PCR Exam 3

Enduring bond

Positive intimate young adulthood relations related to positive relations with mother in adolescence Positive parenting in childhood related to positive adult relations Parents are importance to well-being of adult children Negative behaviors of parents during childhood related to high-risk behaviors in young Filial duty Economic independence Living arrangements in young adulthood

Alcoholism and parenting behaviors

Alcoholism as a Deliberate Choice. The adult children of alcoholics who considered alcoholism as the consequence of deliberate choices were the ones who described their alcoholic parents in the most negative terms. Their statements reflected feelings that their parents had abandoned their family and chosen alcohol instead of their children. Consequently, many of these adults said that they wanted nothing to do with their alcoholic parents. Alcoholism as a Disease. Participants who regarded alcoholism as a disease fre- quently voiced ambivalent feelings toward their parents. Their statements reflected the belief that alcoholics cannot be blamed for their drinking because they have "lost control" over their lives. An example of this attitude toward parental alcoholism is demonstrated in the next statement, which is from a 34-year-old woman who had grown up with an alcoholic father. "It's a disease. In my view, it's not people's own fault if they become alcoholics. It's their own responsibility to do something about it. But nobody chooses to become an alcoholic, just like nobody chooses to get cancer or depression" (Jarvinen, 2015, p. 811). Alcoholism as Socially Conditioned. Those adults who regarded alcoholism as socially conditioned were the ones whose statements reflected the most understand- ing and accepting of their parents' drinking. The following expression reflects this attitude regarding parental alcoholism by a 39-year old woman of an alcoholic father. She indicated that in her neighborhood it was absolutely normal to be alcoholic. "It was a culture where you drank beer in the morning, at lunch, in the afternoon . . . just like we nowadays walk around with a bottle of spring water. And if you go on drinking beer like that for a while, you become dependent" (Jarvinen, 2015, p. 812). Alcoholics Anonymous/Narcotics Anonymous. Alcoholics Anonymous is a vol- untary worldwide fellowship of men and women who meet together regularly to attain and maintain sobriety. AA is a total abstinence program; members stay away from one drink one day at a time, and sobriety is maintained through the sharing of experience, strength, and hope and through the suggested Twelve Steps for recovery from alcoholism (Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, 2007). NA operates under the same principles and guidelines as AA, but its goal is to help their members stay clean from drugs. Like AA, NA is a voluntary worldwide fellowship. Membership is open to all drug addicts, regardless of the particular drug or combination of drugs used (Narcotics Anonymous World Services, 2005). Al-Anon and Nar-Anon Family Groups. Al-Anon and Nar-Anon Family Groups are worldwide fellowships for family members or others affected by someone else's alcoholism or drug addiction. Similar to AA and NA, both groups offer support to members through the sharing of experience, strength, and hope. Both also use a Twelve-Step program, which is designed to help members recover from the effects of living with an addicted relative or friend. The only requirement for membership and attendance at these meetings is that the individual has a friend or relative with alcoholism (for Al-Anon) or a problem with drugs or drug addiction (for Nar-Anon).

Kinkeepers

An individual, typically a woman, who keep family members in touch with each other and handles family problems when they arise. people, usually women since they focus more on family, who celebrate family achievements, gather the family together, and keep in touch with family members who have moved away.

MEASURE OF RELATIONSHIP QUALITY

Residential proximity Frequency of interaction Mutual Aid Degree of closeness

Integrity v. despair

late 60s to death, late adulthood - when reflecting on their life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure 8th stage in Erikson's model; when reflecting at the end of life, an older adult must feel a sense of satisfaction or experience despair (feelings of having wasted one's life)

IMPACT OF MIDDLE-AGED PARENTS' SOCIAL STATUS TRANSITIONS

•Becoming a grandparent •Welcomed role shift •Perceive role as easier than parenting •More positive than other adult roles •Today's grandparents are more youthful, involved, and more financially well-off

