouns refer to the person, place, or thing spoken about. First person singular - I, me, my, mine plural - we, us, our, ours Second person singular - you, your, yours plural - you, your, yours Third person singular - he, she, it, him, her, his, hers, its plural - they, them, their, theirs

indefinite pronouns

used to refer to persons, places, or things, often without specifying which ones. No Specific Antecedent _Nobody_ was required to clean up, but _many_ offered to assist. Specific Antecedent I bought new _book_ covers, but _none was the right size. (None refers to book.) pronouns as adjectives - Singular another anybody anyone anything each either everybody everyone everything little much neither nobody no one nothing one other somebody someone something Plural both few many others several Singular or Plural all any more most none some such

verb forms used as adjectives

verb forms used as adjectives usually end in -ing or -ed are called participles. I pruned the wilting flowers nouns, pronouns, and verb forms function as adjectives only when they modify other nouns or pronouns

Caesar was proud about the victory. What is the linking verb in the sentence?

was

We will be reading Shakespeare's Julius Caesar this spring. Identify the verb phrase in the sentence.

will be reading

verb

word or group of words that expresses time while showing an action, a condition, or the fact that something exists

nouns used as adjectives

words that are usually nouns sometimes act as adjectives. the noun answers the questions what kind? or which one? about another noun. flower --- flower garden lawn --- lawn mower

preposition or adverb

Words that can function in either role include around, before, behind, down, in, off, on, out, over, and up. To determine the part of speech of these words, see whether an object accompanies the word. If it does, the word is used as a preposition. The Machine Age developed around a group of inventions. (Inventions is the object of the preposition.) Adverb My thoughts went around and around.

nouns

a noun is the name of a person, place, or thing. visible things - crater, rocket, camera ideas - scholasticism, militarism, evolution actions - exploration, research, ignition conditions - excitement, command, anticipation qualities - courage, integrity, ability some of the most common noun suffixes: -dom, -ics, -ion, -ism, -ment, -ness, and -ship aeronatics freedom cynicism fusion fitness commitment fellowship

interjections

a word that expresses feeling or emotion and functions independently of a sentence. Interjections can express a variety of sentiments, such as happiness, fear, anger, pain, surprise, sorrow, exhaustion, or hesitation. ah aha alas dear goodness gracious hey hurrah oh ouch psst tsk well whew wow

prepositions

aboard about above according to across after against ahead of along alongside amid among apart from around aside from as of at atop barring because of before behind below beneath beside besides between beyond but by by means of concerning considering despite down during except for from in in addition to in back of in front of in place of in regard to inside in spite of instead of into in view of like near next to of off on on account of onto on top of opposite out out of over owing to past prior to regarding round through throughout till to toward under until unto up upon with within

The soldiers pushed _____. Which sentence ending would make the verb pushed intransitive?

long and hard

Ms. Corin showed us her invention in our science laboratory. Which word in the sentence is a preposition?

in relates the words laboratory and showed

subordinating conjunctions

join two complete ideas by making one of the ideas subordinate to or dependent upon the other. The subordinate idea in a sentence always begins with a subordinating conjunction and makes up what is known as a subordinate clause. A subordinate clause may either follow or precede the main idea in a sentence. after although as as if as long as as much as as soon as as though because before even if even though how if inasmuch as in order that lest now that provided that since so that than that though till unless until when whenever where wherever while

adjectives

An adjective slightly changes the meaning of other words by adding description or making them more precise. An adjective qualifies the meaning of a noun or pronoun by providing information about its appearance, location, and so on. Words that are usually nouns sometimes act as adjectives. Verb forms ending in -ing or -ed as well as certain pronouns can be used as adjectives.

adverb

An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. When an adverb modifies a verb, it will answer any one of the following questions: Where? When? In what way? or To what extent? An adverb answers only one question, however, when modifying an adjective or another adverb: To what extent? Because it specifies the degree or intensity of the modified adjective or adverb, such an adverb is often called an intensifier. If the adverb modifies a verb, it may precede or follow it or even interrupt a verb phrase. Normally, adverbs modifying adjectives and adverbs will immediately precede the words they modify.

conjunctions and interjunctions

Conjunctions join words, groups of words, or even entire sentences. There are three main kinds. Coordinating conjunctions connect similar parts of speech or groups of words. Correlative conjunctions work in pairs—such as "either . . . or"—to join equal elements in sentences. Subordinating conjunctions link two complete ideas by making one dependent on the other. However, interjections never have a grammatical connection to other words in a sentence. They express emotion. Conjunction: Louis _and_ Auguste Lumière contributed to the birth of film. Interjection: _Whew_ , I can't believe we watched all those one-reel movies!