FACTORS LINKED TO CHILD MALTREATMENT

Intergenerational transmission Parental alcoholism or drug abuse Parental age

IMPACT OF MALTREATMENT ON CHILDREN'S LIVES

Lack of sense of security, trust, and self-esteem Trouble adapting to new environments Exhibit cognitive deficits Lower school achievement At risk for school failure and drop out Higher levels of depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation

Parenting Children with Impairments

Pervasive developmental delay Autism Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Conduct Disorder Learning disability Physical impairments Sensory impairments -Visual impairment - Hearing impairment

FILIAL PIETY

Three stages: Concern Urging Action

HELP FOR CHILDREN WHO SUFFER MALTREATMENT

Foster care Counseling Al-Anon Nar-Anon NAMI

PARENTAL GUIDANCE OF YOUNG ADULT CHILDREN

Advice Consequences

FACTORS INFLUENCING RELATIONSHIP QUALITY

Age Gender Ethnicity

PARENTS ROLE IN YOUNG ADULTS' ACHIEVEMENT OF INTIMACY

Attachment Relationship with mother during adolescence Close relationship with both mother and father in divorce is important Maternal remarriage is positive

Outcomes of children who have been abused

Bruises and welts Scrapes and cuts Burn marks Head trauma Weakened brain development Sprains or broken bones Difficulty walking or sitting Torn, stained, or bloody clothing Pain or itching in the genital area Bruises or bleeding in and around the genital area Sexually transmitted diseases Inappropriate dress Poor hygiene Poor physical health Anxiety Depression Low self-esteem Withdrawn Dissociation Difficulty with making and maintaining relationships Experiences flashbacks Hypervigilant Persistent fear Self-harm Eating disorders Alcohol and drug use Trouble sleeping Uncomfortable with physical contact with others Repeating school grades Absent from school often Criminal activity

DEATH OF A CHILD

Causes intense personal suffering Affects family organization Affects community involvement

CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH PROVIDING CARE FOR ELDERLY PARENTS

Child Characteristics: Geographic location Employment Age Gender Parental Characteristics: Marital status Level of education Number of children Presence/absence of a disability

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

Established in 1975, reauthorized n 2004 Provides SIX basic guidelines: A free and appropriate public education Appropriate evaluations Individual Education Plan (IEP) Educated in Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) Parent and student participation in developing the program for education Procedural due process

Influence of Parents on Assumption of Adult Social Roles

Establishing adult gender roles Parallel Development Filial maturity Parental distancing Reconnecting phase Parental comprehending

Parenting Children with Special needs exceptionalities

Exceptionalities Impairments Giftedness Child-first language

Factors contributing to successful aging

Experiencing a sense of control over one's life Practicing healthy habits Achieving continuity with one's past Performing happy activities Participating in a social network of family and friends Exercising regularly Engaging one's mind in complex cognitive activities Stopping smoking, maintaining a healthy diet, and consuming fewer calories Taking aspirin and antioxidant vitamins

Typical Reactions to Birth of a Child with a Disability

Feeling of devastation Shock, denial, numbness Confusion Sense of loss of the "hoped for" child Grief Hopes are dashed Guilt Anger What ifs Lowered self-esteem Strained marital and family relations Disruption of family routines

DEATH OF AN OLDER PARENT

Generally, a negative impact on siblings

Grandparenthood

Grandparenthood and Older Adults' Psychological Development. According to Erikson, Erikson, & Kivnick (1986), grandparenthood offers many individuals a "second chance" at generativity because it provides the possibility of caring for the newest generation more vigorously and less ambivalently than they did with their own children. Additionally, participation in the role of grandparent contributes to the psychological development of older adults based on their inclusion of this experience in their life reviews. Kivnick (1982) identified five distinct dimensions of meaning that grandparenthood brings to the life review process: (a) role centrality (grandparenthood as central to grandparents' lives), (b) valued eldership (passing on traditions and being valued in that role), (c) immortality through clan (patriarchal or matriarchal responsibilities, identification with grandchildren, and family involve- ment), (d) re-involvement with personal past (grandparents reliving their own earlier lives and identifying with their own grandchildren), and (e) indulgence (attitudes of lenience or indulgence toward grandchildren). Implications of This Information for Parents and Professionals. Whether the adult child of an older parent or a professional working with a family that includes an older adult, it is important to appreciate the distinct dimensions of grandparenthood since being a grandparent brings meaning to an older person's life review and contributes to a sense of integrity. The Greater Number and Various Roles of Contemporary Grandparents. Today, an unprecedented number of people in American society are grandparents, and with the increase of grandparents has been a parallel boost in the variety of ways in which the grandparent role has come to be defined. Thinking of grandparents in terms of the stereotype of persons with a common lifestyle who have few roles outside their role as grandparent is very difficult to maintain. Not only do we have difficulty identifying grandparents by the roles they play in society, but also we are unable to pin them down in terms of a life stage because they range in age from 40 to 100! The increase in longevity and the change in fertility patterns not only has increased the occurrence of early and late grandparenthood but also has provided more individuals with an opportunity to experience grandparenthood. The Cultural Role of Grandparent. In addition to the variations in age and lifestyle of grandparents, there are cultural differences in the roles grandparents assume in relation to their grandchildren. These roles differ according to the degree to which there is a cultural norm of independence (found in individualistic cultures) or of interdependence (seen in collectivistic cultures). Because traditional cultures value family interdependence, the lives of grandparents in these cultures are more inte- grated into the daily lives of grandchildren, and grandparents are expected to play a central role in the upbringing of grandchildren. In cultures characterized by large extended families and a reverence for elders, grandparents are likely to live with their adult children and grandchildren and be part of the social support system of the family. An illustration of the influence of a traditional culture is found in the central role that elders play in the Latino American culture. In this culture, older adults are twice as likely to influence childrearing, family decision making, and advising in comparison to their African American or European American peers. In contrast to the role of the grandparent in ethnic minority cultures, European American grandparents are more likely to maintain close relationships with their grandchildren while living independently from the parent-child household (Dunifon, 2013). The Contributions of Grandparents. Despite cultural and social differences in the expectations associated with the grandparent role, grandparents everywhere make valuable contributions to the lives of their grandchildren. One of the most important types of support provided by grandparents is the help they provide just by being there. Their presence in the lives of their children and grandchildren represents symbols of longevity and continuity, and having grandparents who are available increases feelings of security in younger generations. Another important role served by grandparents is that of family historian. The evolution of the family is passed down from generation to generation by the stories told by grandparents and great- grandparents. Grandparents also sometimes serve as mentors and role models to their grandchildren. Taking the perspective of grandchildren, Block (2000) identified five roles that grandparents might play in their grandchildren's lives: (a) historians who provide a sense of family history, (b) mentors who impart knowledge and wis- dom, (c) role models who assist in the socialization of grandchildren, (d) wizards who draw on their imaginations to entertain grandchildren, or (e) nurturers who become a vital part of grandchildren's social support system. Additionally, grand- parents fulfill the role of crisis managers in the family. When crises such as divorce, death, or prolonged unemployment occur, older parents often provide substantial assistance to their children and grandchildren. Finally, many grandparents assume the role of custodial parents when neither of their grandchildren's parents is able to fulfill that responsibility (Neely-Barnes, Graff, & Washington, 2010).

ACHIEVEMENT OF A SENSE OF GENERATIVITY

Maintaining a household and caring for children-women Providing food, shelter, and other goods-men Culture affects sense of generativity Two-way street Cohabitating adults Unintentional parenthood

Influences on Young Adults' Cognitive Development

Piaget and Higher Level Reasoning: Problem-finding ability - Recognize problem exists, then solve - "Don't know what you don't know" Dialectical reasoning - Ability to tolerate ambiguities Experiences - College-educated-authoritative Vygotsky and Scaffolding - Academic success - Childrearing efforts

Filial maturity

Middle-aged children accepting and meeting their parents' dependency needs A concept which focuses on the relationships between adults and their parents. Filial maturity has its beginnings in early adulthood as young adults begin to perceive their parents as persons with histories that began before parenthood and as individuals who have roles in addition to their parental roles. Filial maturity is expressed also in the relationships that adult children have with their older parents.