pronouns

Pronouns help people avoid awkward repetition of nouns. A pronoun stands for a noun or for words that take the place of a noun. The noun to which a pronoun refers is called an antecedent. Pronouns can be personal, reflexive, intensive, demonstrative, relative, interrogative, or indefinite. Intensive pronoun: All stars, even the sun _itself_ F, are variable stars. (antecedent: sun)

reflexive and intensive pronouns

Reflexive pronouns are used to add information to a sentence by pointing back to a noun or pronoun near the beginning of the sentence. Intensive pronouns are used simply to add emphasis to a noun or pronoun. Reflexive Cosmologists ready themselves for the discovery. (Themselves refers to cosmologists.) Intensive You yourself agreed with the theory. (Yourself refers to you.) First person singular - myself plural - ourselves Second person singular - yourself plural - yourselves Third person singular - himself, herself. itself plural - themselves

nouns functioning as adverbs

Several nouns can function as adverbs that answer the questions Where? or When? Some of these words are home, yesterday, today, tomorrow, mornings, afternoons, evenings, nights, week, month, and year.

single and plural nouns

Singular nouns name one person, place, or thing. Plural nouns name more than one. Most plural nouns are formed by the addition of -s or -es to the singular form. Some plural nouns, however, are formed irregularly and must be memorized. Singular valley, sky, mouse Plural valleys, skies, mice

adverbs as parts of verbs

Some verbs require an adverb to complete their meaning. Adverbs used this way are considered part of the verb. An adverb functioning as part of a verb does not answer the usual questions for adverbs. The tractor _backed up_ alongside the field. You can recognize verbs that require an adverb, such as point out, because the work has a different meaning without the adverb. Point out and point are very different actions. She _pointed_ out the right answer.

correlative conjunctions

The five paired correlative conjunctions join elements of equal grammatical weight. both... and... not only... but also... either... or .. whether.. or ... neither... nor Even though correlative conjunctions are made up of more than one word, they act like coordinating conjunctions in that they connect words of equal grammatical weight. Examples Not only did we invent chewing gum but we also invented the slingshot. Whether or not a robot will be invented that can clean your house for you remains to be seen.

coordinating conjunctions

The seven coordinating conjunctions are used to connect similar parts of speech or groups of words of equal grammatical weight. The seven coordinating conjunctions are and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet. These conjunctions can join many types of words or groups of words. Examples She and her friend attended the lecture. (nouns and pronouns) Our dog whined and scratched at the door. (verbs) I will go to Greece or to Spain. (prepositional phrases)

conjunctions

There are three main kinds of conjunctions: coordinating, correlative, and subordinating. Sometimes a kind of adverb—the conjunctive adverb—is also considered a conjunction. A conjunction is a word used to connect other words or groups of words.

which sentence contains a preposition?

Thomas Edison gazed at the bulb

verb phrases

When a verb consists of more than one word, it is called a verb phrase. A verb phrase is a verb with one, two or three helping verbs before it. Forms of the verb "be" that function as linking verbs can be used as helping verbs. Verb phrases are often interrupted by other words. Interrupted: _Have_ you _heard_ the knight's tales?

conjunctive adverbs

act as transitions between complete ideas by indicating comparisons, contrasts, results, and other relationships. accordingly again also besides consequently finally furthermore however indeed instead moreover nevertheless otherwise then therefore thus As shown in the following example, punctuation is usually required both before and after conjunctive adverbs. Example The Marconi Wireless Telegraph Co., Inc., was very successful. Nevertheless, Marconi continued to pursue other inventions.

other linking verbs

appear, come, feel, grow, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste, and turn before the battle, the soldiers _grew_ anxious the leader _looked_ determined

Russian astronauts praised the courage of their American partners. Which list of words from the sentence contains all nouns?

astronauts, courage, partners the nouns astronaut and partner name people, and the noun courage names a quality

The young tomato plants are limp and badly need water. Which word in the sentence is an adverb?

badly

Climbing plants, such as clematis and wisteria, have supple stems and tendrils that wind around other plants. Which words in the sentence function as adjectives?

climbing, supple, other climbing modifies the noun plants; supple modifies stems and tendrils; other modifies plants

Our senator could have supported the new law. Identify all of the helping verbs in the sentence.

could, have

You can visit Thomas Edison's winter home, which is next to the estate of Henry Ford in southwestern Florida. Which word is the object of the preposition next to?

estate

action verbs

express either physical or mental action the enemy _attacked_ the soldiers _considered_ their position the person or thing that performs the action is called the subject of the verb. enemy is the subject of attacked. soldiers is the subject of considered.

linking verbs

expresses a condition connects its subject with a word generally found near the end of the sentence and identifies, renames, or describes the subject. Augustus was emperor Augustus was powerful emperor identifies or renames Augustus. powerful describes Augustus.

pronouns

words that stand for nouns or for words that take the place of nouns Example Michelle and Ken went to the observatory. They thought it was the clearest night so far this year. (They refers to Michelle and Ken. It refers to night.) In this example, the pronouns are acting as antecedents. Antecedents are nouns (or words that take the place of nouns) for which pronouns stand. There are several kinds of pronouns in English. Most have antecedents; a few do not. Although an antecedent usually precedes its pronoun, it can also follow the pronoun. Example After their conference, the astronomers went to a party. (Their refers to the astronomers.)