Filial maturity

Middle-aged children accepting and meeting their parents' dependency needs stage of life, proposed by Marcoen and others, in which middle-aged children, as the outcome of a filial crisis, learn to accept and meet their parents' need to depend on them

Roles and responsibilities of young adults in US and other countries

One of the most significant changes in the lives of young people in Western societies in the last several decades is a progressive delay of transition into adult roles, such as living independently, having steady full-time work, and being married and parents (Billari & Liefbroer, 2010). Based on these changes, Arnett (2004) proposed emerging adulthood as a new definition of development for the period from the late teens through the twen- ties. According to Arnett's theory, emerging adulthood is the age of identity exploration.

CHILD MALTREATMENT

Over 1 million children in US per year suffer from maltreatment Physical Sexual Neglect

DEATH OF A SIBLING

Painful and enduring effect Grief is necessary Give information about the death as appropriate to age Allow child to ask questions Allow child to express anger Adults should listen more than talk Make decisions about altering living arrangements carefully and with regard to child's input Death of a Child: Grief Process Elizabeth Kübler-Ross wrote On Death and Dying DABDA: Denial Anger Bargaining Depression Acceptance

DEATH OF A PARENT DURING CHILDHOOD

Profound psychological insult Grief is necessary Age of child at time of death influences with coping Infants and toddlers do not understand the finality Preschoolers fantasize about the return School-age and adolescents often feel anger and resentment

CONTRIBUTIONS OF GRANDPARENTS

Provide symbols of longevity Increases feelings of security Serve as mentors and role models Role of crisis manager May assume role of custodial parent

Characteristics of children at risk for abuse

Risk Factors for Victimization Individual Risk Factors: Children younger than 4 years of age Special needs that may increase caregiver burden (e.g., disabilities, mental health issues, and chronic physical illnesses) Individual Risk Factors for Perpetration Parents' lack of understanding of children's needs, child development and parenting skills Parental history of child abuse and or neglect Substance abuse and/or mental health issues including depression in the family Parental characteristics such as young age, low education, single parenthood, large number of dependent children, and low income Nonbiological, transient caregivers in the home (e.g., mother's male partner) Parental thoughts and emotions that tend to support or justify maltreatment behaviors Family Risk Factors Social isolation Family disorganization, dissolution, and violence, including intimate partner violence Parenting stress, poor parent-child relationships, and negative interactions Community Risk Factors Community violence Concentrated neighborhood disadvantage (e.g., high poverty and residential instability, high unemployment rates, and high density of alcohol outlets), and poor social connections.

GRANDPARENTHOOD

Second chance at generativity 5 Dimensions of meaning - Role centrality - Valued eldership - Immortality through clan - Reinvolvement with personal past - Indulgence

A Family Systems Perspective

Separate residences Adding members to the family In-laws Gay unions Children Work and parental roles

Resiliency

The ability to adjust, recover, bounce back and learn from illness, hardship, and other stressors.

Parental distancing

The development of this ability not only lags behind parental distancing but also is a slower process. Most adults can remember a time when they began to really understand their parents (typically in their early 20s). They usually real- ize that this discernment was a gradual process that occurred as they themselves began to take on the adult roles held by their parents—those of spouse, parent, and worker. A positive outcome of young adults' development of the capability of understanding their parents is the decrease of conflict with parents. Typically, the comprehension of mothers happens earlier than does the comprehension of fathers. Moreover, the level of comprehension of fathers is not expected to be achieved during early adulthood but instead is anticipated to occur during the 40s.

Middle-age and generativity

The identity of older persons, their ongoing striving toward generativity, and their development of a sense of integrity are interconnected with these intergenerational relationships.

Non-normative transitions

The non-normative transitions of adult children, such as prolonged unemployment and difficulties in relationships, tend to negatively affect their relationships with their middle-age parents. As their young adult children are making the normative transitions into their adult roles and sometimes undergoing non-normative tran- sitions, middle-age parents also are experiencing normative and non-normative transformations in their own lives. The social status transitions in the lives of both generations affect their relationships with each other. When adult children have not established their own households or become independ- ent, their parents are often placed in the role of continuing to provide financial support for them (Cichy, Lefkowitz, Davis, & Fingerman, 2013). Additionally, the unanticipated burden of providing financial support to dependent children tends to have a negative effect on parent-child relations. Studies that document the effect of adult children's job loss support this argument. Adult children's unemployment has been found to be one of the main factors in parental conflict when generations share a home (Furstenberg, 2010). Having at least one coresidential adult child also decreases the psychological well-being of middle-age parents, especially mothers (Pudrovska, 2009).

IMPACT OF PARENTAL ALCOHOLISM ON CHILDREN

Unpredictable/disrupted family routines Compromised parenting behaviors Inconsistency Decrease in parental monitoring Less emotional availability Parentification of children Greater tolerance of drinking and substance abuse

Young adults' trends in moving out

Whereas the launching of young adults is a normative event, there is considerable diversity in patterns of leaving home. Even though most Americans leave home by age 19, many others remain in their parents' home for several more years. The pat- tern of leaving home in the United States is aligned with a number of factors, which include gender, parents' marital status, perceived availability of material and nonma-terial resources, geographical region, ethnicity, and unmarried parenthood. Factors Related to Leaving Home Early. American young adults typically leave home when they go to college between the ages of 18 and 19. College attendance, however, is only one path to early departure for American young people. Furthermore, even among those who go to college, there are gender differences in their departure from their parents' home. Women generally leave home at a younger age than men because they complete college earlier, form cohabiting unions earlier, and marry about two years earlier than men. Parental divorce and remarriage have been also associated with earlier home leaving among young adults (Furstenberg, 2010). Factors Related to Delayed Home Leaving. Regionally, coresidence is markedly higher among families in the Northeast United States than elsewhere in the country due to the higher costs of housing, higher rates of college attendance, and later entry into full-time employment. Another factor that influences the delay of leaving home is family ethnicity. Staying at home through their early 20s is more common among Latinos, African Americans, and Asian Americans than among European Americans (Fuligni & Witkow, 2004). Greater emphasis on family closeness and interdepend- ence coupled with placing less value on independence are some of the reasons for these emerging adults staying at home (Arnett, 2007). When Young People Move Back Home. Even when young adults leave home at the typical ages of 18 or 19, they do not always continue to reside separately from their parents. For those who left home to go to college, moving back home with parents often is a way of bridging their transition to post-college life. For those who left for more independence, the glow of such independence often dims as it is over- shadowed by the reality of taking care of a household and paying their own bills. A period of military service and/or an early divorce are other reasons emerging adults often return home (Aquilino, 2006). The Relationship Quality Of Young Adults And Parents Who Live Together. Young adults who continue to reside with their parents get along better with them when young adults are studying, working, or looking for work than when they are having serious difficulties moving toward independence (Furstenberg, 2010). Furthermore, regardless of the reasons for or the timing of the move, most emerging adults experience greater closeness to and fewer negative feelings about their parents after moving out (Aquilino, 2006). An explanation might be that it is easier to have a positive view of parents when you no longer live with them. Also, after moving out, young people have more control over the frequency and timing of their interactions with their parents (Arnett, 2004).

Normative transitions

changes that most adolescents go through at roughly the same point in their development, such as puberty and entering high school

Exceptionality

strength or weakness in academic functioning that requires extra attention to meet the needs of the student

Parenting Children who are Gifted

•Gifted children tend to be those who demonstrate asynchronous development. •Due to their high cognitive abilities and high intensities they experience and relate to the world in unique ways. •These children are often found as a result of extremely high scores on an individually scored IQ tests, generally above the 140 IQ range. •Others may be prodigies in areas such as math, science, language and/or the arts. •Profoundly gifted children can score in excess of 170 IQ. Highly gifted children demonstrate characteristics such as: ▫Learn at a much faster pace. ▫Process material to a much greater depth. ▫Show incredible intensity in energy, imagination, intellectual prowess, sensitivity, and emotion which are not typical in the general population. •The child of 160+ is as different from the child of 130 IQ as that child is different from the child of average ability. •Current research suggests that there may be higher incidence of children in this high range than previously thought. •Due to their unique characteristics, these children are particularly vulnerable. •Highly gifted children need a specialized advocacy because very little has been done to develop appropriate curriculum and non-traditional options for these children.

Parenting Children with Chronic Illness

•Parental coping •Helping children cope •Effects of chronic illness on family relationships •Assistance for families coping with children with chronic illness

MIDDLE-AGED PARENTS' NON-NORMATIVE TRANSITIONS

•Parental divorce and remarriage •Adversely affects parent-child relationships •Decreases emotional support •Alters financial support •Second-generation fathers

Family Systems theory and young adulthood

views families as dynamic systems characterized by stability and change. According to this theory, family stability contributes to a sense of shared history and a certain degree of predictability. The changes in the family system chal- lenge members to continuously adapt to these changes and to redefine their roles in relation to one another. When children undergo physical, cognitive, and social- emotional development, these changes contribute to alterations in their behaviors that affect other family members' behaviors. The resulting imbalance or disequilib- rium in the family system requires all family members to adjust to these changes, thereby contributing to the reestablishment of family equilibrium (Minuchin, 1974). Parents are undergoing development as well, and some of the effect on the dynam- ics of the family system is related to demands associated with the parents' stages of development (Steinberg & Steinberg, 1994). Thus, the develop- mental changes that occur during adolescent modify behaviors of the adolescent and simultaneously contribute to changes in the behaviors of parents, siblings, and any other members of the household. Developmental changes that occur during adoles- cence also contribute to higher levels of parent-adolescent conflict.

Challenges of parenting gifted

1. Discover, not chart, your child's identity. 2. Listen to your child's own thoughts, feelings, joys, sorrows, hopes, and fears. 3. Encourage responsibility by offering choice. 4. Allow your child to do things without assistance. 5. Support friendships. 6. Be patient. 7. Be a good role model (including providing for rich language expression and lifelong learning). 8. Read both to your child and on your own. 9. Discuss and debate daily news, songs, and books. 10. Mediate television viewing. 11. Let your children know that you have high expectations and high hopes for them. 12. Demonstrate confidence in your ability to manage and assist your gifted child.

Generativity v. stagnation

7th stage in Erikson's model; in middle age, adults must discover a sense of contributing to the world or they may feel a lack of purpose Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs). Generativity refers to "making your mark" on the world through creating or nurturing things that will outlast an individual. People experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often having mentees or creating positive changes that will benefit other people. We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and organizations. Through generativity we develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world. By failing to find a way to contribute, we become stagnant and feel unproductive. These individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care.

Outcomes of child abuse

Children who are abused and neglected may suffer immediate physical injuries such as cuts, bruises, or broken bones, as well as emotional and psychological problems, such as impaired socio-emotional skills or anxiety. Child abuse and neglect and other adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) can also have a tremendous impact on broader lifelong health and wellbeing outcomes if left untreated. For example, exposure to violence in childhood increases the risks of injury, future violence victimization and perpetration, substance abuse, sexually transmitted infections, delayed brain development, reproductive health problems, involvement in sex trafficking, non-communicable diseases, lower educational attainment, and limited employment opportunities. Chronic abuse may result in toxic stress and make victims more vulnerable to problems such as post-traumatic stress disorder, conduct disorder, and learning, attention, and memory difficulties.

Death of a parent

If no support for a child, may lead to long term psychological harm Critical role of surviving parent/caregiver Can have positive effects

IDEA

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

PARENTHOOD AND THE SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ADULTS

Individuation Connectiveness

Supporting child whose parent/sibling has died

Infants and toddlers equate parental death with parental separation, and pre- schoolers do not comprehend that death is permanent. Thus, young children not only are saddened by the loss of a family member but also are at a disadvantage when they attempt to understand why a parent has disappeared from their lives (Perry, 2001). Whereas older children and adolescents have a clearer understanding about death, they nevertheless struggle to come to grips with the loss of a parent. Fear of abandon- ment has been found to be a problem for youths who have experienced a parent's death. This fear has been associated with depressive symptoms that influence rela- tionships with caregivers, peers, and romantic partners (Schoenfelder, Sandler, Wol- chik, & MacKinnon, 2011). Eventually, a period of reorganization or recovery occurs; even though the sadness still is felt, its intensity is somewhat diminished. With the passing of time, most children and adolescents who have experienced the death of a parent find that they carry that parent with them in numerous memories (Perry, 2001). The Loss of a Parent to Suicide. Children and adolescents who lose a parent through suicide are especially vulnerable to depression in the months following the death. For those who lose a mother through suicide, blaming others, low self- esteem, negative coping, and complicated grief contribute to feelings of depression. The loss of either parent through suicide during adolescence makes these youths more vulnerable to depression and at greater risk for alcohol or substance abuse. Interventions that target the complicated grief and blaming of others might improve the outcomes of these bereaved children and adolescents (Brent, Melhem, Dono- hue, & Walker, 2009). The Death of a Sibling During Childhood or Adolescence Siblings are a part of one's past, present, and future. They form strong attachments to one another, have a shared history, and expect their relationships to continue into adulthood and old age. The sibling relationship affects a child's or adolescent's personality development because siblings are a central part of everyday family experience and social adjustment (Horsley & Patterson, 2006). Siblings are also important sources of companionship and affection and typically serve as confidants for one another. Thus, like the death of a parent, the childhood experience of a sib- ling's death is a rare event with profound and enduring effects on surviving children and adolescents. The painful and traumatic loss of a sibling through death is further complicated by the fact that children and adolescents are at high risk for failing to grieve that loss (Worden, Davies, & McCowen, 1999). According to Machajewski and Kronk (2013), the future of a child or adolescent who has experienced the death of a siblings depends on a successful journey through the grief process. Unfortunately, a major challenge these children and adolescents face as they attempt to navigate the grief process is that their parents, to whom they typically turn for sup- port, are also grieving.

Emotional response of parents of child with special needs

Denial Guilt Anger Depression Anxiety Fear

Person-first language

the communication disorder is a descriptor of the individual and not a person's primary attribute

Young adults' trends in going to college

The research of Kim and Schnei- der (2005) describes parental support of their young adult children's transition to college as "social capital in action." According to these authors, the goals of parents and their young adult children are aligned when parents provide the necessary resources and information that allow young adults to make informed choices about college. For example, parents' financial support in meeting the expenses of education and training is associated with their adult children enjoying higher living standards chiefly as a result of enhanced labor market opportunities. The findings of Cobb-Clark and Gørgens (2014) have also demonstrated that parents' economic support can be important in protecting young people against economic declines or relationship breakups, reducing the damaging effects of credit constraints, and gen- erally increasing the resources available to them as they complete their education and move into the labor market. When they do NOT go to college.... Even those young adults who do not go to college usually benefit from some form of finan- cial assistance from their parents. Because few entry-level jobs pay enough for true independence, many parents underwrite their young adult children's inde- pendent living. Furthermore, most young adults are given substantial gifts of time, such as help with laundry, moving, household repairs, and free child care for young adults who become parents (Foster & Gifford, 2005). Whereas most young adults receive assistance from their parents, some offspring receive more aid than their siblings because of parental perceptions of greater need (Suitor, Pillemer, & Sechrist, 2006).

ERIKSON'S STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE-ADULTHOOD

age; Adolescence (12-19 years) conflict: Identity vs confusion resolution: fidelity age: Early adulthood (20-25 years) conflict: intimacy vs. isolation resolution: love age: adulthood (26-64 years) conflict: generatively vs. stagnation resolution: care age: late adulthood (65-death) conflict: integrity vs despair resolution: wisdom

Functions of grandparents

grandparenthood offers many individuals a "second chance" at generativity because it provides the possibility of caring for the newest generation more vigorously and less ambivalently than they did with their own children. Additionally, participation in the role of grandparent contributes to the psychological development of older adults based on their inclusion of this experience in their life reviews. Kivnick (1982) identified five distinct dimensions of meaning that grandparenthood brings to the life review process: (a) role centrality (grandparenthood as central to grandparents' lives), (b) valued eldership (passing on traditions and being valued in that role), (c) immortality through clan (patriarchal or matriarchal responsibilities, identification with grandchildren, and family involve- ment), (d) re-involvement with personal past (grandparents reliving their own earlier lives and identifying with their own grandchildren), and (e) indulgence (attitudes of lenience or indulgence toward grandchildren).

Role of parents

parenting Manage internal opposing forces Deal with the incurability while pursuing solutions Maintain hopefulness ADVOCATE

Primary types of child abuse

physical abuse; sexual abuse; emotional and psychological abuse; and neglect. harm for the child's health, survival, development or dignity. This includes hitting, beating, kicking, shaking, biting, strangling, scalding, burning, poisoning and suffocating. Much physical violence against children in the home is inflicted with the object of punishing

Parenting the child with chronic illness

spina bifida, cystic fibrosis, and sickle-cell anemia. sometimes born with or develop shortly after birth a number of other diseases, such as leukemia, cancer, diabetes, kidney disease, and heart disease. In the past several decades, an increasing number of children have been born with fetal alcohol syn- drome, drug addiction, and/or positive HIV. These chronic illnesses that result from prenatal exposure to alcohol, drugs, or the HIV virus present challenging problems for their parents or caregivers—many of whom are adoptive or foster parents. The Effects of a Child's Chronic Illness on Parental Stress and Family Relationships Having a child who has been diagnosed with a possibly life-threatening illness is one of the most difficult experiences parents might have, and caring for a child with a chronic illness presents parents with a number of challenges. This caregiv- ing experience evokes an intense emotional interdependence with the child and involves a range of tasks, including brokering information for the child and gaining the child's cooperation with treatment. When faced with a severe or life-threatening illness, parents have everyday concerns about the child's diet or management of the child's behavior, which take on a new significance and are likely to contribute to heightened parental stress. The parental caregiver role also tends to compromise the parent's ability to function in other roles, including the role of parent to the other children in the family. Thus, the stress of a child's chronic illness alters the relationships parents have with the child who is ill as well as the relationships they have with each other and with their other children (Young, Dixon-Woods, Findlay, & Heney, 2002). The extent to which family relationships are affected is related to the length of time that the child is ill, the degree of medical involvement, and the interruption of normal family activities (Lavee, 2005). One of the influences of parental distress is parental perception of ways in which the child's illness intrudes on parents' lives. A perception of illness intrusiveness is related to poorer parent adjustment among parents of older youths than among parents of younger children. According to the model of the family life cycle, the natural inclination of parents is to behave in a more disengaged manner as their children reach adolescence. The introduction of restrictions imposed by a chronic illness, however, can significantly disrupt that normal developmental trajectory (Andrews, Chaney, Mullins, Wagner, Hommel, & Jarvis, 2009).

PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS AND THE SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF OLDER PERSONS

•Quality of parent-child relationship with adult children affects elderly individuals SE development: •Integrity •Despair •Linked to whether children "turned out" how parents envisioned

PARENTHOOD AND THE SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF MIDDLE-AGED ADULTS

•Social status transitions Normative transitions: •Going off to college •Beginning careers •Getting married •Having children Non-normative status transitions •Non established physical/financial independence •Divorce •Unemployment